LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Influence of cooking and dehulling on nutritional composition of several

varieties of lentils (Lens culinaris)q
N. Wang*, D.W. Hatcher, R. Toews, E.J. Gawalko
Grain Research Laboratory, Canadian Grain Commission, 1404-303 Main Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 3G8, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of cooking and dehulling on nutrients and anti-nutritional factors of several varieties of lentils
Received 29 May 2008 (Lens culinaris) was investigated. Significant (p < 0.05) variations existed among the lentil varieties with
Received in revised form respect to their crude protein, starch, ash, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total
6 October 2008
dietary fiber (TDF), resistant starch (RS), trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), minerals, phytic acid, tannins,
Accepted 10 October 2008
sucrose and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) content. Cooking lentils in boiling
water significantly increased protein, starch, IDF, TDF, resistant starch, Ca, Cu and Mn content, whereas
Keywords:
reduced ash, Fe, K, Mg, P, Zn, TIA, phytic acid, tannins, sucrose and oligosaccharides were observed.
Lentil
Dietary fiber Dehulling (removal of seed coat) resulted in a significant increase in protein, starch, resistant starch, K, P,
Cooking phytic acid, stachyose and verbascose content, however, a significant decrease in SDF, IDF, TDF, Ca, Cu, Fe,
Dehulling Mg, Mn and tannin content was observed.
Nutrients Crown Copyright Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Swiss Society of Food Science and
Technology. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction weight proteins capable of binding to and inactivating the digestive

Lentils (Lens culinaris) are one of the most important pulse crops
in the world because of their nutritional quality. They are rich
sources of complex carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, vitamins,
minerals and high energetic value (Costa, Queiroz-Monici, Reis,
& Oliveira, 2006). Pulses have demonstrated many health benefits:
lowering glycemic index for people with diabetes (Viswanathan
et al., 1989); in cancer prevention (Hangen & Bennink, 2002) and in
protection against cardiovascular diseases due to its dietary fiber
content (Lee, Prosky, & DeVires, 1992). Numerous studies have
shown that people with high fiber intake have blood pressure lower
than those with low fiber intake (Kritchevsky, 1982; Scheeman,
1987; Brand, Snow, Nobhan, & Truswell, 1990). Soluble fiber also
decreases serum cholesterol and aids in reducing the risk of heart
attack and colon cancer (Trowell, 1972; Burkitt, Walker, & Painter,
1974; Kelsey, 1978; Sharma & Kawatra, 1995). A high fiber diet
prevents or relieves constipation in human due to the absorption of
water from the digestive track (Hill, 1974).
However, pulses contain certain anti-nutritional constituents
such as trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, tannins and oligosaccharides
(raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) that could limit their protein
and carbohydrate utilization. Trypsin inhibitors are low molecular
q Paper 997 of the Grain Research Laboratory, Canadian Grain Commission,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 204 983 2154; fax: þ1 204 983 0724.
E-mail address: ning.wang@grainscanada.gc.ca (N. Wang).
enzyme, trypsin (Chavan & Kadam, 1989). Phytic acid lowers the
bioavailability of minerals (Reddy, Pierson, Sathe, & Salunkhe,
1984), and oligosaccharides are responsible for flatulence (Fleming,
1981). Tannins are known to form complexes with proteins, which
are reported to be responsible for low protein digestibility and
decreased amino acid availability (Adsule & Kadam, 1989). Heat
treatment significantly improves the protein quality in pulses by
destruction or inactivation of the heat labile anti-nutritional factors
(Jenkins et al., 1982; Deosthale, 1982; Khokhar & Chauhan, 1986;
Wang, Lewis, Brennan, & Westby, 1997; Vijayakumari, Sidduraju,
Pugalenthi, & Janardhanan, 1998). Cooking results in significant
reduction in phytic acid and tannins in pulses (Beal & Mehta, 1985;
Khalil & Mansour, 1995; Wang, Hatcher, & Gawalko, 2008).
The seed coat (hull) of pulses is often indigestible and may have
a bitter taste. Dehulling has been reported to improve the palat-
ability and taste of chickpea, pigeonpea and lentil (Singh & Singh,
1992) and reduce polyphenols or tannins, mostly present in the
seed coat in pulses (Deshpande, Sathe, Salunke, & Cornforth, 1982;
Wang, 2008). Dehulling also reduces pulse cooking time by
removing its impermeable seed coat which hindered water uptake
during cooking (Kon, Brown, Ohanneson, & Booth, 1973). The true
protein digestibility and net protein utilization of dehulled
components are reported to be significantly higher than those of
the whole seed of pigeonpea (Singh, 1993). Although studies have
been done on chemical composition of raw lentils (Wang & Daun,
2006), little information is available on the composition of
processed lentils. The current investigation aims to determine how

