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Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
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Technical Paper

Effectiveness of filter gabions against slope failure due to heavy rainfall

May Than Thar Cho a, Anusron Chueasamat b, Toshikazu Hori c, Hirotaka Saito a,⇑,
Yuji Kohgo a
a
United Graduate School of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
b
Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
c
Institute for Rural Engineering, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukaba, Japan

Received 18 July 2020; received in revised form 19 November 2020; accepted 18 January 2021
Available online 27 February 2021

Abstract

Slope failures due to heavy rainfall events are phenomena that can cause serious damage to social infrastructures and the loss of lives.
Based on previous studies, natural slope failures are generally shallow and originate at the slope toe where infiltrated rainwater has accu-
mulated and saturated it. Hence, it is extremely important to prevent these initial failures from inducing entire slope failures. In the pre-
sent study, firstly, 1 g model tests, called G series tests, were conducted. In the tests, a gabion filled with filter materials was placed at the
slope toe of each model for reinforcement and to drain the accumulated rainwater from the slope toe. Filter gabions have been found to
shrink the failure regions and to significantly extend the time until slope failures occur. The failure mechanism in the G series tests was
almost similar to that in cases without filter gabions if focus was placed on the slope above the filter gabions. However, the drainage effect
was small. Secondly, P series tests, in which a filter gabion with a pipe was introduced for each model, were conducted. The results of
these tests indicated that the displacements significantly decreased as the diameter of the pipe and the depth of the pipe’s insertion to the
surface layer increased. Water did not discharge through the pipe until the pore water pressure around the pipe reached positive values.
The failures always started when a phreatic surface appeared on the slope surface. Thus, it is very important to prevent a phreatic surface
from forming on the slope surface. The adequate arrangement of a filter gabion with a drainage pipe may increase the potential for slope
stability.
Ó 2021 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Slope failures; Rainfall; Unsaturated soils; Pore water pressure; Filter gabion

