Exclusionary rule

In the United States, the exclusionary rule is a legal rule, based on constitutional law, that prevents
evidence collected or analyzed in violation of the defendant's constitutional rights from being used in a
court of law. This may be considered an example of a prophylactic rule formulated by the judiciary in
order to protect a constitutional right. The exclusionary rule may also, in some circumstances at least, be
considered to follow directly from the constitutional language, such as the Fifth Amendment's command
that no person "shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself" and that no
person "shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law".[1]

"The exclusionary rule is grounded in the Fourth Amendment in the Bill of Rights, and it is intended to
protect citizens from illegal searches and seizures."[2] The exclusionary rule is also designed to provide a
remedy and disincentive for criminal prosecution from prosecutors and police who illegally gather
evidence in violation of the Fifth Amendment and its protection against self-incrimination. The
exclusionary rule also protects against violations of the Sixth Amendment, which guarantees the right to
counsel.

Most states also have their own exclusionary remedies for illegally obtained evidence under their state
constitutions and/or statutes, some of which predate the federal constitutional guarantees against
unlawful searches and seizures and compelled self-incrimination.[3]

This rule is occasionally referred to as a legal technicality because it allows defendants a defense that
does not address whether the crime was actually committed. In this respect, it is similar to the explicit
rule in the Fifth Amendment protecting people from double jeopardy. In strict cases, when an illegal
action is used by police/prosecution to gain any incriminating result, all evidence whose recovery
stemmed from the illegal action—this evidence is known as "fruit of the poisonous tree"—can be thrown
out from a jury (or be grounds for a mistrial if too much information has been irrevocably revealed).

The exclusionary rule applies to all persons within the United States regardless of whether they are
citizens, immigrants (legal or illegal), or visitors.

Contents
History of the rule
Limitations of the rule
Parallel construction
Criticism and defense
See also
References
Further reading

History of the rule

Up until the independence of the United States, the courts of England excluded self-incriminating
evidence that was provided as a result of official compulsion, regardless of its reliability.[4] In 1769, Lord
Chief Justice Mansfield explained as follows:

“ [I]n civil causes, the court will force parties to produce evidence which may prove
against themselves; or leave the refusal to do it (after proper notice) as a strong
presumption, to the jury....But in a criminal or penal cause, the defendant is never
forced to produce any evidence; though he should hold it in his hands in court.[5] ”
Chief Justice Mansfield also explained that "If any evidence or confession has been extorted from her, it
will be of no prejudice to her on the trial."[6] Additionally, a defendant could sue to suppress and regain
possession of at least some types of illegally seized evidence, in a common law action for replevin.[7]

However, in the 1783 case of Ceglinski v. Orr, the English courts declined to suppress evidence obtained
by illegal coercion. In the Warickshall case, evidence was gathered as a result of an involuntary
confession, and the court held that the evidence (but not the confession itself) could be admitted.[8] It is
questionable whether the Warickshall rule became known in the United States before 1789 (when the
U.S. Bill of Rights was written), and whether it applied to confessions obtained by both governmental
and private parties.[4] In any event, no decision by the Supreme Court of the United States has ever
endorsed the Warickshall rule as a constitutional matter.[4]

Generally speaking, English law before 1789 did not provide as strong an exclusionary rule as the one
that later developed under the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, regarding unlawful
searches and seizures.[7] The Fourth Amendment, after all, was partly a reaction against English law
including the general warrant and the writs of assistance.[7]

In the 1886 case of Boyd v. United States,[9] the U.S. Supreme Court addressed compulsory production of
business papers, and the Court excluded those papers based on a combination of the Fourth and Fifth
Amendments. Boyd was closely limited to its facts, and several years later the Court stated that the
Fourth Amendment does not extend to "excluding testimony" about wrongful searches and seizures.[10]

In 1897, the U.S. Supreme Court held, in Bram v. United States,[11] that involuntary confessions are
inadmissible as evidence. The Court in Bram did not announce a strong version of the exclusionary rule
that would apply uniformly to exclude all evidence gathered in violation of the Bill of Rights, but instead
announced a weak version that excluded only self-incriminating testimony that was compelled in
violation of the Fifth Amendment. The distinction between testimonial versus other self-incriminating
evidence is a matter of continuing debate.[12]