0023-6438/$34.00 Crown Copyright Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Swiss Society of Food Science and Technology. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2008.10.007
 N. Wang et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848
cooking and dehulling affect the nutritional and the anti-nutri-
tional components of several varieties of lentils.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Samples were selected from the Canadian Grain Commission
(CGC)’s 2006 harvest survey of the commercially grown crop of
lentils for this study. All the selected samples used in this study
were registered varieties and from the same growing region in
Saskatchewan, Canada. The eight registered lentil varieties chosen
were Laird, CDC Sovereign, CDC Richlea, CDC Vantage, Eston,
Milestone, CDC Robin and CDC Blaze which represent the most
common varieties grown in Western Canada. Each varietal sample
was composed of sub-samples (n ¼ 4–8) of a specific registered
variety grown in the same growing region in Saskatchewan.
Samples were cleaned to remove foreign material and damaged
seeds prior to processing of lentils (cooking and dehulling).
Benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide hydrochloride (BAPNA),
trypsin, 5-sulphosalicylic acid, ferric chloride hexahydrate, celite
(acid washed), sodium chloride and sodium sulphate were
obtained from Sigma–Aldrich (Oakville, ON, Canada). Glucose
hexokinase and amyloglucosidase were purchased from Roche
Diagnostics (Laval, QC, Canada). Resistant starch kit, total dietary
fiber kit and protease were purchased from Megazyme (Co. Wick-
low, Ireland). Sodium Hydroxide (50% w/w) was obtained from
Fisher Scientific (Ottawa, ON, Canada).
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Processing of lentils
2.2.1.1. Cooking. Cooking time of each lentil sample was deter-
mined using an automated Mattson Cooker (Wang & Daun, 2005),
which consists of 25 plungers, a cooking rack with 25 reservoir-like
perforated saddles, a sensor assembly, which mounts on top of the
cooking rack, an interface box, an input/output card and
a computer. Each plunger was calibrated to a weigh of 80 g by
adjusting the number of lead buckshots inside each plunger. A lentil
sample (50 g) was soaked in distilled water at a ratio of 1:4
(seed:water, w/w) for 24 h at room temperature. Twenty-five
soaked seeds were randomly selected and then positioned into
each of the 25 saddles of the cooking rack so that the tip of each
plunger is rested on top of the soaked seed. The rack was then
placed into a 2 L metal beaker containing 1.2 L of boiling water,
which was placed on a hotplate. When a seed became sufficiently
tender, the plunger penetrated the seed and dropped through the
hole in the saddle. The time when each plunger dropped was
recorded through a windows-based program. The optimum cook-
ing time was assigned when 80% of the seeds were cooked. The
cooking time in minutes was determined as average of triplicate
determinations. A sample (100 g) of lentil seeds was soaked in
distilled water at a ratio of 1:4 (seed:water, w/w) for 24 h at room
temperature. After draining the water, the soaked sample was
cooked in distilled water in a 2 L metal beaker placed on a hotplate
for its predetermined cooking time as described above. The cooked
sample was then drained through a strainer, frozen in a freezer at
18  C and freeze-dried in a Virtis Freeze Drier (Virtis Research
Equipment Gardiner, New York, USA). The freeze-dried seeds were
ground into flour using an Udy grinder with a 0.5 mm sieve and
stored at 4  C in sealed plastic bags until further analysis.
2.2.1.2. Dehulling. The Satake TM05C Grain Testing Mill (Satake
Engineering Co. Ltd, Hiroshima, Japan) was used to remove the seed
coat in accordance to the procedure described by Wang (2005).
Lentil sample (150 g) was placed in a plastic container with lid, and
843
a certain amount of water was added to the container to bring the
moisture content of the sample to 12.5 g/100 g wb. The container
was sealed and kept at 4  C for 3 days with occasional shaking to
allow the moisture to equilibrate before the sample was dehulled.
The tempered sample was processed in the mill operated at 1100 r/min
for 38 s. After dehulling, the processed lentils were separated into
lentil seeds (hulled and dehulled), hulls, powder and broken seeds
using a Carter dockage tester (Simon-Day Ltd, Winnipeg, Canada).
The lentil seeds were then separated by hand into their respective
hulled and dehulled seeds. Dehulled and raw seeds were ground
into flour as described previously and stored at 4  C until further
analysis.
2.2.2. Chemical analysis
2.2.2.1. Chemical analysis of nutritional constituents. Nitrogen (N)
was determined by the Dumas combustion method using a Leco FP-
528 combustion nitrogen analyzer (Leco Corp. St. Joseph, MI, USA)
calibrated with EDTA (AOAC, 2000). Crude protein content was
calculated using N  6.25. Moisture and ash content were deter-
mined gravimetrically in accordance with AACC methods 44-17 and
08-16, respectively (AACC, 2000). Starch was determined colori-
metrically as described by the method AACC 76-13 (AACC, 2000).
Resistant starch was measured by the AACC method 32-40 (AACC,
2000). Soluble, insoluble and total dietary fiber contents were
determined by sequential enzymatic digestion according to AACC
method 35-05 (AACC, 2000). Minerals were determined by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry (Gawalko, Nowicki, Babb, & Tka-
chuk, 1997).
2.2.2.2. Chemical analysis of anti-nutritional constituents. Trypsin
inhibitor activity (TIA) was determined colorimetrically using an
Ultrospec 3000 spectrophotometer (Biochrom Ltd., Cambridge,
England) at 410 nm (Smith, Van Megen, Twaalfhoven, & Hitchcock,
1980) with benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide hydrochloride as the
substrate. Tannins were assayed in accordance with the modified
vanillin-HCL method of Price, Van Scoyoc, and Butler (1978) and
(þ)-catechin was used as the reference standard.
Phytic acid was extracted and separated by ion-exchange
chromatography according to the method of AOAC (2000) before
being quantified colorimetrically using an Ultrospec 3000 spec-
trophotometer (Biochrom Ltd., Cambridge, England) at 500 nm
(Latta & Eskin, 1980). One gram of ground pea sample was extracted
with 20 ml of 0.65 mol/L HCl for 2 h at room temperature on
a rotary shaker. The extract was centrifuged (15,000 g) at room
temperature for 20 min and the supernatant was decanted. A 3 ml
aliquot of the supernatant was diluted to 25 ml with deionized
water. Diluted sample extract (10 ml) was passed through a column
(7  150 mm) (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA) packed with
100–200 mesh AG1-X4 chloride anion exchange resin (Bio-Rad
Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA). Inorganic phosphorus was eluted
with 15 ml 0.1 mol/L NaCl followed by elution of phytate with
0.7 mol/L NaCl. The phytate content was measured colorimetrically
at 500 nm using the Wade reagent (0.03% FeCl3$6H2O and 0.3%
sulfosalicylic acid in deionized water).
Oligosaccharides were determined by high performance anion
exchange (HPAE) chromatography with pulsed amperometric
detection (PAD) (Wang & Daun, 2006). The HPAE system (Dionex
Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) is comprised of an ICS-3000 solvent delivery
pump, an ED40 chemical electrode detector, an AS50 autosampler
and an AS50 thermal compartment. One gram of lentil flour was
extracted with 20 ml of 80% EtOH at 70  C for 30 min. Lactose was
added as an internal standard in the sample before extraction. The
suspension was then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm at 15  C for 15 min.
The supernatant was decanted, and an aliquot was centrifuged at
12,000 rpm for 5 min. A sample of the centrifuged supernatant was
diluted with deionized water and passed through a 0.45 mm filter.
844 N. Wang et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848