1. Introduction
Natural slope failures due to intense rainfall events are
induced every year in many countries. Table 1 lists the
recent serious sediment disasters due to heavy rainfall in
some countries. Field investigations have indicated that
most failed slopes exhibit the following common features:
(1) the depths of the failures are less than 2 m, (2) the incli-
Peer review under responsibility of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Tokyo University of Agriculture and
Technology, 3-5-8 Saiwaicho, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, Japan.
E-mail address: hiros@cc.tuat.ac.jp (H. Saito).
nes of the slopes are 30–50°, and (3) the slopes consist of
permeable residual layers on relatively firm rock founda-
tions (e.g., Yatabe, 1987). Many studies have been con-
ducted using 1 g physical slope models to investigate the
mechanisms of slope failures due to heavy rainfall (e.g.,
Orense et al., 2004; Tohari et al., 2007; Tokoro et al.,
2012; Chueasamat et al., 2018). The results of the studies
indicated that slope failures are always generated when
the area around the slope toe is nearly saturated, while
the other parts of the slope remain unsaturated.
Chueasamat et al. (2018) recently reported that, as infil-
trated rainwater cannot flow out from the surfaces of
slopes during rainfall, it accumulates at the slope toe. Fail-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2021.01.010
0038-0806/Ó 2021 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.T.T. Cho et al.
ures originate from the slope toe and are triggered by
cracks that appear in that region. Therefore, it is necessary
to prevent the initial failures from inducing whole failures.
It may be effective to reinforce the slope toe, drain the accu-
mulated rainwater, and reduce the pore water pressure
(PWP) levels.
Many corrective measures for slope stabilization have
been used in practice, such as cut and fill solutions, piling,
rock and soil anchors, gabion baskets and mattresses, drai-
nage, retaining walls, and the use of geogrids in embank-
ments. Some methods are costly and require great care in
order to obtain the desired target design and effects, while
other methods can lead to environmental problems during
the process of their application. For example, installing a
concrete wall or framework and piles can change the
groundwater table and the habitat of the surrounding
environment.
In this study, a gabion filled with filter materials is firstly
introduced that can protect the slope toe from surface soil
erosion. The gabion is referred to as a filter gabion in this
study. Filter gabions are usually adopted to stabilize river-
banks, steam banks, shorelines, road embankments or
slopes against erosion by acting as retaining walls. How-
ever, few studies have attempted to investigate whether a
filter gabion placed at a slope toe can enhance the discharge
of the water that has accumulated at the toe. Hopkins et al.
(1975) discussed measures to minimize the effect of seepage
on the stability of a slope mainly by designing some drai-
nage systems such that the phreatic surface would be main-
tained at a lower elevation within the study area. Freeman
and Fischenich (2000) studied gabions for streambank ero-
sion control. Nakazawa et al. (2018) conducted full-scale
shaking table tests to evaluate the resistance of gabion-
retaining walls on roads against earthquakes. Nakazawa
et al. (2019) performed tensile tests and replication analyses
on wire meshes to promote the broader use of gabions for
disaster prevention and to investigate the deformation
mechanism of gabions.
Filter materials are normally used in embankment dams
((MAFF, 2003). Filters are beneficial in embankment dams
and their foundations for preventing the erosion of the soil
particles from the dams they are protecting and for drain-
Table 1
Serious sediment disasters in last five years.
Year Country
November 2015 Myanmar
May 2016 Sri Lanka
August 2017 Democratic Republic of Congo
April 2017 Colombia
September 2018 Philippines
June-July 2018 Japan
January 2019 Burundi
July 2019 Nepal
January 2020 Brazil
July 2020 Japan
July 2020 Myanmar
481
Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
ing the seepage water. The filters are usually characterized
in terms of their particle size distributions. They must be
sufficiently fine relative to the particle size of the soil they
are protecting. Gabions are more flexible than other mea-
sures as they allow vegetation to grow, they are permeable,
and they typically require very little maintenance. Another
advantage of employing gabions is that the rocks and/or
gravels used to fill the gabions can be obtained from
sources on and/or near the site. Recycled materials can also
be used as filter materials. Skilled laborers are not required
to assemble and fill the gabions with filter materials.
Gabions are therefore inexpensive compared to other avail-
able retaining structures.
Next, the performance of a filter gabion with a pipe was
investigated. Greater drainage effects were expected when
using a pipe. Horizontal drains have mainly been used to
stabilize slopes against deep slope failures, especially land-
slides. Rahardjo et al. (2003) discussed the effectiveness of
horizontal drains for slope failures due to rainfall. Their
results indicated that horizontal drains were most effective
when located at the base of the slope and played a minor
role in minimizing infiltration into an unsaturated residual
soil slope. One benefit of using horizontal drains is that
they can lower the water table. Naresh and Uday (2016)
analytically investigated the effect of horizontal drains on
slope stability by setting drains at five different locations
with respect to the slope height. The analysis results
showed that the horizontal drains were effective in stabiliz-
ing the slope, but their effectiveness was less than that of a
retaining wall, and that the most effective location for set-
ting a horizontal drain was the lower end of the slope. In
this study, the performance of filter gabions with and with-
out pipes in stabilizing slopes as well as the slope failure
mechanism were experimentally evaluated using 1 g physi-
cal slope models.
2. Experimental tests
Each slope model used in this study consisted of a shal-
low permeable surface layer on a relatively firm founda-
tion. The structure was similar to that of typical natural
slopes. The experimental slope models consisted of two
Cause Number of victims
Heavy rain 116
Heavy rain 101(+100 missing)
Heavy rain 200
Heavy rain 336
Heavy rain 78
Typhoon 225
Heavy rain 45
Heavy rain 55 (+30 missing)
Heavy rainstorms 70
Typhoon 77 (+7 missing)
Heavy rain 174 (+more than 100 missing)
M.T.T. Cho et al.
Fig. 1. 3D view of 1 g slope model.
materials: Kasumigaura sand for the surface layer and DL
clay for the firm foundation (see Fig. 1). Kasumigaura sand
is natural sand taken from Kasumigaura Lake in Ibaraki
Prefecture, Japan, while DL clay, classified as silt, is a com-
mercial and artificial material made from silica, kaolin, and
pyrophyllite. This soil is often used in Japan for element
and model tests in the field of geotechnical engineering.
Thus, its physical and mechanical properties are well
known. The dimensions of the model, including a filter
gabion and a pipe, are shown in Fig. 1. In all cases, the
dimensions of the slope models are the same as those
shown in Fig. 1, with the exception of the gabion part itself.
The slope was 122 cm in height (including a height of
100 cm for the DL clay and a height of 22 cm for the
Kasumigaura sand), 42 cm in crest depth, 70 cm in width,
and 184 cm in base length. The inclination of the slope was
45°.
The tests consisted of two series: G and P. Slope models
with different sizes of gabions were used in the G series,
while slope models with gabions and pipes were used in
the P series. The conditions of the tests are summarized
in Table 2. Each gabion was filled with gravel at a density
of q = 1.60 Mg/m3 under an air dry condition that satisfied
the five filter laws (MAFF, 2003; U.S. Department of the
Interior Bureau of Reclamation, 1987). The five filter laws
482
Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
are: (1) Df15/Dp15 > 5; (2) Df15/Dp85 < 5, where Df15 is the
particle size of the filter at 15% passing, while Dp15 and
Dp85 are the particle sizes of the soil being protected (i.e.,
Kasumigaura sand) at 15% and 85% passing, respectively;
(3) the grading curve of the filter is roughly parallel to that
of the soil being protected; (4) for soil being protected
which includes gravel particles, the material Dp15 and
Dp85 should be analyzed on the basis of the grading curve
for soil finer than 25 mm; and (5) the filter should not con-
tain more than 5% of fines passing 0.075 mm, and the fines
should be cohesionless. These five filter laws and two addi-
tional conditions have to be satisfied when selecting the fil-
ter material. The additional two conditions are: (a) if the
soil being protected is sand or soil, the maximum particle
size should be 75 mm; and (b) the permeability of the filter
should be 10 – 100 times larger than that of the soil being
protected. While criterion (a) is to ensure that the filter is
sufficiently fine to control the erosion of the soil being pro-
tected, criterion (b) ensures that the filter is more permeable
than the soil being protected.
The physical properties of the materials, namely, the
Kasumigaura sand, DL clay, and gravel, are summarized
in Table 3. The grading curves of the three materials are
shown in Fig. 2. The soil water retention curves (SWRCs)
for Kasumigaura sand and DL clay (Chueasamat et al.,
2018; Hori et al., 2011) are plotted in Fig. 3. The SWRCs
predicted by the Tangential model (Kohgo et al., 2007)
are also depicted in the figures. The grading range of the
gravel is in the yellow region, which satisfies the five filter
laws, as shown in Fig. 4.
The construction procedure for the slope models was the
same as that used in Chueasamat et al. (2018). The slope
models were constructed in a steel soil tank with transpar-
ent glass on the front side. The base firm foundation was
constructed by firstly compacting 20 layers of DL clay,
with a thickness of 5 cm, at a compaction ratio of
D = 100% and a water content of approximately
x = 17%. Compaction ratio D = 100qd/qdmax, where qdmax
is the maximum dry density obtained from a standard com-
paction test (JIS A 1210) and qd is the dry density of the
soil. Abe and Hatakeyama (1991) pointed out that when
the water content of DL clay is less than 17%, the distribu-
tion of the water content within a soil sample will be
homogenous during the compaction tests. Thus, the water
content of 17% was chosen for this study. The surface sand
layer was then constructed. It consisted of 23 layers with
different thicknesses (i.e., 2, 3, 4, and 5 cm), and had a rel-
ative density of Dr = 25% and a water content of approx-
imately x = 10%.
Constant intensities of I = 50 mm/h for the G series and
I = 60 mm/h for the P series were applied for the rainfall
from 4 m above the soil tank using an artificial rainfall sim-
ulator. The rainfall simulator was equipped with square
spray nozzles to supply uniform rainfall to the maximum
possible extent.
The filter gabions used in the G series tests are shown in
Fig. 5. Each gabion box was made of wire mesh (4.0
4.
M.T.T. Cho et al. Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495

