Design Consideration For Bridge Superstructure - (R0-16.08.22-P1)

AECOM INDIA PVT.
LTD,
GURGAON, INDIA
Technical Lecture
on
Design Considerations and Principles
for Design of Different Types of Bridge
Superstructure
REGIONAL DIRECTOR (HIGHWAY & BRIDGES)

AECOM INDIA PVT. LTD, GURGAON, INDIA
16 August 2022
Design Considerations and Principles for
Design of Different Types of Bridge
Superstructure 16 August, 2022
Course Contents
1. Bridge Classification
2. Reference IRC Codes of Loading and Design
3. Material [Concrete and Steel]
4. Design Loads & Load Combinations for ULS & SLS
5. Method of Analysis
6. Design Principles & Considerations
7. Bridge Bearings
8. Continuity Considerations – Girder Bridges
Bridge
A bridge has to carry a service (which

may be highway or railway traffic, a
footpath, public utilities, etc.) over an
obstacle (which may be another road or
railway, a river, a valley, etc.) and to
transfer loads from service to the
foundations below ground level.
Bridge : Classification
Classification of the Bridge
According to functions: Viaduct, highway, railway, pedestrian etc.
According to materials of construction : reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, steel, composite, timber etc.
According to form of superstructure : slab, I-girder, box girder,
truss, arch, extradosed, cable-stayed, suspension etc.
According to inter-span relation : simple, continuous, cantilever.
According to position of the bridge floor relative to the
superstructure: deck, through, half-through etc.
According to method of construction: Segmental, Cast-in-situ,
Steel with bolted, riveted or welded joints etc.
Types of Bridges
Extradosed
Slab
Cable Stayed
(Solid/Voided)
Beam + Slab
Types of Suspension
Bridges
Box Girder Arch

Truss
Types of Bridges
Bridges which Carry Loads Mainly through

Flexure or Bending
• By far most bridges are of this type. The loads are
transferred to the bearings and piers and hence to the
ground by slabs or beams acting in flexure, i.e. the bridges
obtain their load-carrying resistance from the ability of the
slabs and beams to resist bending moments and shear
forces.
• Only for the very shortest spans, it is possible to adopt a

slab without any form of beam.
Types of Bridges
Bridges which Carry their Loads Mainly as Axial
Forces
• This type can be further subdivided into those bridges in
which the primary axial forces are compressive (arches) and
those in which these forces are tensile (suspension bridges
and cable-stayed bridges). Such forces normally have to be
resisted by members carrying forces of the opposite sense
• It must not be thought that flexure is immaterial in such
structures. Certainly, in most suspension bridges, flexure of
the stiffening girder is not a primary loading in that
overstress is unlikely to cause overall failure; however, in
cable stayed bridges (particularly if the stays are widely
spaced) flexure of the girder is a primary loading.
Forms of Superstructure Types of Bridges

Slab Girder Truss
Suspension Bow String Girder Cable Stayed
Each type of bridge carries load differently

Slab Type Superstructure

RCC Solid Slab are generally used for spans upto 10-12m
RCC voided slabs are generally used for spans upto 15m
PSC voided slab options can be used for spans upto 30m
Merits Demerits
Minimum Depth for Short Not for most economical
Spans solutions
Ease for Design and Detailing Requires formwork structure
Aesthetic for Small Stream Limited Span Length
Crossings
Can be used without bearings
upto 10m spans
Likely suitable for curved spans
Beam and Slab Type Superstructure

Option-1: Cast-in-Situ RCC/ PSC beam and slab to be casted at
site on ground supported stagging.
Option-2: Precast RCC/PSC Girder & Cast-in-situ Slab.
For RCC type, Span Range (12m to 25m)
For PSC type, Span Range (25m to 45m)
Merits Demerits
Economical for Weight to Span Limited aesthetic due to cluttered
Ratio. looks of the girders.
Precast girder can be cast Precast girders have limited use on
separately as parallel activity the curved spans
Most common and adopted due Need bearings under each girder
to simplicity in design and locations
construction High-capacity cranes are required
Low service life maintenance. to launch the girders
Most flexible type when it comes
to structure widening.
Hollow Box Girder Type Superstructure

