1.

ATOMS

In the 5th cent. B.C. the Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus proposed
that matter was made up of tiny, indivisible particles they called atom, or in Greek "a-
tomos". The reason why they assumed this is because nothing can come from nothing.
Around 1803, John Dalton (1766-1844) developed the first useful atomic theory of matter.
He imagined the atom as a sphere full of an electrically positive substance mixed with
negative electron. Then in 1897, Thompson discovered the first component part of the
atom: the electron, a particle with a negative electric charge.

Discovery of the Atom

By the 19th century, technology had advanced greatly and many elements had been
discovered to work with. Using the available elements scientist such as John Dalton and
Amedeo Avogadro forced them to interact with one another. From these interactions they
were able to prove the existence of the atom.

That depends on exactly what you mean by "discovered." 

Jainism had a concept of small particles similar to atoms in the 6th millennium BC,
and either Democritus or his mentor Leucippus (or possibly both together) independently
came up with the idea (and the word "atomos", which is Greek for "uncuttable") in the 5th
century BC. However, these were essentially lucky guesses; there was no real scientific
basis behind them, so saying these people "discovered" atoms is a pretty big stretch. 
The best candidate is probably John Dalton, who in the early 19th century proposed (based
this time on experiments) that substances were composed of atoms, and even assigned
relative weight values to several types of atom.

John Dalton was the first who introduced the idea of atom. Atom, the very word,
means inseparable or indivisible. Based on that idea in chemistry many laws have been
stated such as, law of coservation of mass, law of multiple proportions etc etc.

2. NUCLEUS

Ernest Rutherford, considered the father of nuclear physics, was given this title for
his discovery of the nucleus. Rutherford put forth the first theoretical model of the nucleus,
on which our modern theories of atomic structure are based. The significant discovery that
the majority of an atom's mass can be found in one central region was achieved through
testing we now refer to as "Rutherford's gold-foil experiment."

Born in 1871 in New Zealand Ernest Rutherford was educated as a scientist in both
New Zealand and England. In 1908, six years after the completion of his graduate education
Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the nature of
radioactivity. Rutherford proposed his theory of the nucleus while the physics chair at the
University of Manchester.

3. E = mc2

First it was discovered by the French physicist/philosopher Poincare, the first man
stated the relativity principle, in his equation P=E/C , since P=mv , then at he speed of light
mC= E/C, thus E=mc2 . In special relativity the mass energy principle states that in order to
preserve the conservation of energy principle we need to presume that mass has an
equivalent amount of energy in it represented in the equation m=E/C2 later the relitavistic
mechanics , developed by Mincowisci, Planck , Enstien , and many other scientists, proved
that there is no physical limit between mass and energy.
Derived from Umov Nikolai equation E = kmc2 (1873). / Umov N. A. Ein Theorem ü ber die
Wechselwirkungen in Endlichen Entfernunden/.
Who discovered that E = mc2? It's not as easy a question as you might think.
Scientists ranging from James Clerk Maxwell and Max von Laue to a string of now-obscure
early 20th-century physicists have been proposed as the true discovers of the mass–energy
equivalence now popularly credited to Einstein's theory of special relativity. These claims
have spawned headlines accusing Einstein of plagiarism, but many are spurious or barely
supported. Yet two physicists have now shown that Einstein's famous formula does have a
complicated and somewhat ambiguous genesis – which has little to do with relativity.

One of the more plausible precursors to E = mc2 is attributed to Fritz Hasenö hrl,
a physics professor at the University of Vienna. In a 1904 paper Hasenö hrl clearly wrote
down the equation E = 3/8mc2. Where did he get it from, and why is the constant of
proportionality wrong? Stephen Boughn of Haverford College in Pennsylvania and Tony
Rothman of Princeton University examine this question in a paper submitted to
the arXiv preprint server.

Hasenö hrl's name has a certain notoriety now, as he is commonly invoked by anti-
Einstein cranks. His reputation as the man who reallydiscovered E = mc2 owes much to the
efforts of the antisemitic and pro-Nazi physics Nobel laureate Philipp Lenard, who sought
to separate Einstein's name from the theory of relativity so that it was not seen as a
product of "Jewish science".