Before a strong version of the exclusionary rule was addressed and adopted by the federal courts, it had
already been adopted by at least one state court, namely the Iowa Supreme Court, as that court would
later describe:

“ The genesis of Iowa’s exclusionary rule was a civil case, Reifsnyder v. Lee, 44
Iowa 101 (1876).... The first application of the exclusionary rule in a criminal
context occurred in the Height case, decided in 1902. Height involved a physical
exam of the defendant against his will. 117 Iowa at 652, 91 N.W. at 935. This
court held that the examination of the defendant violated the due process clause
of the Iowa Constitution, as well as article 1, section 8’s prohibition of
unreasonable searches.[13] ”
In 1914, the U.S. Supreme Court announced a strong version of the exclusionary rule, in the case of
Weeks v. United States, under the Fourth Amendment prohibiting unreasonable searches and seizures.[14]
This decision, however, created the rule only on the federal level. The "Weeks rule," which made an
exception for cases at the state level, was adopted by numerous states at a time during prohibition. In
adopting the rule, actions by states often reflected attitudes towards prohibition, which was enacted by
adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment and was enforced through the Volstead Act. Concerns about
privacy violations also extended to other instances where criminal sanctions were permitted for
"victimless" crime, such as illegal gambling or narcotics violations.[15]

In 1920, the U.S. Supreme Court adopted the "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine in the case of
Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States.[16] The Court stated that allowing evidence gathered as an
indirect result of an unconstitutional search and seizure "reduces the Fourth Amendment to a form of
words".

Wolf v. Colorado 338 U.S. 25 (1949) ruled that states were not required to adopt the exclusionary rule.
Despite the ruling, some states adopted the exclusionary rule. In 1955, the Supreme Court of California
ruled in People v. Cahan[17] that the exclusionary rule applied for cases in the state of California. By
1960, 22 states had adopted the rule without substantial qualifications: California, Delaware, Florida,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon,
Rhode Island, Tennessee, Washington, Texas, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. Michigan also had an
exclusionary rule, but with limitations for some narcotics and firearms evidence. In Alabama, Maryland,
and South Dakota, the exclusionary rule applied in some situations.[15]

It was not until Mapp v. Ohio[18] in 1961 that the exclusionary rule was also held to be binding on the
states through the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees due process. Up until Mapp, the
exclusionary rule had been rejected by most states.[19]

In 2016, Utah v. Strieff dealt with the exclusionary rule and outstanding warrants and was viewed to be
generally favorable towards police.[20][21]

Limitations of the rule

The exclusionary rule does not apply in a civil case, in a grand jury proceeding, or in a parole revocation
hearing.

Even in a criminal case, the exclusionary rule does not simply bar the introduction of all evidence
obtained in violation of the Fourth, Fifth, or Sixth Amendment. In Hudson v. Michigan,[22] Justice Scalia
wrote for the U.S. Supreme Court:

“ Suppression of evidence, however, has always been our last resort, not our first
impulse. The exclusionary rule generates "substantial social costs," United States
v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 907 (1984), which sometimes include setting the guilty
”
free and the dangerous at large. We have therefore been "cautious against
expanding" it, Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157, 166 (1986), and "have
repeatedly emphasized that the rule's 'costly toll' upon truth-seeking and law
enforcement objectives presents a high obstacle for those urging [its]
application," Pennsylvania Bd. of Probation and Parole v. Scott, 524 U.S. 357,
364–365 (1998) (citation omitted). We have rejected "indiscriminate application"
of the rule, Leon, supra, at 908, and have held it to be applicable only "where its
remedial objectives are thought most efficaciously served," United States v.
 Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 348 (1974) – that is, "where its deterrence benefits
outweigh its 'substantial social costs,'" Scott, supra, at 363, (quoting Leon, supra,
at 907). Whether the exclusionary sanction is appropriately imposed in a
particular case is an issue separate from the question whether the Fourth
Amendment rights of the party seeking to invoke the rule were violated by police
conduct.
Limitations on the exclusionary rule have included the following:

