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How the U.S. Army Works

By: Ed Grabianowski

Courtesy U.S. Army

The U.S. Army is a main branch of the U.S. military. With over one million Americans
serving in the Army, Army National Guard and Army Reserves, and a 2007 budget of
more than $110 billion, it's one of the largest military organizations in the world.

The Army's primary purpose is to protect the United States and its interests. This is
accomplished by fighting in armed conflicts when the need arises, participating in
peacekeeping and security duties and maintaining a state of readiness for war. While
the Army does have units that utilize aircraft and watercraft, its main responsibility is
land-based combat.

Two main branches make up the Army: the operational branch and the institutional
branch. The operational branch conducts the more visible aspects of the Army's job,
which involves combat and peacekeeping. The institutional branch of the Army is
responsible for training and maintaining soldiers and equipment so the operational
branch can do its job effectively.

Within the operational branch, there are two divisions:

The regular army, also known as the active Army. Its units may be deployed
around the world at any given moment. Roughly 60 percent of the Army's troops
are in the regular Army.
 Reserve components, which comprises the U.S. Army Reserve and the Army
National Guard. Soldiers (the official term for anyone in the Army) in the reserve
typically train one weekend per month, with a two-week training period occurring
once each year. These part-time soldiers may be called up to full-time whenever
the Army needs them. Some are divided into units made wholly from reserves,
while other reserve soldiers fill out the ranks of regular Army units.

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Today's Army is an all-volunteer force. While this generally results in high-quality

soldiers (because they all actually want to be in the Army), it can be difficult to get
enough recruits to keep the Army fully manned. In 2005, the Army fell short of
recruiting goals, but met its recruiting benchmarks in 2006. The United States has
used conscription (mandatory military service, also known as "the draft") several
times in the past. Drafts were used in the War of 1812 and by both Union and
Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The draft was instituted again
during both World Wars, and was used during the Cold War in the late 1940s and early
1950s (the only time a peacetime draft was used). The last draft occured in 1973,
during the war in Vietnam. Since 1980, the United States has used the Selective
Service System to register all males when they reach age 18. This system is designed
to make it easier for the government to find and enlist soldiers if a draft is reinstated.
However, no one has been prosecuted for failing to register since the mid-1980s.

To supplement the active Army with reserves, Congress generally needs to have
declared an emergency or a war, which gives the President the authority to call up
those troops held in the reserves for the length of the situation plus six months. The
President can also call up reserves without Congressional authority for a limited
amount of time. In addition, the President can activate members of the National
Guard. The length of time a National Guardsman can serve in active duty overseas
has increased from six months to 24 months because of personnel shortages caused
by the war in Iraq.

Next, we'll look at the Army's hierarchy.

Army Hierarchy

Like all military organizations, the U.S. Army follows a strict hierarchy. This
establishes the chain of command through which virtually all Army orders and
procedures flow. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of all U.S. armed forces. In
wartime, he makes decisions based on recommendations from the Secretary of
Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, a committee of high-ranking officials from each
branch of the armed forces.

The U.S. military is also divided into 10 Unified Combatant Commands (UCC). UCCs
include forces from the Army as well as other military branches. Four of these
commands are functional:

United States Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM)

United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)
United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM)
United States Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM)

The remaining five commands are large geographic regions that encompass the
entire globe. Each regional UCC is lead by a general and manned by a numbered field
army. For example, the UCC responsible for North America, United States Northern
Command, is manned by the Fifth Army. The rest of the regional commands:

United States Central Command (USCENTCOM)

United States European Command (USEUCOM)
United States Pacific Command (USPACOM)
United States Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM)
United States Africa Command (USAFRICOM)
 Photo courtesy U.S. Department of Defense
This world map shows five of the six regional commands of the Unified Combat Commands. United States
Africa Command (USAFRICOM), created in February 2007 from parts of USEUCOM, USCENTCOM and
USPACOM, is scheduled to become operational in September 2008.