4. OXYGEN

Everyone needs oxygen to survive – man and animals alike. Furthermore, oxygen is
the third most abundant element in the universe and makes up nearly 21% of the earth's
atmosphere. Oxygen accounts for nearly half of the mass of the earth's crust, two thirds of
the mass of the human body and nine tenths of the mass of water. 
In this page we will try to outline the path to the discovery of this important
substance. 
 Oxygen was discovered for the first time by a Swedish Chemist, Carl Wilhelm
Scheele, in 1772. Joseph Priestly, an English chemist, independently, discovered oxygen in
1774 and published his findings the same year, three years before Scheele
published. Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist, also discovered oxygen in 1775, was the
first to recognize it as an element, and coined its name "oxygen" - which comes from a
Greek word that means “acid-former”

There is a historic dispute about who discovered oxygen. Most credit Priestly alone
or Both Priestly and Scheele. To learn more about this dispute go to the link section, at the
bottom of this page. 

5. DOST CHEIF - CHEMICALS DERNED FROM COCONUT

6. Periodic Table of Elements

The Periodic Table

Dmitri Mendeleev created the first periodic table according to atomic mass in 1869.
Others before Mendeleev had organized the elements according to their properties and
were able to discern periodicity, although Mendeleev is generally accepted as the creator of
the table. 

With the information he gathered about the elements, he was able to see that there
were missing elements that hadn't been discovered. He could figure out the atomic masses
of the missing elements by averaging the atomic masses of the elements above and below
the missing one. One such element, which he called "eka-silicon" (eventually Ge) was
missing, but with understanding of the patterns the periodic table made, he predicted the
elements appearance, melting point, atomic mass, density, formula of oxide, and formula of
chloride. 

Throughout the years, other scientists were able to find or create these missing
elements to form the table we know today. Today's periodic table is ordered by atomic
number instead of atomic mass (as Mendeleev had started). Henry Moseley was the first
to order the elements by atomic number so elements would fit together in groups/families
and periods better in1913.

Who discovered the element gold, silver, copper, neon, etc...?