0 mm). The inner walls were covered with nylon netting (0.

Rp (%)
84
0.84 mm). The filter material consisted of grading-

70
35
70
adjusted gravel that satisfied the filter laws. The dimensions

–
–
–
–
of a standard gabion, which was also used in the P series
Inner diameter d (mm) tests, had a length of 20 cm, length of 30 cm along the
slope, width of 62 cm, and height of 21 cm. In the P series
tests, two different pipes with inner diameters of 56 mm
and 107 mm (outer diameters of 60 and 114 mm) were
used. They were inserted in the surface layer at different
Pipe

107
107
lengths, which are expressed as ratio Rp in the following
56
–

–
–
–
–
percentage:
Gabion size h/H

lp  lg
Rp ¼ 100 ; ð1Þ
ls
where Rp denotes the ratio of the relative pipe inserted
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2

length (%), ls denotes the lateral sand layer length, lg

–

denotes the lateral gabion length, and lp denotes the total

pipe length (=ls + lg) (see Fig. 1). In total, three cases were
Degree of saturation Sr

compared in this study, as summarized in Table 1.

Small holes were drilled in the part of the pipe that was
in the surface sand layer, as shown in Fig. 6. A packed
drain, which was filled with the same filter material as
described above, was placed inside the pipe to prevent pip-
ing from the sand surface layer (Fig. 6). Details of the ini-
30.2

28.9
28.7
29.9
29.7
32.7
27.7
27.7
(%)

tial conditions of the slope models are summarized in

Table 1. During the experimental tests, pore water pressure
Dry density qd (g/cm3)

uw (PWP), drainage weight, and displacements were mea-

sured. A total of 20 and 23 pore water pressure transducers
(tensiometers) for the G and P series tests, respectively,
were placed at the locations depicted in Fig. 7. Further
details are available in Chueasamat et al. (2018).
1.423