Option-1: Cast-in-Situ PSC Box Girders are casted at site on
stagging (30m to 60m). RCC Box Girders are rarely proposed.
Also, CIS option is time taking activity. Not preferable
Option-2: PSC Precast Segmental Box Girder Spans (40m to
120m) using Span by Span or Balanced Cantilever Construction
Technique.
Merits Demerits
Economical for Weight to Span Specialized workmanship is
Ratio. required for the construction of pre-
Precast segments can be cast stressed box girder bridges
separately as parallel activity Special technology & machinery
Most common solution for longer required for proper casting,
spans upto 120m handling, lifting, transporting, and
Low service life maintenance. erection of segments
Use of variable depth of Required minimum volume of work
superstructure for longer spans because of high initial investment
cost.
Composite Steel Plate Girder & RCC Slab

Composite Steel Girder type superstructures usually offer a
competitive alternative to concrete structures for span upto 75m.
Merits Demerits
Steel structures are highly For steel structures exposed to
flexible with respect to future severe environmental conditions,
expansion there is need for a continual
Require a minimal amount of maintenance program
false work for superstructure Steel structures have a limited
construction aesthetic appeal due to their lack of
Steel girders can be fabricated to the more streamlined appearance
match the roadway alignment Continual maintenance and
and curvature. inspection requirements.
Steel Truss & Arch Type Superstructure

These superstructure type offers
large span with comparatively small
amount of steel to cross long deep
gorges in hilly areas and obligatory
large crossings.
Steel Through truss are much Steel Truss Type (Span 50m to 150m)
efficient structures for span range

from 50m to 150m
Steel Open Spandrel Arch are much
from 150m to 500m [Example :
Chenab Bridge-450m] Open spandrel Arch Type (Span 50m to 500m)
Steel Bow String Arch are much

from 50m to 200m
Truss is simple skeleton & very strong
But Complicated Design, Maintenance,
Bow String Arch Type (Span 50m to 200m)
Waste of Material, Very Heavy
Extradosed Bridges
This type superstructure usually offer a competitive span range
from 100m to 200m.
 Best option between concrete box girder bridge and cable-stayed bridge.
 Extradosed cables transmit longitudinal force to the girder like post-
tensioning. Shallow cable angles and reduced fatigue stress range in stays.
 Height of the pylon is generally Span/8 to Span/12
Merits Demerits
Depth of Superstructure is almost Costly in comparison to the
uniform over the Span Length balanced cantilever type.
Can be constructed by To be constructed by specialized
cantilevering out from the tower agencies only.
Best Suitable for the navigational Design efforts are more in
spans for normal ships/vessels comparison to balanced cantilever.
Cable Stayed Bridges

from 200m to 600m.
 A typical cable-stayed bridge is a continuous deck with one or more towers

erected above piers in the middle of the span.
 Cables stretch down diagonally from the towers and support the deck.
 Cable stayed bridges may be classified by number of spans, number and type
of towers, deck type, number and arrangement of cables
Merits Demerits
Greater Stiffness Susceptible to Wind Effect
Can be constructed by Typically, more expensive than any
cantilevering out from the tower other types of bridge
Best Suitable for the navigational To be constructed by specialized
spans for larger/big ships agencies only.
Suspension Bridges
from 500m to 1500m.
 It is a continuous deck with one or more towers erected above piers in the
middle of span. The deck maybe of truss or box girder.
 Cables pass over the saddle which allows free sliding.
 At both ends large anchors are placed to hold the ends of the cables.
Merits Demerits
Span of Great Lengths Susceptible to Wind Effect
Flexible Can not support Heavy Traffic
Simple Construction Slow Construction with high risks
For connectivity between islands To be constructed by specialized
and use for navigational spans agencies.
Reference IRC Codes for Bridge Superstructure Design