Below is a list of all of the known elements, who they were discovered by
and the year they were discovered. Some elements, such
as gold, silver and iron, have been known since ancient times, so it is
impossible to credit a single person for their discovery. Other elements
 were discovered around the same time by two or more scientists who were
working independently of each other. In these cases, each scientist is listed
along with the year they made their discovery. Other elements were
discovered by teams of scientists working together. In cases like this, the
known members of the team are listed along with a single year of
discovery. Click on an element's name for the full story!
Element Name Discovered By Year
Actinium André-Louis Debierne 1899
Aluminum Hans Christian Oersted 1825
Americium Glenn T. Seaborg 1944
Ralph A. James
Leon O. Morgan
Albert Ghiorso
Antimony Known since ancient times ?
Argon Sir William Ramsay 1894
Lord Rayleigh
Arsenic Known since ancient times ?
Astatine Dale R. Carson 1940
K.R. MacKenzie
Emilio Segrè
Barium Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Berkelium Stanley G. Thompson 1949
Glenn T. Seaborg
Kenneth Street, Jr.
Albert Ghiorso
Beryllium Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin 1798
Bismuth Claude Geoffroy the Younger 1753
Bohrium Scientists at Dubna, Russia 1976
Boron Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac 1808
Louis-Jaques Thénard  
Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Bromine Antoine-Jérô me Balard 1826
Cadmium Friedrich Strohmeyer 1817
Calcium Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Californium Stanley G. Thompson 1950
Glenn T. Seaborg
Kenneth Street, Jr.
Albert Ghiorso
Carbon Known since ancient times ?
Cerium Jö ns Jacob Berzelius 1803
Wilhelm von Hisinger  
Martin Heinrich Klaproth 1803
Cesium Robert Wilhelm Bunsen 1860
 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
Chlorine Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774
Chromium Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin 1797
Cobalt Georg Brandt 1739
Copernicium Peter Armbruster 1996
Gottfried Mü nzenber
Copper Known since ancient times ?
Curium Glenn T. Seaborg 1944
Ralph A. James
Albert Ghiorso
Darmstadtium Peter Armbruster 1994
Gottfried Mü nzenber
Dubnium Scientists at Dubna, Russia 1967
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory 1970
Dysprosium Paul-É mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1886
Einsteinium Albert Ghiorso et. al. 1952
Erbium Carl Gustaf Mosander 1843
Europium Eugène-Antole Demarçay 1896
Fermium Albert Ghiorso et. al. 1952
Flerovium Scientists at Dubna, Russia with 1998
Scientists from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Fluorine Ferdinand Frederic Henri Moissan 1886
Francium Marguerite Catherine Perey 1939
Gadolinium Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1880
Gallium Paul-É mile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1875
Germanium Clemens Winkler 1886
Gold Know to the Ancients ?
Hafnium Dirk Coster 1923
Charles de Hevesy
Hassium Peter Armbruster 1984
Gottfried Mü nzenber
Helium Pierre-Jules-César Janssen 1868
Holmium Per Theodor Cleve 1879
Hydrogen Henry Cavendish 1766
Indium Ferdinand Reich 1863
Hieronymus Theodor Richter
Iodine Barnard Courtois 1811
Iridium Smithson Tennant 1803
Iron Known since ancient times ?
Krypton Sir William Ramsay 1898
Morris M. Travers
Lanthanum Carl Gustaf Mosander 1839
Lawrencium Albert Ghiorso 1961
Torbjørn Sikkeland
Almon E. Larsh
Robert M. Latimer
Lead Known since ancient times ?
Lithium Johann August Arfvedson 1817
Livermorium Scientists at Dubna, Russia with 2001
Scientists from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Lutetium Georges Urbain 1907
Magnesium Sir Humphry Davy 1808
Manganese Johan Gottlieb Gahn 1774
Meitnerium Peter Armbruster 1982
Gottfried Mü nzenber
Mendelevium Stanley G. Thompson 1955
Glenn T. Seaborg
Bernard G. Harvey
Gregory R. Choppin
Albert Ghiorso
Mercury Known since ancient times ?
Molybdenum Carl Welhelm Scheele 1778
Neodymium Carl F. Auer von Welsbach 1885
Neon Sir William Ramsay 1898
Morris M. Travers
Neptunium Edwin M. McMillian 1940
Philip H. Abelson
Nickel Axel Fredrik Cronstedt 1751
Niobium Charles Hatchett 1801
Nitrogen Daniel Rutherford 1772
Nobelium Albert Ghiorso 1958
Glenn T. Seaborg
Torbørn Sikkeland
John R. Walton
Osmium Smithson Tennant 1803
Oxygen Joseph Priestley 1774
Palladium William Hyde Wollaston 1803
Phosphorus Hennig Brand 1669
Platinum Known to pre-Columbian Indians ?
Antonio de Ulloa 1735
Plutonium Glenn T. Seaborg 1941
Joseph W. Kennedy
Edward M. McMillan
Arthur C. Wohl
Polonium Marie Sklodowska Curie 1898
Potassium Sir Humphry Davy 1807
Praseodymium Carl F. Auer von Welsbach 1885
Promethium Jacob A. Marinsky 1944
Lawrence E. Glendenin
Charles D. Coryell
Protactinium Kasimir Fajans 1913
O.H. Gö hring
Radium Marie Sklodowska Curie 1898
Pierre Curie
Radon Friedrich Ernst Dorn 1900
Rhenium Ida Tacke-Noddack 1925
Walter Noddack
Otto Carl Berg
Rhodium William Hyde Wollaston 1803
Roentgenium Peter Armbruster 1994
Gottfried Mü nzenber
Rubidium Robert Bunsen 1861
Gustav Kirchhoff
Ruthenium Karl Karlovich Klaus 1844
Rutherfordium Scientists at Dubna, Russia 1964
Albert Ghiorso et. al. 1969
Samarium Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1853
Scandium Lars Fredrik Nilson 1879
Seaborgium Albert Ghiorso et. al. 1974
Selenium Jö ns Jacob Berzelius 1817
Silicon Jö ns Jacob Berzelius 1824
Silver Known since ancient times ?
Sodium Sir Humphry Davy 1807
Strontium Adair Crawford 1790
Sulfur Known since ancient times ?
Tantalum Anders Gustaf Ekenberg 1802
Technetium Carlo Perrier 1937
Emilio Segrè
Tellurium Franz Joseph Mü ller von Reichenstein 1782
Terbium Carl Gustaf Mosander 1843
Thallium Sir William Crookes 1861
Thorium Jö ns Jacob Berzelius 1828
Thulium Per Theodor Cleve 1879
Tin Known since ancient times ?
Titanium The Reverend William Gregor 1791
Tungsten Juan José 1783
Fausto Elhuyar
 Ununoctium Y. T. Oganessian et. al. 2006
Ununpentium Y. T. Oganessian et. al. 2004
Ununseptium Not Yet Produced NA
Ununtrium Y. T. Oganessian et. al. 2004
Uranium Martin Heinrich Klaproth 1789
Vanadium Andrés Manuel del Rio 1801
Nils Gabriel Sefstrô m 1830
Xenon Sir William Ramsay 1898
Morris M. Travers
Ytterbium Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac 1878
Yttrium Johan Gadolin 1789
Zinc Known since ancient times ?
Zirconium Martin Heinrich Klaproth 1789