Evidence unlawfully obtained from the defendant by a private person is admissible. The
exclusionary rule is designed to protect privacy rights, with the Fourth Amendment applying
specifically to government officials.[23]
Evidence can only be suppressed if the illegal search violated the person's own (the person
making the court motion) constitutional rights. The exclusionary rule does not apply to
privacy rights of a third party.[24] However, there is a narrow exception to this standing
requirement, the jus tertii standing exception.[25]
The defendant cannot take advantage of the situation (police breaching rules) to turn the
case to his advantage, in face of other evidence against himself. This falls under the exigent
circumstances exception.[26]
The Silver Platter doctrine which was ruled unconstitutional in the case of Elkins v. United
States in 1960. State officials that obtained evidence illegally were allowed to turn over
evidence to federal officials, and have that evidence be admitted into trial.[27]
Nix v. Williams held that if the evidence obtained in the unlawful search would almost
definitely have been found eventually even without said search (inevitable discovery), the
evidence may be brought forth in court.
If police officers acting in good faith (bona fides) rely upon a defective search warrant, then
the evidence acquired may still be used under the good-faith exception.
The exclusionary rule is not applicable to non-U.S. nationals residing outside of U.S. borders. In United
States v. Alvarez-Machain,[28] the U.S. Supreme Court decided that property owned by aliens in a foreign
country is admissible in court. Certain persons in the U.S. receive limited protections, such as prisoners,
probationers, parolees, and persons crossing U.S. borders. Corporations, by virtue of being, also have
limited rights under the Fourth Amendment (see corporate personhood).

In the case of Florida v. Jimeno it was found that the evidence found to convict Jimeno, although at first
was not admissible, later was found to in fact be admissible since it passed the test of reasonable
standards. The defendant consented to a search of his car, and when the officer searched a package and
found drugs, it was not said to be in violation because a reasonable person would expect illegal narcotics
to be kept in a package or container.[29]

Parallel construction
The Special Operations Division of the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration advises DEA agents to
follow a process of parallel construction when launching criminal investigations of Americans based on
SOD tips that may be based on warrantless surveillance.[30]

Criticism and defense

The exclusionary rule as it has developed in the United States has been long criticized. Judge Benjamin
Cardozo, Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals between 1927 and 1932, stated that under the
rule, "The criminal is to go free because the constable has blundered." The judge noted that many states
had rejected the rule, but suggested that the adoption by the federal courts would affect the practice in the
sovereign states.[31][32][33][34]

In the 1970s, Dallin H. Oaks,[35] Malcolm Wilkey,[36] and others called for the exclusionary rule to be
replaced with a comprehensive judicial remedy against all illegal arrests and searches and seizures (e.g.,
tort remedy). By the 1980s, the exclusionary rule remained controversial and was strongly opposed by
President Ronald Reagan. But, some opponents began seeking to have the rule modified, rather than
abolished altogether. The case, Illinois v. Gates, before the Supreme Court brought the exclusionary rule
for reconsideration. The Supreme Court also considered allowing exceptions for errors made by police in
good faith.[37] The Reagan administration also asked Congress to ease the rule.[38] It has been proposed
that the exclusionary rule be replaced with restitution to victims of police misconduct.[39]

A major criticism of the Fourth Amendment exclusionary rule is that it allegedly defies the original intent
of the Constitution. Yale Law Professor Akhil Amar, for example, has argued that "nothing in the text,
history, or structure of the Fourth Amendment" supports the rule.[40] Critics like Amar, Oaks and Wilkey
point to the fact that the text of the Fourth Amendment does not indicate that illegally seized evidence
must be excluded. Some legal historians argue that the Constitution's Framers intended only that victims
of unreasonable searches or seizures could file civil lawsuits.