Within each field army are several corps; the corps themselves are made up of
divisions. Formerly, the division was the "building block" of most Army deployments.
When troops were needed somewhere in the world, the Army would send one or more
divisions to do the job. However, a division is made up of more than 10,000 troops
(including support personnel), and many situations faced by the modern army don't
require that many soldiers.

As a result, the Army is undergoing a restructuring, scheduled to be completed in

2009, that will increase the flexibility of troop deployments. Once the restructuring is
complete, the brigade will become the basic "Unit of Action" for the army. Made up of
about 3,000 troops, each brigade will serve a specific purpose and will be completely
autonomous, containing all the support and command personnel needed for the
mission. Brigade types will include infantry, artillery, airborne and sustainment
brigades, as well as Stryker brigades that will use the Army's versatile Stryker wheeled
combat vehicles.
 Photo by Hu Son Yu/courtesy U.S. Army
The 2nd Brigade Combat Team stands in formation at Camp Casey in Tongduchon, Korea.

Within each brigade, troops are further broken down into smaller groups:

Battalion - up to 1,000 soldiers

Company - approximately 100 soldiers
Platoon - up to 50 soldiers (this is the smallest unit lead by a commissioned
officer)
Section or squad - Approximately eight soldiers
Fire Team - four soldiers

In peacetime, army leadership is more political than military. It is headed by the

Secretary of the Army, a civilian position beneath the Secretary of Defense. The U.S.
Army Chief of Staff advises the secretary. High-level army leadership is made up of
commissioned officers, men and women who graduated from officer school and have
been specially trained to be leaders. Warrant officers make up a middle class, in
between commissioned officers and non-commissioned officers. Warrant officers
often have more specialized roles than COs, and are afforded many of the same
privileges of rank as COs. NCOs are enlisted soldiers who have moved up through the
ranks by virtue of their experience, demonstrated abilities or simply time served in the
army. Most units are lead in the field by sergeants.

Official Army Ranks and Abbreviations

Commissioned Officers Warrant Officers Enlisted Soldiers
 General of the Army (GA) Chief Warrant Officer 5 (CW5) Sergeant Major of the Army (SMA)
General (GEN) Chief Warrant Officer 4 (CW4) Command Sergeant Major (CSM)
Lieutenant General (LTG) Chief Warrant Officer 3 (CW3) Sergeant Major (SM)
Major General (MG) Chief Warrant Officer 2 (CW2) First Sergeant (1SG)
Brigadier General (BG) Warrant Officer 1 (WO1) Master Sergeant (MSG)
Colonel (COL)   Sergeant First Class (SFC)
Lieutenant Colonel - (LTC)   Staff Sergeant (SSG)
Major (MAJ)   Sergeant (SGT)
Captain (CPT)   Corporal (CPL)
First Lieutenant (1LT)   Specialist (SPC)
Second Lieutenant (2LT)   Private First Class (PFC)
    Private E-2 (PV2)
    Private E-1 (PV1)

To learn more about the responsibilities of each Officer and Soldier ranking, check out
U.S. Army Symbols and Insignia.

Learn about signing up for the Army and training in the next section.

Signing Up and Training

If you want to join the Army, you have a number of decisions to make. The first is
whether to join the regular Army, the reserves or the National Guard. Within the regular
Army, a potential soldier can opt to become an enlisted soldier, a warrant officer or a
commissioned officer:

Waivers
In general, the majority of potential recruits with criminal backgrounds,
especially felonies, have not been allowed to join the Army. Exceptions, or
waivers, have been granted on a case-by-case basis. But since 2003, the
number of waivers given to recruits with criminal backgrounds has increased
by about 65 percent in order to keep up with wartime demands [Source: New
York Times]. This includes recruits who have been convicted of both serious
misdemeanors (such as burglary and aggravated assault) and felonies
(although those with multiple felonies, drug trafficking and other specific
crimes are excluded).

The increase in waiver distribution has been controversial. According to

Representative Martin T. Meehan, "By lowering standards, we are endangering
the rest of our armed forces and sending the wrong message to potential
recruits across the country" [Source: New York Times]. However, the military
maintains that the waiver process is very selective, taking into account the
nature of the crime, the age of the recruit when he committed it, his criminal
records and recommendations from members of his community.