The filtrate (25 ml) was injected on a PA1 analytical anion exchange
column (4  250 mm) (Dionex Corp., Sunnyvale, CA) connected to
a CarbopacÔ PA1 guard column (4  50 mm) (Dionex Corp., Sun-
nyvale, CA). The mobile phase used was 0.15 mol/L sodium
hydroxide at the flow rate of 1.0 ml/min.
2.2.3. Statistical analysis
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) models with variety and
treatment (cooking and dehulling) as the model factors were used
to analyze the data with the Statistical Analysis System (v.9.1.3, SAS
Institute, Cary, NC). A variety-by-treatment interaction was
included in the models. A type I error rate (alpha level) of 0.05 was
used for all tests. The Duncan’s multiple range test was used to
separate means and significance was accepted at p < 0.05 (Cochran
& Cox, 1992).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Effect of cooking and dehulling on proximate composition
Analysis of variance showed that variety had a significant
(p < 0.001) effect on protein, starch and ash content (Table 1).
Similar results have been reported by Wang and Daun (2006).
Cooking and dehulling also exhibited a significant (p < 0.001) effect
on protein, starch and ash content (Table 1). The interactive effect of
variety-by-cooking on ash content was significant (p < 0.001)
whereas there was no effect of variety-by-cooking on protein and
starch content (Table 1). Crude protein content (N  6.25) in lentils
varied from 251.5 to 292.5 g/kg dry matter with a mean of 269.4 g/
kg dry matter (Table 2). Starch content ranged from 460.1 to
497.3 g/kg dry matter. Results found in our study were within the
range reported (Bhatty, 1984; Reddy et al., 1984; Wang & Daun,
2006). Cooking resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in crude
protein and starch content but ash content was reduced signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) (Table 2). The increases in protein and starch in
cooked lentils may be attributed to the loss of soluble solids during
cooking, which would increase the concentration of protein and
starch in cooked seeds. The decrease in ash content might result
from diffusion of certain minerals into the cooking water. Hay-
towitz and Matthews (1983) reported that cooking in boiling water
caused great losses in minerals for cooked pulses. Similar results
have been reported by Wang et al. (2008) for field peas. Dehulling
resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in protein and starch
content for all the varieties (Table 2), confirming results reported by
Wang (2008). Since seed coats reportedly contain little protein and
starch, it is opined that dehulled seeds would proportionately
contain more protein and starch. Dehulling had little effect on ash
content in the eight lentil varieties (Table 2).
Analysis of variance showed that both variety and cooking had
a significant effect on soluble dietary fiber (SDF), insoluble dietary
fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber (TDF) and resistant starch (RS) content
(Table 1). Variety-by-cooking had a significant effect on IDF
(p < 0.05), TDF (p < 0.05) and RS (p < 0.001) but had no effect on
SDF (Table 1). Table 3 shows values of SDF, IDF and TDF as affected
by cooking and dehulling. SDF content decreased significantly
(p < 0.05) in the cooked lentils compared to the raw lentils. The
results are in fair agreement to those reported by Vidal-Valverde
and Frias (1991) who suggested that a softening of soluble fibers
occurred with the cooking process, reducing its content. These
results are also comparable to that reported by Wang et al. (2008).
However, Kutos, Golob, Kac, and Plestenjak (2003) found that SDF
for beans was increased on cooking. The lowest content of SDF for
cooked lentils was determined in the varieties Richlea and
Milestone (12.7 g/kg dry matter) and the highest SDF content was
in the variety Eston (16.5 g/kg dry matter) (Table 3). Cooking
significantly (p < 0.05) increased IDF content for all lentil varieties
(133.9–161.1 g/kg dry matter) as compared to the raw samples. This
increase may be due to protein–fiber complexes formed after
possible chemical modification induced by the cooking of dry seeds
(Bressani, 1993). Heat treatment (cooking) may also modify the