In 2009, Roger Roots presented evidence that the idea of exclusion can be found in the earliest set of law
books published in American history.[41] In 2014, Roots elaborated that certain eighteenth-century
British law books and pamphlets which discuss the exclusion of illegally seized evidence circulated
widely in the American colonies and were owned by numerous prominent Framing-era lawyers and
statesmen.[42] Also in 2014, Professor Richard Re proposed that the Due Process Clause provides an
ample basis for the Exclusionary Rule.[1]

See also
Consent search
Parallel construction
Herring v. United States (2009 Supreme Court decision about the good-faith exception to
the exclusionary rule)
Sugar bowl (legal maxim)
Bunning v Cross, an Australian case for which the ruling may be formulated as an
exclusionary rule
Section 24(2) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a constitutional provision
explicitly excluding unconstitutionally obtained evidence if its admission would bring the
administration of justice into disrepute

References
1. Re, Richard. "The Due Process Exclusionary Rule: A new textual foundation for a rule in
crisis" (http://cdn.harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/vol127_re.pdf), Harvard
Law Review, Vol. 127, p. 1885 (2014). See also "Regarding Re’s Revisionism: Notes on
The Due Process Exclusionary Rule" (http://harvardlawreview.org/2014/05/regarding-res-re
visionism/), Harvard Law Review, Vol. 127, p. 302 (2014).
2. Berg, p. 29
3. Leonetti, Carrie (Winter 2009). "Independent and Adequate: Maryland's State Exclusionary
Rule for Illegally Obtained Evidence". University of Baltimore Law Review. 38: 231.
 4. Davies, Thomas. “Farther and Farther from the Original Fifth Amendment: The
Recharacterization of the Right Against Self-Incrimination as a 'Trial Right' in Chavez V.
Martinez” (http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=992830), Tennessee Law
Review, Volume 70, pages 987–1045 (2003).
5. Roe v. Harvey, 98 Eng. Rep. 302 (https://books.google.com/books?id=gtUsAAAAYAAJ&pg=
PA2484) (K.B. 1769).
6. Rudd's Case, 168 Eng. Rep. 160 (https://books.google.com/books?id=WYw0AAAAIAAJ&pg
=RA1-PA123&dq=%22If+any+evidence+or+confession+has+been+extorted%22&ei=re9SS
YjOFIjcygTjncH2Cw#PRA1-PA115,M1) (K.B. 1775).
7. Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/387/294.html) (1967).
8. King v. Warickshall, 168 Eng. Rep. 234, 235 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Nwg-AAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA286) (K.B. 1783).
9. Zoo v. United States, 116 U.S. 616 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/116/616.html) (1886).
10. Adams v. New York, 192 U.S. 585 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/192/585.html) (1904).
11. Bram v. United States, 168 U.S. 532 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/168/532.html) (1897).
12. United States v. Hubbell, 530 U.S. 27 (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navb
y=CASE&court=US&vol=530&page=27) (2000) (Thomas, J., concurring): "A substantial
body of evidence suggests that the Fifth Amendment privilege protects against the
compelled production not just of incriminating testimony, but of any incriminating evidence."
13. Iowa v. Cline (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=ia&vol=sc%5C2000090
7%5C99-0412&invol=1), 617 N.W.2d 277, 285-86 (Iowa 2000).
14. Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/232/383.html) (1914).
15. Allen, Francis A. (1961). "Exclusionary Rule in the American Law of Search and Seizure,
The Exclusionary Rule Regarding Illegally Seized Evidence". Journal of Criminal Law,
Criminology, and Police Science. 52 (3): 246–254.
16. Silverthorne Lumber v. United States, 251 U.S. 385 (http://laws.findlaw.com/us/251/385.htm
l) (1920).
17. (1955) 44 Cal.2d 434
18. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/643/) (1961)
19. Cassell, Paul. "The Mysterious Creation of Search and Seizure Exclusionary Rules Under
State Constitutions: The Utah Example," (http://www.law.utah.edu/_personfiles/57/HIGHLIG
HTS/C1993utahlr751.pdf) Utah Law Review, No. 3, page 751, 756 (1993).
20. "Opinion analysis: The exclusionary rule is weakened but it still lives" (http://www.scotusblo
g.com/2016/06/opinion-analysis-the-exclusionary-rule-is-weakened-but-it-still-lives/). 2016-
06-20. Retrieved 2016-06-26.
21. "Amended" (https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21701170-supreme-court-weak