1.429
1.431
1.424
1.425
1.412
1.437
1.437

The particle image velocimetry (PIV) analysis method

was used to detect the displacements of the models. Firstly,
the GeoPIV program (White et al., 2003) was used to esti-
Water content w0

mate the displacements in the G series tests. However, the

accuracy was not satisfactory (see Fig. 10). Thus, the PIV-
lab program in MATLAB (Thielicke and Stamhuis, 2014)
was used in the P series tests (see Fig. 14). The main differ-
(%)

9.5
9.4
9.9
9.8
10

11

ence between the two programs corresponds to the image

9
9

evaluation method that identifies the correlation of both

Rainfall intensity I (mm/

images before and after the deformation. In PIVlab, the

direct cross correlation (DCC) (Okamoto et al., 2000)
and discrete Fourier transform (DFT), utilizing fast Four-
ier transform (FFT), were used. However, in GeoPIV, only
the FFT was adopted.
50

50
50
50
50
60
60
60

3. Experiment results
h)
Initial conditions of slope model.

In this section, elapsed time t denotes the time that

passed from the start of the rainfall. Elapsed time tf
Without filter

denotes the time when the first failure occurred. When

the first crack was observed on the slope surface, that crack
gabion

was denoted as the first failure. These definitions are the

Case

G-1
G-2
G-3
G-4
P-1
P-2
P-3

same as those used in Chueasamat et al. (2018).

Table 2

Series

483
M.T.T. Cho et al. Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495

Table 3
Physical properties of materials.
Materials Symbol (Unit) DL clay Kasumigaura sand Filter materials
Density of soil particle qs (g/cm )
3
2.653 2.692 2.78
Maximum dry density qdmax (g/cm3) 1.52 1.664 1.85
Minimum dry density qdmin (g/cm3) – 1.358 1.612
Optimum water content xopt (%) 17.9 16.2 1
Maximum particle size d max (mm) 0.039 0.76 37.5
Coef. of permeability k s (m/s) 6.68
107 1.25
104 1.25
102

without a filter gabion. Thus, a filter gabion can signifi-

Fig. 2. Grading curves of materials.
3.1. Effects of filter gabion on slope stability (G series)
The experimental results obtained from the G series tests
are shown in Figs. 8–12. Fig. 8 shows the relationship
between first failure time tf and height ratio h/H, where h
is the height of the gabion (=49, 107, 211, and 283 mm)
and H is the slope height (=920 mm). The elapsed time
of the first failure, tf, for height ratio h/H = 0 (i.e., without
a gabion) was obtained from Chueasamat et al. (2018). The
value of tf increased approximately linearly with an
increase in height ratio h/H. The value of tf in Case G-4
was approximately three times larger than that in the case
cantly extend the time until slope failure occurs.
Fig. 9 shows images that were captured from diagonally
above the slopes at the end of the experiments. In all cases,
surface failures occurred. The type of slope failure was
dependent on the size of the filter gabion. In the case with-
out a filter gabion and Case G-1, relatively large and evi-
dent failures were observed. Meanwhile, in Cases G-2, G-
3, and G-4, the failures were muddy and showed fluid fail-
ure. The fronts of the failures were mostly consistent with
the crests of the filter gabions (hereafter this position is
called the apparent toe) and the failures extended to the
upper parts in all cases. The sizes of the failed areas
decreased as the height ratio increased. A filter gabion
can not only reduce the failure size, but can also extend
the duration of rainfall until the failure occurs.
Fig. 10 shows the displacement vectors estimated by the
GeoPIV program during the experiments. Large displace-
ments were observed only within the surface sand layers
in all the cases. In the case without a filter gabion, the dis-
placements were induced along the slope, while those in the
cases with a filter gabion were dominated by horizontal
components. The displacements were specifically concen-
trated on the failed parts that extended from the apparent
toe to the upper part of the slope, as observed in Case G-3
at t = 150 min and Case G-4 at t = 220 min. The areas with
the estimated large displacements became smaller as the
height ratios (h/H) increased. In Case G-1 at t = 81 min

Fig. 3. Soil water retention curves (SWRCs) of Kasumigaura sand (K sand) and DL clay.