Table 1
Analysis of variance of variety and treatment (cooking and dehulling) on composition of lentils.

Mean squares Mean squares

Variety (V) Cooking (C) V-by-C Variety (V) Dehulling (D) V-by-D
Composition
Protein 1177*** 458.3*** – 1256*** 1346*** 11.4***
Starch 603.6*** 4086*** – 691.3*** 20513*** –
Ash 6.70*** 414*** 1.69*** 4.18*** 2.01*** –
Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) 11.1* 61.9*** – 7.3* 263*** –
Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF) 144.8*** 4357*** 56.2* 34.8* 24647** –
Total dietary fiber (TDF) 122.5*** 33372*** 51.9* 34.7* 30037*** –
Resistant starch (RS) 181.4*** 2188*** 145.5*** 576.0*** 45.6*** –

Minerals
Ca 182.8*** 292.2*** – 86.3*** 13534*** 19.7**
Cu 0.05*** 0.11*** – 0.03*** 0.22*** –
Fe 2.22*** 8.32*** 0.34* 1.25*** 14.2*** 0.94***
K 6248* 855432*** – 4798* 24475** –
Mg 111.0** 960.3*** – 119.3*** 3767*** 33.7*
Mn 0.12*** 0.04* – 0.10*** 0.18** –
P 4150** 10841** – 4215*** 6429** –
Zn 0.72*** 0.54** – 0.66*** – –