• IRC:6-2017, Standard Specifications and Code of Practices of Road
Bridges, Section-II, Loads and Stresses
• IRC:5–2015, Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges / Section: I – General Features of Design
• IRC:112-2020, Code of Practice of Concrete Road Bridges
• IRC:SP:105 2015, Explanatory Handbook to IRC-112-2011[2020]
• IRC:SP:114-2018, Seismic Design for Road Bridges
• IRC:22-2015, Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges (Section-VI), for Composite Construction
• IRC:24-2010, Steel Road Bridges (Limit State Design) Section: V
• IRC:SP:120-2018, Explanatory Handbook to IRC:22-2015
• IRC:SP:115-2018, Guidelines for Design of Integral Bridges
• IRC:SP:66-2016, Guidelines for Design of Continuous Bridge

• IRC:SP:65-2011,Guidelines for Design & Const. of Segmental Bridges
• IRC:SP:90 2010, Manual For Grade Separator & Elevated Structure
• IRC:SP:71 2018, Guidelines for Pretensioned Girder Bridges
• IRC:SP:70-2016, Guidelines for use of High-Performance Concrete
• IRC: SP:69-2011,Guidelines and Specifications for Expansion Joints
• IRC:122-2017, Guidelines for Precast Concrete Segmental Box Culvert
• IRC:83(Part-II)–2018, Specifications for Design of Elastomeric Bearing
• IRC:83(Part-III)–2018, Specifications for Design of POT-PTFE Bearings
• IRC:83(Part-IV)–2018, Specifications for Design of Spherical Bearings
• BIS, EURO, AASHTO Codes, For Cases when relevant IRC codes are
silent on some specific issues.


Construction Material
Concrete Superstructure
• Material is easily AVAILABLE in India for Mega Bridge & Elevated Corridor Project
• Precast Girders and Segmental Box Girders are efficient structures for medium to
long span bridges (30m to 150m).
• Box girders can be constructed either by span-by-span (upto 60m) or by balanced
cantilever with use of match cast precast segments.
• The elevation view of Closed Box type superstructure is nice and deck is thinner as a
proportion to its span
• Very high torsion rigidity of superstructure in curved alignment of elevated corridor
• Relatively economical from maintenance point of view.
• All utilities can be passed through inside the box section of the deck.
• Less disturbance to the existing traffic during erection of the precast superstructure
using launching gantries
• More experience in this type of precast construction in recent years
Concrete Superstructure
• Production of the concrete segments in a protective environment where stringent

quality controls can be provided
• High concrete strengths can be achieved in precast fabrication resulting in a durable
structure with minimizing life cycle maintenance costs,.
• Accelerated construction: since pre-casting can occur in parallel with construction of
the Foundation.
• Competitive price: the cost of special equipment will not be significant given the size
of the project.
• Aesthetic value: visual continuity between substructure and superstructure, good
proportions (span length/height), smooth lines.
• Higher Cost for setting up the Pre-casting Yard.
• Future widening of the deck is difficult.
Steel Superstructure
• Supply of the material will depend on the production of high quality steel in the
nearby area
• Steel bridges usually offer a competitive alternative to concrete structures for the
range of the pre-stressed beam and post - tensioned concrete structures.
• Construction in a SPEEDY manner and require a minimal amount of false work for
superstructure construction.
• Flexibility in shape and size of Superstructure.
• Initial cost of steel structures is comparable to the most economical concrete
structure types however the continual maintenance and inspection requirements of
a steel bridge over its useful life adds to the total long term cost of the bridge.
• Best suited for curved structures where economy, speed of construction, future
expansion and flexibility are of importance
• Use of Lower Capacity Trailer for transportation and Lighter Cranes for erection
• Can be advantageous for construction on narrow roads / streets.
Steel Superstructure
• The main disadvantage of steel structures, particularly when they are exposed to
severe environmental conditions, is the need for a continual maintenance program.
• If a steel structure is not well maintained corrosion can quickly become a serious
problem.
• Another concern is the limited local experience with steel bridges compared to
concrete within the construction industry in India.
• Steel structures have a limited aesthetic appeal due to their lack of the more
streamlined appearance available with formed concrete.
MORTH’s POLICY ON USE OF PRECAST CONCRETE
An Official Circular “RW/NH-34049/01 /2020-S&R (B)” dated 8th April