484
M.T.T. Cho et al.
Fig. 4. Grading curves of gravel. The red line exists within the yellow zone
that satisfies the five filter laws.
and Case G-4 at t = 267 min, the displacement vectors were
scattered. Hence, they revealed the limitations of the Geo-
PIV method.
Fig. 11 shows the temporal changes in the pore water
pressure distributions until the failures occurred for all
the cases. The initial distributions at t = 0 min were similar
because negative PWP values were observed within the
Kasumigaura sand layer and DL clay foundation in all
cases. In the case without a filter gabion, the positive
PWP values appeared only within the surface sand layers
during the rainfall events. The air entry suction values of
the Kasumigaura sand and DL clay are identified as
approximately 1 kPa and 10 kPa, respectively, from their
soil water retention curves depicted in Fig. 3. However,
the surface sand layer was almost saturated, and the DL
clay foundation was still unsaturated at t = 40 min. At
t = 60 min, a clear phreatic surface (uw = 0 kPa) appeared
Fig. 5. Sizes of gabions used in G series tests. The gabion in Case G-3 was selected as the standard one used in the P series tests.
485
Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
within the surface sand layer. As the first failure occurred
at tf = 55 min, the failure progressed upward, and the
entire surface failed later. The complete failure occurred
after t = 70 min. At t = 75 min, rainwater infiltrated the
DL clay foundation.
In the cases with filter gabions (Cases G-1 to G-4), neg-
ative PWP values, whose suction values were higher than
1 kPa, still existed in the sand layer even after 60 min,
and rainwater infiltrated the DL clay foundation. Positive
PWP values were observed only at the slope toes and/or
the boundaries between the surface sand layer and the
foundation. The times of first failure tf, for Cases G-1,
G-2, G-3, and G-4, were 73, 99, 115, and 148 min, respec-
tively. Furthermore, focus was placed on the behavior of
the slope after the first failure. In all the cases with filter
gabions, phreatic surfaces appeared on the surfaces of the
slopes at levels higher than the apparent toes. In Cases
G-3 and G-4, the phreatic surfaces appeared at much
higher positions on the slope surfaces. The entire sand lay-
ers were saturated. Thus, as the size of the filter gabion
increased, the amount of infiltrated rainwater stored within
the surface sand layer also increased.
Fig. 12 shows the seepage velocity vectors estimated
within the surface sand layers before and during failures
for the cases without gabions, namely, G-1, G-2, G-3,
and G-4. The velocities were estimated with the same pro-
cedure as that used in the reference (Chueasamat et al.,
2018).
In most cases, as depicted in the case without a filter
gabion at t = 40 min, and in Cases G-2, G-3, and G-4 at
t = 60 min, the seepage velocity vectors were directed
towards the DL clay foundation layers before the failures
occurred. After the initial failures occurred, the infiltrated
rainwater velocity vectors changed direction, became paral-
lel to the slopes and flowed downward, and stagnated
behind the filter gabions. As the infiltrated rainwater liter-
M.T.T. Cho et al.
(a) Two different inner diameters of
pipe, d = 56 mm and 107 mm
(c) Small holes drilled in pipe walls
Fig. 6. Drainage pipes.
Fig. 7. Locations of PWP transducers.
ally accumulated behind the filter gabions, no drainage of
infiltrated rainwater occurred from the slope. Conse-
quently, the PWP values increased behind the gabions
and the increased areas progressed to the upper part of
the slope. This phenomenon can induce the initial failure.
3.2. Effect of filter gabion with drainage pipe on slope
stability (P series)
In the previous section, the effects and functions of filter
gabions on slope failures during rainfall were clarified. Fil-
486
Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
(b) Filter materials for packing
drains
Fig. 8. Relationship between first failure time tf and height ratio h/H.
ter gabions can reduce the failure size and also prolong the
duration time until the failure occurs. However, the drai-
nage function was significantly poorer than expected. In
this section, the performance of filter gabions, with the
addition of pipes to enhance drainage, will be discussed.
The gabions are referred to as filter gabions with pipes in
this section. Three cases with different inner diameters
and different pipe insertion depths, as summarized in
Table 2, are compared.
Fig. 13 presents images of the final slope model cases
captured diagonally from above the slopes. In Cases P-1
and P-2, relatively large failures were observed as the entire
M.T.T. Cho et al.
(a) Without filter (b) Case G-1
gabion
Fig. 9. Final failure situations in G series test cases.
slopes flowed downward. In Case P-1, cracks and a sliding
down failure were observed at the crest. In Case P-2, some
cracks appeared on the slope surface just above the filter
gabion. These cracks slowly expanded until other cracks
appeared around the slope shoulder. As the cracks
appeared at the slope shoulder, the upper part of the slope
moved downward until t = 300 min. Afterwards, there was
no significant sliding downwards. However, some cracks
were found on the crest and lower parts of the slope sur-
face. In Case P-3, no failure occurred, and the slope
remained almost the same as it had been in the initial
situation.
Fig. 14 shows the displacement vectors that were esti-
mated with the PIVlab program. In all cases, visible dis-
placements were observed only in the sand layers. In
Case P-1, some displacements were observed around the
slope shoulder at t = 80 min. The amount of displacement
was not significantly large, approximately less than 1 cm.
Furthermore, the dominant direction was that along the
slope at the mentioned time. As time progressed, the dis-
placements increased. The maximum displacement was
17 cm at t = 120 min. The area of concentrated displace-
ment was almost consistent with that in Fig. 13 for Case
P-1. In Case P-2, the area of concentrated displacement
was similar to that observed in Case P-1. However, the area