Enlisted Soldier
The bulk of all soldiers (roughly 84 percent) are enlisted, usually through a local
recruiting office. United States citizens between the ages of 17 and 34 years old
with a high school diploma (or the equivalent) and good physical health and
fitness are eligible for enlistment. They must also receive such as a minimum 31
score on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test. To learn
more about requirements, check out Web site or speak to a recruiter.

Warrant Officer
Warrant officers need to demonstrate a certain degree of technical skill, indicated
by a minimum 110 score on the General Technical portion of the ASVAB. They
must also be U.S. citizens between the ages of 18 and 33 with a high school
diploma. The physical screening for warrant officers is more rigorous than for
regular enlistment. Potential warrant officers must attend Warrant Officer
Candidate School after completing basic training. Those who want to become
helicopter pilots will attend Warrant Officer Flight Training instead.

Commissioned Officer
Commissioned officers are the top-ranking leaders in the Army. There are several
paths to becoming a commissioned officer. You can join ROTC, or Reserve
Officers' Training Corps. ROTC is a set of leadership courses than are taken in
 conjunction with regular college courses. Graduation from the ROTC program
earns the soldier the rank of Second Lieutenant. Students can also attend West
Point, an elite military academy with stringent entrance requirements and a very
rigorous training and learning program. Graduating from West Point is a
prestigious honor.

Photo courtesy U.S. Army

Cadets toss their caps into the air at the conclusion of their graduation ceremony at the United
States Military Academy at West Point, New York.
Potential soldiers with college degrees between the ages of 19 and 28 can attend
Officer Candidate School, an intense 14-week training program at Fort Benning,
Georgia. Officer Candidate School leads to service as an officer for a three-year
minimum in the regular army, or six years in the reserves. Civilians with
professional degrees may be eligible for a commissioned rank based on their
levels of skill and experience.

All Army recruits except West Point cadets (who go through a longer, even more
grueling training program) experience basic training, a nine-week program that hones
a soldier's mental and physical abilities and teaches them how to function within the
Army. Recruits learn to respect and obey higher ranking soldiers, built their endurance
through obstacle courses and long runs in heavy gear, learn to maintain and fire
military weapons and learn Army basics like map reading and First Aid. Basic training
is run by drill sergeants, specially-trained NCOs who motivate and teach recruits. No
one would describe basic training as "fun," but most soldiers are proud to have gone
through the experience. The fact that almost everyone in the Army has experienced
basic training also serves to forge a bond between soldiers.

Photo courtesy U.S. Army

Drill Sergeant Primus Brown and recruits offer words of encouragement to a trainee negotiating
the obstacle course at Fort Benning, Georgia.
After basic training, soldiers move on to Advanced Individual Training (AIT). Here
soldiers choose their career paths in the Army. Options include Infantry School,
Engineer School, Field Artillery Center and Military Police School. A complete list of
the AIT schools can be found here at the GoArmy.com.

We'll look at some basics of life in the Army next.

Army Life

A soldier's training is never completely finished. In the modern Army, mundane tasks
formerly used as punishment or busy work for soldiers, such as preparing food for
mess service or basic cleaning, are often performed by civilians under contract with
the Army. This frees up soldiers' time, allowing them to take ongoing training courses.
They may go through additional AIT schools to diversify their training or take
leadership courses. Entire units can take special training courses together. The Army's
goal is to keep soldiers focused on improving their skills and abilities so they can
perform their jobs perfectly when peoples' lives are on the line.

Photo by Jason Kaye/courtesyU.S. Army

The U.S. Army barracks at Fort Lewis, Washington.

While a soldier's assignment ultimately depends on the needs of the Army, his area of
expertise and his training, his family situation and specific requests may be taken into
account. The Army has special programs for married couples who are both in the
military and for other special situations, such as family hardships, that may require
specific assignments. Other than these special cases, a soldier goes where the Army
tells him to go.