Sugars
Sucrose 39.2*** 1579*** 4.94*** 50.5*** 9.79*** 1.02**
Raffinose 0.72*** 51.0*** 0.52*** 1.05*** 0.85*** 0.17*
Stachyose 12.1*** 528.1*** 6.39*** 14.3*** 45.6*** 2.29***
Verbascose 2.48*** 3.25*** 0.24* 2.39*** 26.1*** 0.18*
TIAa 0.18*** 24.5*** 0.06*** 0.15*** 23.9*** 0.08***
Phytic acid 4.11*** 3.45*** 0.11** 4.33*** 1.62*** –
Tannins 1.28*** 32.2*** 1.19*** 1.06*** 173.4*** 1.06***

***, **, * ¼ Significant at p < 0.001, p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively. –; Blank spaces indicate no significance.
a
Trypsin inhibitor activity.
 N. Wang et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848 845

Table 2
Effect of cooking and dehulling on protein, starch and ash content of lentils.

Variety Protein (N  6.25) (g/kg dry matter) Starch (g/kg dry matter) Ash (g/kg dry matter)

Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled

Laird 258.9cd 261.8b 268.6a 487.3c 512.0b 539.3a 28.4a 20.3b 27.7a
Sovereign 272.4b 278.6a 280.5a 476.6c 502.6b 521.4a 26.3a 19.7b 26.2a
Richlea 253.3b 261.5a 264.4a 497.3c 516.0b 544.4a 26. 7a 17.8b 26.1a
Vantage 256.7c 263.8b 269.8a 480.4c 502.8b 529.2a 26.2a 18.9b 26.0a
Eston 278.9c 283.8b 293.8a 466.5c 489.0b 523.4a 26.3a 20.1b 25.9a
Milestone 251.5b 261.9a 265.1a 486.2c 522.3b 545.6a 24.8a 15.9b 23.9ab
Robin 292.5c 302.8b 311.8a 460.1c 486.0b 501.5a 26.8a 20.9b 26.3a
Blaze 290.6b 301.7a 305.1a 469.1c 483.4b 523.7a 27.1a 21.3b 26.9a
d
Means within a row for each constituent with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05) as determined using Duncan’s multiple range test.

structure of both cell wall and storage polysaccharides of pulses
possibly by affecting the intactness of tissue histology and dis-
rupting the protein–carbohydrate integration, thus reducing the
solubility of dietary fiber (Siljestrom et al., 1986). A significant
(p < 0.05) increase in IDF content in cooked lentils as compared to
their raw forms (Table 3) may be beneficial as the cellulose content
of foods in insoluble fiber has been shown to be closely related to
their glycemic responses (Selvendran, 1984). Hence, it is possible
that cooked lentils may still be effective in reducing the glycemic
response despite the reduction in SDF. Cooking increased TDF in
lentils significantly (p < 0.05) (Table 3). The TDF contents in the raw
lentils were in the range of 131.1–147.0 g/kg dry matter, while TDF
varied from 149.1 to 168.7 g/kg dry matter for cooked lentils. The
IDF fraction in raw lentils formed the majority of TDF, ranging from
86.1% to 89.4%, while the fraction of SDF ranged from 10.6% to 13.9%.
These results are similar to that reported by Su and Chang (1995)
who reported that the IDF fraction in raw dry beans was 72–90% of
the TDF. Wang et al. (2008) observed that IDF was from 88.6% to
90.2% of the TDF for field peas and SDF 9.5% to 11.1% of the TDF.
Cooking significantly (p < 0.05) increased resistant starch (RS)
content from 15.6–43.2 g/kg dry matter in the raw lentils to 37.3–
50.9 g/kg dry matter in the cooked lentils (Table 3). The highest
value in cooked lentils was determined in the variety Richlea
(50.9 g/kg dry matter). The increase in RS content after cooking is
due to retrogradation of starch after gelatinization (Aman &
Westerlund, 1996; Raben et al., 1994; Costa et al., 2006).
Analysis of variance showed that both variety and dehulling had
a significant effect on fiber SDF, IDF, TDF and RS content (Table 1).
There was no significant effect of variety-by-dehulling on SDF, IDF,
TDF and RS. SDF contents in the dehulled seeds for the eight lentil
varieties were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than in the raw lentils
(Table 3). Dehulled variety Sovereign had the highest SDF content
(13.4 g/kg dry matter) whereas variety Milestone had the lowest
SDF (9.5 g/kg dry matter). Dehulling reduced IDF and TDF signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) in all eight lentil varieties (Table 3). The decreases
observed in TDF content due to dehulling resulted mainly from
a decrease in IDF content. Differences in SDF, IDF and TDF contents
were significant (p < 0.05) in the dehulled lentils between varieties
studied (Table 3). The percentage of SDF to TDF in the dehulled
samples ranged from 11.4 to 16.5%, which was significantly
(p < 0.05) higher than in the raw (10.8–13.9%). The ratios of IDF to
TDF in the dehulled samples were from 83.5 to 86.9%, which were
significantly (p < 0.05) lower than in the raw (86.9–89.4%). Resis-
tance starch content in dehulled lentils was significantly (p < 0.05)
higher than that in the raw lentils (Table 3).
3.2. Effect of cooking and dehulling on mineral content
A significant varietal effect on calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron
(Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), phos-
phorus (P) and zinc (Zn) was found (Table 1), confirming the
findings reported by Wang and Daun (2006). Results showed that K
was the most abundant element in raw lentils ranging from 843.5
to 943.0 mg/100 g (Table 4). P in raw lentils was found to range
from 308.0 to 407.0 mg/100 g. Mg varied from 99.3 to 109.0,
Ca from 57.5 to 76.2, Fe from 6.25 to 9.18 and Zn from 2.63 to
3.79 mg/100 g. Cu ranged from 0.79 to 1.13 and Mn from 1.00 to
1.50 mg/100 g. The mineral contents were in the range reported by
Wang and Daun (2006) for lentils and were also comparable with
those reported for other pulses (Jagadi, Rundgren, & Ogle, 1987;
Kadam et al., 1989). Analysis of variance showed that cooking
affected all minerals analysed (Table 1). The interactive effect of
variety-by-cooking on Fe was significant (p < 0.05) but no signifi-
cant effect was found on other minerals. Cooking lentils in boiling
water resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in Ca, Cu and Mn.
However, cooking resulted in significant (p < 0.05) losses of Fe, K,
Mg, P and Zn (Table 4). Similar results have been reported by
Haytowitz and Matthews (1983). Dehulling had a significant
(p < 0.05) effect on minerals except for Zn (Table 1). Interaction of
variety-by-dehulling significantly affected Ca (p < 0.001), Fe
(p < 0.001) and Mg (p < 0.05) levels (Table 1). Dehulling signifi-
cantly (p < 0.05) decreased Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg and Mn (Table 4). Similar
results were reported by Singh, Rao, Seetha, and Jambunathan
(1989) for pigeonpea and Wang et al. (2008) for field peas. K and P