was slightly deeper than that for Case P-1. The amounts of
displacements were significantly smaller than those in Case
P-1. The maximum displacement was 4 cm. In Case P-3,
the displacements remained small during the test, while
the dominant direction was that along the slope. In com-
paring these three cases, it is found that the displacements
remarkably decreased with an increase in the pipe diameter
and pipe insertion depth to the surface sand layer. The dis-
placement vectors shown in Fig. 10(d) for Case G-3, at
t = 150 min and Fig. 14(b) for Case P-2, at t = 240 min,
Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
(c) Case G-2 (d) Case G-3 (e) Case G-4
are compared. The displaced area in Case G-3 is seen to
be larger than that in Case P-2.
Fig. 15 shows the PWP distributions during the tests.
Furthermore, Fig. 16 depicts the temporal changes in terms
of the amount of drained water from the pipes. Fig. 15
shows that the initial PWP distributions are almost similar
in all cases. In Case P-1, positive PWP values are observed
under the pipe and around the slope shoulder at
t = 70 min, which is almost consistent with the commence-
ment time of drainage, as depicted in Fig. 16. At
t = 80 min, the area with positive PWP values around
the slope shoulder expanded and that around the pipe also
expanded upward. The initial failure started at t = 80 min.
After the initial failure occurred, the area with positive
PWP around the slope shoulder disappeared. Thus, in this
case, the positive PWP area at the slope shoulder can trig-
ger slope failure. The area with positive PWP values
around the pipe continued to expand slightly until the
end of the test at t = 120 min. This implies that the infil-
trated water was not able to drain sufficiently through
the pipe.
In Case P-2, the area with positive PWP values near the
pipe expanded rapidly from t = 60 to t = 100 min. After
t = 100 min, the positive PWP area remained almost con-
stant until the end of the test at t = 300 min. Conversely,
the phreatic surface was observed on the slope surface just
above the filter gabion. This can induce cracks and failure.
Fig. 16 shows that the amount of drainage linearly
increases from t = 120 min to t = 300 min, where the slope
(i.e., drainage rate) is 0.063 L/min (1.05
106 m3/s). In
this case, no positive PWP was observed in the DL clay
foundation.
In Case P-3, the areas with positive PWP values were
observed at three locations, namely, around the crest of
the slope, within the lower central slope, and around the
487
M.T.T. Cho et al.
Fig. 10. Displacement vectors with elapsed time in G series (I = 50 mm/h and Dr = 25% for sand surface layer).
pipe at t = 80 min. This situation helps maintain a stable
condition because these three areas with positive PWP val-
ues did not appear on the slope surface. The drainage
started at t = 100 min, as shown in Fig. 16, when the
PWP values under the pipe exceeded 1 kPa. The positive
PWP area that initially appeared behind the pipe expanded
slowly upward from t = 100 min to t = 300 min. In this
case, a positive PWP was also observed in the DL clay
foundation. The positive PWP area in the DL clay founda-
tion was larger than that in the other cases and gradually
expanded with the passage of time. Fig. 16 shows that
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Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
the amount of drainage linearly increased with time from
t = 180 min to t = 300 min. The drainage rate was
0.070 L/min (1.17
106 m3/s). The water flowed into
the pipe through the small holes on the pipe surface and
through the end of the pipe. The infiltrated rainwater
around the pipe was drained sufficiently. Based on Figs. 15
and 16, the accumulated water in the surface sand layer did
not discharge from the pipes until the PWP values around
the pipes increased to positive values of 0–1 kPa in Cases P-
1 and P-2, and 1–2 kPa in Case P-3. The drainage in Case
P-2 started sooner than that in Case P-3. This could be
M.T.T. Cho et al.
Fig. 11. Pore water pressure (PWP) distributions with elapsed time in G series (I = 50 mm/h and Dr = 25% for sand surface layer).
because the phreatic surface around the pipe formed more
quickly in Case P-2.
Fig. 17 shows the estimated seepage velocity vectors
within the surface sand layer along with a phreatic surface
denoted by a red curve for each case. The procedure to esti-
mate seepage velocities is the same as that mentioned
above. In Cases P-1 and P-2, high seepage velocities were
obtained around the slope shoulders. This phenomenon
may be related to the cracks observed during the experi-
ments due to the failures, because the seepage velocities
near the slope surface were also high in Cases P-1 and P-
2. This phenomenon could not be observed in Case P-3.
In Case P-1, the seepage velocities decreased just above
the phreatic surface before they increased again below the
phreatic surface. Given that the prevailing direction of
the seepage velocities was normal to the pipe, the infiltrated
rainwater drained through the small holes drilled on the
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Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
pipe surface. Meanwhile, in Case P-2, the seepage velocities
decreased just below the phreatic surface. The seepage
velocity was normal to the end of the pipe. In Case P-3,
the shape of the phreatic surface and the flow of the infil-
trated rainwater were more complex than in the other
two cases. The phreatic surface undulated. This may have
been due to the drainage effect by the inserted length of
the pipe and the arrangement of the small holes on the
pipe.
Fig. 18 shows the temporal changes in the PWP values
observed at tensiometers P5, P10, P15, P17, and P18
installed around the pipes and near the slope surfaces.
The red arrow shows the first failure time tf for each case.
In all the cases, the PWP values were initially negative. The
focus was then placed on P15, P17, and P18 that were
installed around the pipes. The PWP value was the smallest
at P17, higher at P18, and the highest at P15 in Cases P-1
M.T.T. Cho et al. Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495