Photo courtesy U.S. Army

The Army recently announced plans to replace its green, white and blue service uniforms with one blue
service uniform, likely similar to the Army Blue uniform pictured here. Other uniforms include the ACU
(Army Combat Uniform) and the IPFU (Improved Physical Fitness Uniform).
All single enlisted soldiers live in barracks on an Army base when they first complete
their training. Life in a barracks is similar to living in a college dorm: each soldier has
at least one roommate and uses a communal bathroom and shower. Higher-ranked
soldiers have the option of living off-base, using a military housing allowance. Married
soldiers also have this option, although 24 percent of all military families live on base
in Army-provided housing. The base itself includes enough provisions for daily life
that soldiers and their families need never leave the base if they don't want to.
Amenities include:

Post Exchange (PX) - The base store, where many consumer goods can be
purchased
Gyms, pools and other exercise facilities
Movie theater
Restaurants, bars and clubs
Libraries
Golf courses, tennis courts and other recreational facilities

Army bases are scattered throughout the United States, and there are bases in South
Korea, Japan, Belgium, Germany and Italy. Soldiers typically receive a new assignment
every two or three years, so chances are they will eventually get to experience life
outside the United States if they stay in the Army long enough.

As of 2006, the U.S. military is involved in a long-term war in Iraq. Although many
soldiers train in non-combat specialties or request assignments to places other than
Iraq or Afghanistan, there are never enough combat troops available. Therefore, every
enlisted soldier has a chance of being sent to a combat zone. Once there, soldiers
may be sent on combat missions as the need arises, regardless of their specialty.
Make no mistake -- when you join the Army, there is a very real chance that you will
see combat and the possibility of injury or death.

We'll look at life after a soldier leaves the Army in the next section.

Life After the Army

 Medals and Decorations
U.S. Army soldiers can be awarded six different types of individual awards:
decorations, good conduct medals, service medals, service ribbons, badges
and tabs, and certificates and letters. The highest award for valor that a
soldier can recieve during peacetime is the Soldiers Medal. During wartime,
the Medal of Honor (often called the Congressional Medal of Honor because
the President awards the medal on behalf of Congress) is the highest honor a
soldier can receive. More than 3,000 Medals of Honor have been awarded
since 1861.

Photo courtesy U.S. Army

The U.S. Army Medal of Honor bears a profile of Minerva, the Roman
goddess of wisdom and war.

Soldiers typically leave the Army through a discharge. The type of discharge received
depends on the circumstances surrounding his departure from the Army and his
conduct. Some veterans' benefits depend on the type of discharge as well. Soldiers
may voluntarily leave the Army when their term of enlistment has ended, although
they may also sign a contract for another term of service. If a soldier is disabled or
suffers a serious family hardship (for example, the soldier is needed to care for a sick
family member), he may also be discharged voluntarily. A soldier who completes his
term of service and receives a good or better rating on his service from the discharge
review board will receive an honorable discharge.
Soldiers can also receive a general discharge (under honorable conditions). This type
of discharge is considered less desirable than an honorable discharge. It is for
soldiers who may have performed well but did not finish their term of service for a
reason other than a disability. Soldiers with minor disciplinary problems may also
receive this type of discharge.

An other than honorable discharge is given to soldiers with more serious misconduct.
It's not as bad as a court-martial, but an OTH discharge is not a good way to leave the
military. Finally, a soldiers can receive a dishonorable or bad conduct discharge.
These are involuntary discharges resulting from a court-martial, a military trial held
when someone is accused of violating the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

When a soldier enlists, he signs a contract for a certain period of active duty -- usually
two, four or six years. However, everyone who joins the army signs on for an eight-year
obligation. When the active duty tour has finished, the soldier may finish out the
remaining time in the reserves or as an Individual Ready Reservist (IRR). IRRs do not
train or drill regularly, but they may be called to active duty at any time until their eight-
year term has ended. At the end of eight years, soldiers can sign on for an additional
eight-year term of service. To retire from the Army, a soldier must have served for 20
years. Some retired soldiers can be recalled to active duty, especially if they are under
age 60 and it's been less than five years since they retired.