Table 3
Effect of cooking and dehulling on soluble, insoluble, total dietary fiber and resistant starch content of lentils.

Variety Soluble fiber (g/kg dry matter) Insoluble fiber (g/kg dry matter) Total dietary fiber (g/kg dry matter) Resistant starch (g/kg dry matter)

Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled
Laird 18.0ad 14.8b 11.6c 123.2b 152.0a 69.2c 141.1b 166.8a 80.8c 33.3c 43.6a 37.6b
Sovereign 17.0a 13.8b 13.4c 114.1b 143.1a 67.8c 131.1b 156.8a 81.2c 15.6c 41.4a 17.9b
Richlea 15.2a 12.7b 11.2c 127.7b 156.0a 63.6c 142.9b 168.7a 74.7c 43.2c 50.9a 47.1b
Vantage 16.1a 13.1b 10.0c 123.5b 144.8a 66.6c 139.6b 158.1a 76.6c 28.1c 41.6a 34.1b
Eston 20.0a 16.5b 11.9c 123.7b 143.5a 69.7c 143.7b 160.5a 81.6c 16.4c 39.7a 21.9b
Milestone 15.6a 12.7b 9.5c 128.3b 161.1a 73.5c 143.9b 173.7a 83.1c 16.0c 40.9a 20.3b
Robin 19.4a 16.0b 12.7c 127.7b 140.9a 67.7c 147.0b 157.0a 80.4c 17.7c 40.8a 21.0b
Blaze 16.7a 15.1b 11.4c 120.4b 133.9a 66.5c 137.1b 149.1a 77.9c 15.7c 37.3a 17.0b
d
Means within a row for each constituent with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05) as determined using Duncan’s multiple range test.
846 N. Wang et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848

Table 4
Effect of cooking and dehulling on minerals of lentils.