Fig. 12. Seepage velocity vectors with elapsed time in G series (I = 50 mm/h and Dr = 25% for sand surface layer).

and P-2. However, in Case P-3, the order of P17 and P18
was opposite; and thus, the PWP value at P18 was the
smallest. The values at P15 and P18 increased rapidly as
soon as the rainfall started. However, the values at P17
firstly remained at the initial value for approximately 20–
30 min and then increased rapidly. The values gradually
490
increased at approximately 40 min. The increase in PWP
values at P15 decelerated at around t = 10 min and stayed
constant (=1.0 kPa in Case P-1 and =0.2 kPa in both
Cases P-2 and P-3) for approximately 50–70 min. Subse-
quently, the values increased again to the final constant val-
ues of 0.2 kPa in Case P-1 and 1.0 kPa in Cases P-2 and
M.T.T. Cho et al. Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495

(a) Initial condition (b) Case P-1 (c) Case P-2 (d) Case P-3
Fig. 13. Final failure situations in P series test cases.

Fig. 14. Displacement vectors with elapsed time in P series (I = 60 mm/h and Dr = 25% for sand surface layer).

P-3. The PWP values reached these final constant values at These behaviors were seen in previous literature (e.g.,
times when the drainage rates were almost constant at 70, Chueasamat et al., 2018; Kitamura, et al., 2007), and
110, and 160 min in Cases P-1, P-2, and P-3, respectively. may be types of typical unsaturated seepage behavior dur-
491
M.T.T. Cho et al.
Fig. 15. Pore water pressure (PWP) distributions with elapsed time in P series (I = 50 mm/h and Dr = 25% for sand surface layer).
Fig. 16. Cumulative drainage of the pipes.
ing rainfall infiltration. They could be almost simulated by
the saturated unsaturated consolidation analysis method
(Kohgo, 2020).
The PWP values at tensiometers P5 and P10, installed
near the slope surfaces, oscillated in Cases P-1 and P-2 after
the first failures occurred, while the values in Case P-3 did
not oscillate. In Cases P-1 and P-2, failures occurred, while
in Case P-3, no failure occurred. The oscillations may be
related to the cracks induced by the failures.
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Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
4. Slope failure mechanism due to rainfall
In general, natural slopes have a structure in which a
shallow surface sand layer lies on a firm foundation (e.g.,
Yatabe, 1987). The stabilities of these slopes have been
studied through a series of model experimental tests.
According to previous tests without filter gabions
(Chueasamat et al., 2018), the failure mechanism was
understood as follows: (1) at first, rainwater accumulated
at the slope toe, the PWP values increased there, the effec-
tive stress values decreased, and the first failure (flow slide)
occurred; (2) after the first failure, two types of failures fol-
lowed as the final failures, namely, surface slide failure and
retrogressive failure. The surface slide failure was a large
shallow failure. This type of failure may be induced mainly
by decreases in shear strength due to saturation of the
entire sand layers. In the retrogressive failure, small
sequential failures occurred after the initial failure. This
type of failure may be induced mainly by decreases in the
effective stress levels.
In the G series, filter gabions were set on the fronts of
the slope toes. In the G-1 case, positive PWP values were
measured at the shoulder and the toe of the slope at
90 min, as shown in Fig. 11(b). Hence, the effective stresses
decreased there, a reduction in shear strength was induced
and, as a result, the first failure occurred. The final failure,
seen in Figs. 9(b) and 10(b), may be categorized as a sur-
face slide failure, as described above. In Cases G-2, G-3,
and G-4, a similar failure process to that in the cases with-
out filter gabions was observed if focus was placed on the
M.T.T. Cho et al. Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495

Fig. 17. Seepage velocities in P series at t = 120 min (The red curves represent the estimated phreatic surface.)