ens-law-against-unreasonable-searches-amended). The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613). Retrieved 2016-06-26.
22. Hudson v. Michigan, 547 U.S. 586, 126 S.Ct. 2159 (June 15, 2006)
23. Burdeau v. McDowell, 256 U.S. 465 (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=
us&vol=256&invol=465) (1921)
24. United States v. Jeffers and Jones v. United States clarify the standing requirements.
25. See, e.g., Singleton v. Wulff Et Al., 96 S. Ct. 2868, 428 U.S. 106 (U.S. 1976); "The
Assertion of Constitutional Jus Tertii: A Substantive Approach", Robert Allen Sedler,
California Law Review, Vol. 70, No. 6 (Dec., 1982), pp. 1308–1344; "Standing to Assert
Constitutional Jus Tertii", 88 Harv.L.Rev. 423, (1974).
26. Walder v. United States
27. Wolf v. Colorado 338 U.S. 25 (1949)
28. United States v. Alvarez-Machain, 504 U.S. 655 (1992)
29. "FLORIDA v. JIMENO" (https://www.oyez.org/cases/1990-1999/1990/1990_90_622). Oyez.
1991.
30. Shiffman, John; Cooke, Kristina (August 5, 2013). "Exclusive: U.S. directs agents to cover
up program used to investigate Americans" (https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/05/us-
dea-sod-idUSBRE97409R20130805). Reuters. Retrieved August 5, 2013.
31. People of the State of New York v. John Defore, 150 N.E. 585 (1926).
32. Stagg, Tom, Judge, United States District Court Western District of Louisiana (July 15,
1991). "Letter to the Editor" (https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/02/opinion/l-when-politics-to
pples-precedent-that-s-chaos-cardozo-in-context-787691.html). The New York Times.
Shreveport, La. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
33. Spence, Karl (2006). "Fair or Foul? Exclusionary rule hurts the innocent by protecting the
guilty" (http://www.fairamendment.us/Fair%20or%20Foul.htm). Yo! Liberals! You Call This
Progress?. Converse, Texas: Chattanooga Free Press/Fielding Press. ISBN 0976682605.
Retrieved January 7, 2013. ISBN 978-0976682608.
34. Polenberg, Richard. The World of Benjamin Cardozo: Personal Values and the Judicial
Process (http://www.books.google.com/books?id=SKidV6GZyooC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&
dq=People+of+the+State+of+New+York+v.+John+Defore&source=bl&ots=-PF5HcocRJ&sig
=cvdmWwa3V3wdS5N5L8YAUQo_YXk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LM_yUJeQJciWqQHLroDgAg&ve
d=0CE8Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
pp. 203–207. ISBN 0674960521. Retrieved January 13, 2012. ISBN 978-0674960527
35. Oaks, Dallin H. (1970). "Studying the exclusionary rule in Search and Seizure". University of
Chicago Law Review. The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 37, No. 4. 37 (4): 665–
757. doi:10.2307/1598840 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1598840). JSTOR 1598840 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/1598840).
36. Wilkey, Malcolm R. (1978). "The Exclusionary Rule: Why Suppress Valid Evidence?".
Judicature. 62 (5): 214–232.
37. Nestlerode, Jana (Winter–Spring 2010). "Handcuffing America's Fourth Amendment:
ERODING THE INTENT OF THE EXCLUSIONARY RULE" (http://tiafp.org/restricted/TheFo
rensicDigestVol2Issue1.pdf) (PDF). The Forensic Digest. Journal of the Academy of
Forensic Nursing Science. 2 (1): 22–35. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
38. Taylor, Stuart, Jr. (1983-01-26). "Exclusionary-Rule Fight Moves to Supreme Court" (https://
www.nytimes.com/1983/01/26/us/exclusionary-rule-fight-moves-to-supreme-court.html). The
New York Times.
39. Barnett, Randy E. (1983). "Resolving the Dilemma of the Exclusionary Rule: An Application
of Restitutive Principles of Justice" (http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?han
dle=hein.journals/emlj32&section=39). 32. Emory L. J.: 937.
40. Akhil Reed Amar, The Constitution and Criminal Procedure: First Principles 91 (1997).
41. Roger Roots, "The Originalist Case for the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule",
Gonzaga Law Review, Vol. 45, pp. 1-66 (2009).
42. Roger Roots, "The Framers' Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule: The Mounting
Evidence", Nevada Law Journal, Vol. 15, pp. 42-76 (2014)
http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=roger_roots

Further reading
Berg, B.L. Criminal Investigation (McGraw-Hill, 2008) ISBN 978-0-07-340124-9

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