2022 has been issued to encourage the use of the precast concrete
elements for Accelerated Bridge Construction with Factory Made
Products
Policy covers MORTH’s planning to ensure the use of factory
manufactured precast concrete elements within 100 Km radius of
the Factory with mandatory usage of 25% of total concrete volume
of superstructure work. [Policy may further be extended to
substructure (precast abutments & piers)]
Upcoming Contract/Concession agreement documents shall be
framed to include the provision of mandatory use of factory
manufactured precast concrete elements in projects.
This initiative will also help in promoting the Growth of MSME Sector
and provide opportunity for new jobs.
Policy on Use of Spine & Transverse Wings Type Section

Spine & Transverse Wings Type Section can be used up to a width of
28m as per Guidelines published in June,2021 by a Technical
Committee constituted by NHAI
For spine and wing concept with single central pier, there should be restrictions
on the lengths of cantilevering wings. The cross section shall be proportioned in
such a way that the length of a cantilevering wing shall not be more than 30% of
the overall width (I.e, the spine should cover at least 40% of the total width). The
maximum width of the deck for precast segmental spine and wing construction
should not exceed 28 m.
Bridge Loadings
Loads include external forces applied to the structure
and/or imposed deformation such as caused by restraint of
movement due to changes in temperature, creep,
settlement etc.
To identify the principal actions on bridge structures and to
describe how they are considered in design.
Bridges, particularly larger structures, are substantial
investments of public funding for which a high level of
safety is required for users and structure itself.
Hence, loads must be determined with greater precision
than with many other types of civil structures.
Bridge Design Loads

Design engineer must first list out all the possible loads and
their load combinations that governs the design of the
superstructure, substructure and foundation of a bridge:
 Permanent Loads:
 Dead Load, SIDL, Earth Pressure etc.
 Transient / Variable Loads:
 Live Load, Centrifugal Force, Vehicle Impact, Live Load Surcharge,
Wind Load, Earthquake Load etc.
 Deformation and Response Loads:
 Creep, Shrinkage, Settlement & Thermal Forces etc.
 Others
 Buoyancy, Accidental Load.
Permanent Loads : DL & SIDL

Permanent Loads:
Permanent loads are always on the bridge throughout its service life.
 Dead Load (DL) :
Dead Load is defined as the self-weight of the structure. For design
purpose, self-weight of reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete
is taken as 25kN/m3. Similarly weight of the structural steel will be
taken as 78.5 kN/m3.
 Superimposed Dead Load (SIDL) :
SIDL is defined as self-weight of non-structural component such as
surfacing and other utilities carried by the bridge / structure.
Following permanent elements loads will be considered in the
category of SIDL:
Permanent Loads : SIDL & Earth Pressure

For design purposes weight of the asphaltic wearing course
shall be considered as 2.0 kN/m2 (with future overlay). For the
case of cement concrete wearing coat, concrete weight as 25
kN/m3 as per Cl. 203 of IRC:6-2017.
Concrete crash barrier with a weight of 8.0kN/m
The weight of known utilities carried on the structure shall be
taken into consideration as per Cl. 109.1.1 of IRC:5-2015.
 Earth Pressure (EP) : Acts on the Substructure & Foundation

Open Foundation for abutments, wing walls and retaining walls
shall be designed for active pressures Ka.
Walls that do not deflect will be designed for at rest
pressure(ko)
Permanent Loads : Earth Pressure Effect