Variety Ca (mg/100 g dry matter) Cu (mg/100 g dry matter) Fe (mg/100 g dry matter)

Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled

Laird 68.7bd 78.6a 25.5c 1.13b 1.24a 0.83c 9.18a 7.11b 5.93c
Sovereign 60.7b 67.4a 24.9c 0.79b 0.86a 0.72c 7.22a 6.16b 5.90b
Richlea 76.2b 79.6a 28.1c 0.89b 1.04a 0.78c 7.58a 5.93b 5.86b
Vantage 71.3b 75.3a 28.6c 0.84b 0.91a 0.70c 8.05a 6.90b 6.17b
Eston 57.5b 61.5a 20.0c 1.00b 1.11a 0.73c 6.41a 5.79b 5.95b
Milestone 69.4b 77.6a 24.2c 0.97b 1.09a 0.75c 6.25a 5.84b 5.90b
Robin 62.3b 70.2a 21.9c 0.96b 1.14a 0.90c 7.61a 7.04b 7.10b
Blaze 59.2b 63.4a 23.0c 1.02b 1.17a 0.89c 7.92a 7.29b 6.72c

K (mg/100 g dry matter) Mg (mg/100 g dry matter) Mn (mg/100 g dry matter)

Laird 943.0b 567.0c 1008.5a 109.0a 103.5b 83.5c 1.32b 1.42a 1.04c
Sovereign 851.0b 538.0c 943.5a 105.0a 100.1b 90.5c 1.36b 1.47a 1.19c
Richlea 885.0b 512.0c 951.0a 108.5a 94.5b 89.7c 1.35b 1.41a 1.25c
Vantage 861.5b 531.5c 914.0a 108.5a 96.3b 96.3b 1.50b 1.57a 1.31c
Eston 848.5b 542.0c 894.0a 102.8a 90.7b 76.2c 1.05b 1.11a 0.95c
Milestone 843.5b 456.5c 885.0a 99.3a 79.5b 71.7c 1.00b 1.06a 0.94c
Robin 880.5b 603.5c 946.5a 109.0a 99.8b 84.5c 1.41b 1.48a 1.29c
Blaze 896.5b 643.0c 939.5a 105.0a 95.2b 81.2c 1.28b 1.35a 1.10c

P (mg/100 g dry matter) Zn (mg/100 g dry matter)

b c a
Laird 394.0 365.5 415.3 3.64a 3.44b 3.53a
Sovereign 374.8b 329.3c 395.5a 3.16a 2.94b 3.12a
Richlea 364.3b 309.5c 388.8a 3.12a 2.75b 2.99a
Vantage 360.5b 312.5c 389.5a 2.82a 2.57b 2.78a
Eston 407.0b 361.5c 438.5a 2.63a 2.41b 2.60a
Milestone 308.0b 283.5c 335.5a 2.74a 2.39b 2.70a
Robin 402.0b 380.0c 432.0a 2.98a 2.76b 2.88a
Blaze 385.8b 360.0c 418.0a 3.79a 3.53b 3.71a
d
Means within a row for each constituent with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05) as determined using Duncan’s multiple range test.

content in dehulled seeds were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than
those in the raw seeds.
3.3. Effect of cooking and dehulling on anti-nutritional constituents
Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) in the raw lentil samples ranged
from 1.91 to 2.77 mg/g sample (Table 5). The mean TIA value for the
eight varieties was 2.29 mg/g sample, which was in the range
(1.94–3.07 mg/g) reported by Wang and Daun (2006). Analysis of
variance showed that both variety and treatment (cooking and
dehulling) had a significant effect on TIA (Table 1). The interactive
effect of variety-by-cooking on TIA was also significant (p < 0.001)
(Table 1). Variety-by-dehulling showed a significant (p < 0.001)
effect on TIA. A significant (p < 0.05) reduction in TIA was found for
all samples after cooking (Table 5). Cooking has been reported to be
effective in inactivating protease inhibitors in pulses (Gatta, Pier-
giovanni, Ng, Carnovale, & Perrino, 1989; Wang et al., 1997; Vidal-
Valverde et al., 1994). Sufficient cooking of lentils is necessary to not
only soften the lentils but also to inactivate or reduce TIA. However,
it is reported that over cooking reduces the nutritive value of pulses
since the levels of some essential amino acids are markedly
decreased (Youssef, Hamza, Abdel-Aal, Shekib, & El-Banna, 1986).
Dehulling resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in TIA for the
eight lentil varieties. Data from this study indicated that cooking
reduced TIA more effectively than dehulling, confirming the finding
of Wang et al. (2008).
Phytic acid content varied from 6.2 to 8.8 g/kg dry matter in
lentil varieties with a mean of 7.7 g/kg dry matter (Table 5), which
was in agreement to our previous reported data (Wang & Daun,
2006). Analysis of variance showed that both variety and treatment
(cooking and dehulling) had a significant effect on phytic content
(Table 1). The interactive effect of variety-by-cooking on phytic acid
content was significant (p < 0.01), but no interactive effect of
variety-by-dehulling on phytic acid was observed (Table 1). Cook-
ing caused a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in phytic acid content
in the lentil varieties (Table 5). Similar results had been reported on
other pulses (Ologhobo & Fetuga, 1984; Vidal-Valverde et al., 1994;
Wang et al., 2008). Dehulling significantly (p < 0.05) increased
phytic acid content in dehulled seeds (Table 5), indicating that
phytate is mainly concentrated in the cotyledons of lentils. This