Soldiers have access to an Army Career and Alumni Program Center on each base.
ACAP has career counselors that can help soldiers make the move into the civilian
world when they are nearing the end of their term of service. There are also programs
that allow soldiers to acquire professional training certificates, become teachers or
even secure a guaranteed job with certain companies when they enlist.

The Army also offers a number of benefits to veterans, including a retirement savings
plan similar to a 401(k) plan. Also, retiring soldiers (those with at least 20 years of
service) can receive half of their base pay (based on an average of their last three
years of base pay) for the rest of their lives. Reservists and National Guard members
use a more complicated formula based on points earned for active service to
calculate eligibility for retirement pay.
Army veterans and their families may be eligible for a host of benefits when they leave
the army. The exact benefits vary greatly from one situation to another, depending on
the nature of discharge, whether the soldier was injured or killed while in the army,
how long she served for and the highest rank achieved. Examples of veterans'
benefits include funding for education through the GI Bill, housing loans, life
insurance, career training, health insurance and prescription drug coverage and money
for surviving family members. You can learn more at the U.S. Department of Veterans
Affairs Web site.

We'll look at the history of the U.S. Army in the next section.

History

The U.S. Army traces its history to the American Revolutionary War. The formation of
the Continental Army on June 14, 1775 is considered its official "birthday." The
Continental Army was disbanded in 1784. However, conflicts between western
settlers and Native Americans lead to the creation of the First American Regiment.
After fighting several battles with Native Americans in the ensuing decades, the unit
became the 1st Infantry. In 1815, several units, including the 1st Infantry, were
combined to form the 3rd Infantry. So the modern 3rd Infantry is the only unit that can
trace its lineage directly back to the formation of the U.S. Army.

Re-enactors from the Kansas Army National Guard represent four periods of conflict in the history of the
U.S. Army during the 231st Army Birthday ceremony in June 2006: the Revolutionary War, the Civil War,
World War II and the Global War on Terrorism.
The Army was heavily involved in every U.S. military conflict in the 19th century.
During the American Civil War, the U.S. Army became the Union Army. In the 20th
century, U.S. Army soldiers took part in both World Wars, the Korean War, the Vietnam
War and the first Persian Gulf War, as well as numerous smaller scale conflicts.
Terrorist attacks and threats in the 21st century led the Army into Afghanistan and
Iraq.

Because the National Guard is descended from various state militias that existed in
the 1600s, it's technically older than the Army. Each National Guard unit is both a state
and federal military unit. That is, the governor of each state commands the National
Guard units stationed within that state, but the federal government can call on the
units and bring them into action when needed. Federal authority supersedes state
authority in such a situation. There are both part and full-time soldiers in the National
Guard.

Since the end of the Vietnam War, the United States has held to a military doctrine
called the Total Force Policy. This doctrine states that every branch of the military
should be treated as a single force. Strategically, this means that the planning and
deployment of the Air Force, Navy, Coast Guard and Marines should be intertwined
with that of the Army. The policy is also designed to ensure the support of the
American people when the nation goes to war, because the Army would be unable to
effectively go to war without also activating the National Guard and Army Reserves.
These two branches of the Army are considered more strongly associated with the
average American citizen, especially the National Guard.

For lots more information about the U.S. Army and related topics, check out the links
on the next page.

Lots More Information

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More Great Links

The U.S. Army

Go Army
Uniform Code of Military Justice
Army Historical Foundation
Armies of the World

Sources

The Army Historical Foundation. "First American Regiment."

http://www.armyhistory.org/armyhistorical.aspx?pgID=868&id=84&exCompID=32
"About the Army."
http://www.goarmy.com/about/index.jsp?bl=Contact%20the%20Army
 Stanton, Shelby L. "Soldiers: A Portrait of the United States Army." Howell Press
(September 1991). 0943231221.

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