Where live load is present behind retaining structures a live load
surcharge equivalent to 1.2 m height of soil shall be considered.
An appropriate drainage system shall be provided behind all
retaining structures to diminish hydrostatic pressure.
In case of structures with integral abutments, two different
patterns for lateral earth pressure acting on abutments will be
considered. One will be active earth pressure case for longitudinal
temperature fall condition and other will be earth pressure at rest
case for longitudinal temperature rise condition.
Density of cohesion-less backfill material shall be taken as
20kN/m3
Backfill parameters proposed to be taken for the backfill material
behind abutments and other earth retaining wall generally are:
> 300,  = 20.0, d = 20kN/m 3, sub= 10kN/m3
Transient Loads : IRC Class Live Loads

Vehicular Loading (IRC Class Loading) :
Bridge will be designed for governing effect of IRC loadings (Cl.
70R & Cl. A) with appropriate lane reduction factor and impact
as specified in IRC: 6-2017. Class-A trains are spaced every 20m.
Class 70R are spaced at every 30m between axles for wheeled
vehicles, and every 90 m from tail to nose for tracked vehicles.
Class A Train of Vehicles

Transient Loads : IRC Class Live Loads

Vehicular Loading (IRC Class Loading) :
Transient Loads : Vehicle Impact & Braking

Effect of Vehicle Impact (IM):
Full impact shall be considered up to top of pier/abutment cap
only. For design of pier/abutment and foundation, impact factor
shall be multiplied by appropriate factors as in Cl 208.7 of IRC: 6 -
2017.
Longitudinal force due to Braking (BR):
As per Cl.211.2 of IRC:6-2017, for the first two lanes, braking force will
be considered 20% of the vertical load of the first train load without
reduction plus 10% for the succeeding trains. From the 3rd loaded lane
and other additional lanes, only 5% of the vertical load of each lane
shall be considered.
Total braking force will be computed based on the number of design
lanes in the same direction. Braking forces will not be increased for
impact allowance and assumed to act horizontally at a height of 1.2m
above the roadway surface and distributed equally on all bearings
Transient Loads : Special Vehicle (385 Tonne)

Special Vehicle (SV):§204.5 of IRC:6-2017
Prime Mover with 20 Axle Trailer - GVW = 385 Tonnes
The SV loading shall be considered to ply close to center of

carriageway with a maximum eccentricity of 300 mm for single
carriageway bridges or for dual carriageway bridges
During the passage of SV loading, no other vehicle shall be
considered to ply on the bridge. No wind, seismic, braking force
and dynamic impact on the live load need to be considered as the
SV shall move at a speed not exceeding 5kmph over the bridge
Bridge Design Loads : Transient Loads

Frictional Resistance against Bearing Movement (FR):
Frictional resistance offered to the movement of POT-PTFE bearings due
to change in temperature shall be calculated as per Cl. 211.5 of IRC: 6-
2017. The frictional co-efficient for POT/PTFE bearings shall be taken as
0.05 or 0.03 as per clause 211.5.1of IRC:6-2017
For Free Piers, frictional force FR = 0.05 x Total Reaction (Sum of DL, SIDL
& LL).
Frictional forces for EJ (Expansion Joint) piers will cancel out, in case of
reactions on either side of the piers are equal and thus piers/foundation
need not be designed for it and in case of unequal reactions net resultant
forces shall be accounted.
Transient Loads : Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal Force (CF):§212.2 of IRC:6-2017
Bridge on a horizontal curve will be designed for centrifugal forces
based on the following equation given under Cl. 212.2 of IRC:6-
2017.
C  W V 2 / 127 R
Where C = centrifugal force acting normal to the traffic
W = live load
V = the design speed of the vehicles using the bridge in km per hour
R = the radius of curvature in meters
The centrifugal force will be considered to act at 1.20m above the
formation level of the bridge in the transverse direction. No impact
value on carriageway live load has to be considered for calculating
the centrifugal force.
Transient Loads : Footpath Live Load