7. ELECTRON/ LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE

Gilbert Newton Lewis FRS[1] (October 23, 1875 – March 23, 1946) [2] was an

American physical chemist known for the discovery of the covalent bond (see his Lewis dot
structures and his 1916 paper "The Atom and the Molecule"), his purification of heavy
water, his reformulation of chemical thermodynamics in a mathematically rigorous manner
accessible to ordinary chemists, his theory of Lewis acids and bases, and
his photochemicalexperiments. In 1926, Lewis coined the term "photon" for the smallest
unit of radiant energy. He was a brother in Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry
fraternity, and for most of his long professorial career, a professor of chemistry at
the University of California, Berkeley.

8. PEACEFUL USE OF RADIATION

Radioactivity is the process whereby unstable atomic nuclei release energetic

subatomic particles. The word radioactivity is also used to refer to the subatomic particles
themselves. This phenomenon is observed in the heavy elements, like uranium, and
unstable isotopes, likecarbon-14.
Radioactivity was first discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel,
after which the SI unit for radiation, the Becquerel, is named. Becquerel discovered that
uranium salts were able to blacken a photographic plate placed in the dark, even through a
paper barrier. Subsequent experiments distinguished three distinct types
of radiation -- alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. These are positively charged,
negatively charged, and neutral, respectively. In the United States, human exposure to
radioactivity is measured in rads, where one rad represents 0.01 joule of energy absorbed
per kilogram of tissue.
Radioactivity is a random process, meaning that it is physically impossible to predict
whether or not a given atomic nucleus will decay and emit radiation at any given moment.
Rather, radioactivity is quantified using half-life, which is the period of time it takes for half
of the given nuclei to decay. Half-life applies to a sample of any size, from a microscopic
quantity to all the atoms of that type in the universe. Half-life varies widely, from a couple
seconds (Astatine-218) to billions of years (Uranium-238).
In small doses, radioactivity is a useful process that can be harnessed by man. For
example, nuclear reactors exploit radioactivity to generate heat. Phosphorescent materials
sometimes include small quantities of radioactive atoms. During pharmaceutical testing,
drugs are sometimes laced with radioactive atoms so that they can be more easily traced as
they move throughout the body.

In large doses, radioactivity is extremely dangerous. In the Ukraine, a nuclear

reactor meltdown incident that occurred during the Cold War era continues to have
deleterious effects on the local population to this very day. Many weapons have been
designed and tested which use radioactivity to kill people in large numbers. As the level of
our science and technology progresses, we can only hope that the peaceful applications of
radioactivity will be developed more rapidly than applications for warfare.

9. SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS

10. ELEMENT OF HYDROGEN

Henry Cavendish FRS (10 October 1731 – 24 February 1810) was

a British scientist noted for his discovery of hydrogen or what he called "inflammable air".
[1]
 He described the density of inflammable air, which formed water on combustion, in a
1766 paper "On Factitious Airs". Antoine Lavoisier later reproduced Cavendish's
experiment and gave the element its name. Cavendish is also known for the Cavendish
experiment, his measurement of the Earth's density, and early research into electricity.

11. DIFFUSION

Diffusion is one of the fundamental processes by which material moves and was
discovered by Albert Einstein. It is thus important in biology and medicine, chemistry and
geology, engineering and physics, and in just about every aspect of our lives. Diffusion is a
consequence of the constant thermal motion of atoms, molecules, and particles, and results
in material moving from areas of high to low concentration. Thus the end result of diffusion
would be a constant concentration, throughout space, of each of the components in the
environment.