Fig. 18. PWP changes at slope toe with elapsed time.

slopes above the filter gabions. In other words, the first fail-
ures started from the same levels as those of the crests of
filter gabions called the apparent toes. The first failures
were mainly due to a decrease in the effective stresses.
The types of final failure were the surface slide failure in
Case G-2 and the retrogressive failure in Cases G-3 and
G-4. The sizes of the failures and the times to the occur-
rence of the failures were smaller and longer, respectively,
than those in the cases without filter gabions.
493
In the P series, filter gabions with pipes were set on the
fronts of the slope toes. In Case P-1, in which a pipe with
d = 56 mm and Rp = 70% was inserted, the drainage
through the pipe started right after t = 70 min (see
Fig. 16) when the sand around the pipe was saturated, as
shown in Fig. 15(a). At the same time, the isolated positive
PWP area appeared at the slope shoulder. This isolation of
the PWP may be related to the drainage through the pipe.
The initial failure started there at t = 80 min due to the
M.T.T. Cho et al.
decrease in effective stresses. Then, large failures followed
rapidly. Based on Figs. 13(b) and 14(a), the final failure
may be categorized as the surface slide failure.
In Case P-2, in which a pipe with d = 107 mm and
Rp = 35% was inserted, the drainage through the pipe
started at t = 60 min (see Fig. 16) when the sand around
the end of pipe was saturated, as shown in Fig. 15(b).
Afterwards, the infiltrated water drained out well such that
the slope maintained its stability longer than that in Case
P-1. The initial failure started around t = 100 min when
the phreatic surface appeared on the slope surface above
the filter gabion, as seen in Fig. 15(b). The failure mecha-
nism is similar to those in the G series. The first failure
occurred at the apparent toe due to the decrease in effective
stresses. The final failure gradually progressed because the
phreatic surface did not expand to the upper part of the
slope, as shown in Fig. 15(b). The phenomenon whereby
the phreatic surface did not expand to the upper part of
the slope was due to the drainage of the pipe and the dis-
persion of PWP through the cracks induced by the first fail-
ure. This dispersion can be seen in Fig. 18(b) for which the
PWP values measured at P5 and P10 oscillated and became
constant or slightly decreased.
In Case P-3, in which the pipe with d = 107 mm and
Rp = 70% was inserted, the phreatic surface did not appear
on the slope surface above the filter gabion, as seen in
Fig. 15(c). Thus, no failure occurred. The phreatic surface
moved to the upper part of the slope with the elapsed time,
but the surface did not appear on the slope surface. By
comparing the distributions of PWP within the surface
sand layer at t = 100 min and t = 300 min, shown in
Fig. 15(c), it can be seen that the shape of the phreatic sur-
face did not change very much.
5. Conclusions
In this study, the performance of filter gabions with and
without pipes (G and P series tests) was evaluated for slope
stability via experiments with 1 g physical slope models.
The following conclusions were obtained from the tests:
The results of the G series tests indicated that the rela-
tionship between first failure time tf and gabion height ratio
h/H is approximately linear, and that the values of tf were
seen to increase as height ratio h/H increased. Further-
more, by placing a filter gabion at the slope toe, the time
until slope failure was able to be significantly extended.
The fronts of the failed areas were mostly consistent with
the crests of the filter gabions (apparent toes), and the sizes
of the failed areas became smaller as the height ratios
increased. With a filter gabion placed at the toe, the slope
could store a significant amount of infiltrated rainwater
within its surface layers. Although the infiltrated rainwater
flowed downward, stagnated behind the filter gabions, and
accumulated, no drainage from the slopes was observed.
The results of the P series tests indicated that the dis-
placements significantly decreased as the pipe diameter
and pipe insertion depth to the surface sand layer
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Soils and Foundations 61 (2021) 480–495
increased. Furthermore, the drainage from the inserted
pipe never started until the PWP values around the pipe
corresponded to positive values. High seepage velocities
were observed around the slope shoulders, where the
cracks appeared when the slope failed.
The failures always started when a phreatic surface
appeared on the slope surface. It is very important to pre-
vent a phreatic surface from forming on the slope surface.
This is the same as the important point related to the sta-
bility of fill dams for seepage, namely, that a phreatic sur-
face never appears on the downstream slope surface. The
adequate arrangement of a filter gabion with a pipe, which
prevents a phreatic surface from forming on the slope sur-
face, may increase the potential for slope stability.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS) (Grant no. 18H02296). The
authors are grateful to former members of their laboratory
and the staff of the National Institute for Rural Engineer-
ing, Tsukuba, Japan for their help and contribution to the
series of experimental model tests. We would like to thank
Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.
We also thank anonymous reviewers and the editor for their
constructive comments on our manuscript.
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