Table 5
Effect of cooking and dehulling on trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), phytic acid, tannin and sucrose content of lentils.

Variety TIA (mg/g dry matter) Phytic acid (g/kg dry matter) Tannins (g/kg dry matter) Sucrose (g/kg dry matter)

Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled Raw Cooked Dehulled
Laird 2.24ad 0.39c 1.77b 8.8b 7.4c 9.4a 4.0a 2.3b 0.1c 22.7a 8.0c 20.9b
Sovereign 1.91a 0.43c 1.80b 8.0b 7.4c 8.6a 4.1ab 2.4b 0.1c 31.9a 15.7c 30.9b
Richlea 1.99a 0.42c 1.92b 7.0b 6.5c 7.4a 5.1a 2.7b 0.2c 20.8a 7.4c 18.6b
Vantage 2.24a 0.45c 1.83b 6.4b 6.0c 7.2a 5.1a 2.3b 0.1c 24.7a 10.1c 23.4b
Eston 2.39a 0.78c 2.01b 8.2b 7.7c 8.7a 6.1a 3.0b 0.1c 25.0a 11.6c 23.3b
Milestone 2.08a 0.56c 1.61b 6.2b 5.2c 6.6a 3.4a 3.1b 0.1c 25.6a 8.1c 24.6b
Robin 2.77a 0.59c 2.30b 8.7b 8.2c 9.3a 5.9a 3.0b 0.1c 21.5a 11.2c 20.7b
Blaze 2.72a 0.72c 2.17b 8.1b 7.5c 9.7a 4.0a 2.3b 0.2c 27.3a 14.9c 26.0b
d
Means within a row for each constituent with the same letter are not significantly different (p > 0.05) as determined using Duncan’s multiple range test.
 N. Wang et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 42 (2009) 842–848 847

confirmed the observations of Beal and Mehta (1985) who reported anti-nutritional factors in lentils. Significant differences in proxi-
that the hull or seed coat fraction of pea contained little or no mate composition, dietary fiber, minerals, oligosaccharides, trypsin
phytate. The high level of phytic acid is of nutritional significance as inhibitor activity (TIA), phytic acid and tannin content were found
not only is the phytate phosphorus unavailable to humans, but it among lentil varieties. Cooking significantly increased crude
also lowers the availability of many other essential minerals such as protein, starch, insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), total dietary fiber
K and Zn (Reddy, Pierson, Sathe, & Salunkhe, 1989). (TDF), resistant starch (RS), Ca, Cu and Mn in lentils while reduced
The mean tannin content in raw seeds was 4.7 g/kg dry matter ash content, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), Fe, K, Mg, P, Zn, TIA, phytic
(Table 5), which was in the range reported by Vailancourt, Slinkard, acid, tannins, sucrose and oligosaccharides were observed. Dehul-
and Reichert (1986). Analysis of variance showed that both variety led seeds had significant higher crude protein, starch, RS, K, P,
and treatment (cooking and dehulling) had a significant effect on phytic acid, stachyose and verbascose content, but had lower TIA,
tannin content (Table 1). The interactive effect of variety-by-cook- tannin, SDF, IDF, TDF and Fe content than the raw lentils.
ing and variety-by-dehulling on tannin content was significant
(p < 0.001) (Table 1). Cooking significantly (p < 0.05) reduced
tannin content in the lentil varieties (Table 5). The results are in Acknowledgement
agreement with that reported on other pulses (Rao & Deosthale,
1982). Dehulling significantly (p < 0.05) reduced tannin content to We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of M.
a mean value of 0.13 g/kg dry matter in dehulled seeds (Table 5). Richardson and K. Jarrin of Canadian Grain Commission, Grain
This indicates that tannins are present mainly in seed coats, which Research Laboratory. We are also grateful to Pulse Canada for
was in agreement with the results reported (Singh, 1988; Wang, partially funding this project.
2008).
Sucrose and oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbas-
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