Einstein earned a doctorate from the University of Zurich in 1905 for a thesis "On a
new determination of molecular dimensions". He dedicated the thesis to Grossmann.
Before Albert Einstein turned his attention to fundamental questions of relative velocity
and acceleration, he published a series of papers, starting in 1905, on diffusion, viscosity,
and the photoelectric effect that would have ensured him a considerable reputation even if
he had not later created the Special and General Theories of Relativity. His papers on
diffusion came from his Ph. D. thesis. Diffusion had been studied extensively by that time,
but was described in a completely phenomenological framework. Einstein's contributions
were to propose:

1. That Brownian motion of particles was the basically the same process as diffusion
2. A formula for the average distance moved in a given time during Brownian motion
3. A formula for the diffusion coefficient of a substance in terms of the radius of the
diffusing particles or molecules and other known parameters

12. LAW OF TRIADS

Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (December 13, 1780 – March 24, 1849) was

a German chemist who is best known for work that foreshadowed theperiodic law for
the chemical elements.

As a coachman's son, Dö bereiner had little opportunity for formal schooling, and so
he was apprenticed to an apothecary, reading widely, and attending science lectures. He
eventually became a professor at the University of Jena in 1810. In work beginning in 1829,
[1]
 Dö bereiner discovered trends in certain properties of selected groups of elements. For
example, the average atomic mass of lithium and potassium was close to the atomic mass of
sodium. A similar pattern was found with calcium, strontium, and barium, with sulfur,
selenium, and tellurium, and also with chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Moreover, the
densities for some of these triads followed a similar pattern. These sets of elements became
known as "Dobereiner's Triads".[2][3] He also worked with elements like eka-boron in an
attempt to find a cure to diseases like rabies.

13. ABSOLUTE O
The absolute scale, also called the Kelvin scale, was invented in 1848 by William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin). It has, as its low point, a mark called absolute zero, the point at
which all matter stops moving and below which the temperature cannot be lowered.
Modern calculations place this temperature at-273.18° C.
Thomson based hisconcept of an absolutescale on the theories of French physicist
Jacques-Alexandre-César Charles. Charles' observationsshow that a gas at 0° C can be
cooled; for every degree the temperatureis lowered, the volume decreases by 1/273. What
Charles' law seems to indicate is that at-273° C the volume of thegas will be zero. This
phenomenon puzzled scientists who could not understand why the volume would reach
zero, or just what happened to the gas when it did.
 After working with cooled gases with James Joule, Thomson proposed the following
idea: the temperature of the gas was a reflection of the kinetic energy of its atoms. As
the temperaturedecreased the atoms would be less active, moving less and taking up less
room, and, thus, would drop in volume. At-273° C the energy of each of the atoms would
reach zero; they would then stop moving and take up virtually no space. Thomson posited
that this theory would hold true for all matter.
Using this as a springboard, Thomson devised a new temperaturescale called
the absolute scale; this was actually just a rearrangement of the centigrade scale,
placing absolute zero as the zero mark. Thus, the absolute scale has no negative
degrees.Temperatures are expressed in degrees Kelvin, the name given to the scale in
honor of its inventor.
Absolute zero is the point where no more heat can be removed from a system,
according to the absolute or thermodynamic temperature scale. This corresponds to 0 K or
-273.15°C. In classical kinetic theory, there should be no movement of individual molecules
at absolute zero, but experimental evidences shows this isn't the case.

Temperature is used to describe how hot or cold an object it. The temperature of an
object depends on how fast its atoms and molecules oscillate. At absolute zero, these
oscillations are the slowest they can possibly be. Even at absolute zero, the motion doesn't
completely stop.

It's not possible to reach absolute zero, though scientists have approached it. The
NIST achieved a record cold temperature of 700 nK (billionths of a Kelvin) in 1994. MIT
researchers set a new record of 0.45 nK in 2003.

14. VOLUME PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

Roberto Boyle - Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the Boyle-Mariotte law) is

one of many gas laws and a special case of the ideal gas law. Boyle's law describes the
inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if
the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.

15. 6.02 x 1023 particles