Footpath Live Load (FPLL): §206.3 of IRC:6-2017
Footpath loading shall be 4.0 kN/m2 or 5.0 kN/m2 as per Cl. 206.1 of
IRC: 6-2017 depending on location in rural area or urban area.
Intensity of FPLL shall be determined as per Cl. 206.3 of IRC:6-2017.
Where P’ = 4.0 kN/m2 or 5.0 kN/m2 depending on the bridge location

L = effective span of the main girder
W = width of the footway in metres
Transient Loads : Wind Load

Wind Load (WL):§209 of IRC:6-2017
Wind speed at bridge location shall be based on basic wind speed map
as per figure 10 of IRC: 6-2017. based on 50 years return period.
Hourly mean wind speed and wind pressure shall be obtained by
multiplying corresponding wind speed value by ratio of basic wind
speed to value corresponding to Table-12 of IRC: 6-2017.
Trans. wind force (FT) acting at the centroids of the appropriate area
of bridge deck 𝐹𝑇 = 𝑃𝑍 × 𝐴1 × 𝐺 × 𝐶𝐷
Long. wind force (FL) on deck as 25% of FT § 209.3.4 of IRC 6-2017.
Vertical wind force (FV) upward or downward acting at the centroids
of the appropriate area of bridge deck 𝐹V = 𝑃𝑍 × 𝐴3 × 𝐺 × 𝐶L
PZ : Hourly mean wind pressure in N/m2
A1 : Solid area in m2 A3 : Area in plan in m2
G : Gust factor (G=2.0 for highway bridges up to a span of 150m)
CD : Drag coefficient & CL : Lift coefficient
Transient Loads : Wind Load

Wind on Live Load : §209.3.6 of IRC:6-2017
Transverse wind load per unit exposed frontal area of the live
load shall be computed using the expression FT given in Cl. 209.3.3 of
IRC:6-2017 except that CD against shall be taken as 1.2.
The exposed frontal area shall be the entire length of the
superstructure seen in elevation in the direction of wind multiplied by
a height of 3.0 m above the road way surface. Areas below the top of a
solid barrier shall be neglected.
The longitudinal wind load on live load shall be taken as 25% of
transverse wind load as calculated above. Both loads shall be applied
simultaneously acting at 1.5 m above the roadway.
Design wind force on the substructure:
Wind Load on the substructure shall be accounted in accordance with
Clause 209.4 of IRC: 6-2017.
For piers, CD shall be taken from Table -13 of IRC:6-2017.
Transient Loads : Seismic Loads

Seismic Load:§IRC:SP:114-2018
Seismic force
Where,
Ah = horizontal seismic coefficient
Z = Zone factor
I = Importance factor
R = Response reduction factor shall
be taken from Table-4.1
T = Fundamental period of bridge
in seconds in horizontal vibrations
Sa/g : Avg. response acceleration
coefficient depending upon period
of vibration (T) of the structure.
Transient Loads : Seismic Load
Design Response Spectra

Transient Loads : Seismic Load

Seismic Load:§IRC:SP:114-2018
Following seismic combinations will be considered for the seismic
design loading on the structure: EQx = Force resultant due to seismic
force along longitudinal direction
EQ = +EQx + 0.3 EQy + 0.3 EQz EQy = Force resultant due to seismic
EQ = +0.3 EQx + EQy + 0.3 EQz force along transverse direction
EQz = Force resultant due to seismic
EQ = +0.3 EQx + 0.3 EQy + Eqz force along vertical direction
Vertical seismic forces shall be considered for zone-IV & V. Magnitude
of vertical component is taken as two third of horizontal component.
Seismic force due to live load shall only be considered when acting in
the in the direction perpendicular to traffic.
Only 20% of LL on the deck will be considered in trans. seismic case
Parts of the foundation embedded in soil shall be considered to
produce seismic forces.
When elastomeric bearings are used to transmit horizontal seismic
forces, the response reduction factor (R) shall be taken as 1.0.
Deformation Loads : Settlement Effect

Differential Settlement Effect:
This effect will be considered in
the case of continuous and
integral bridges. Differential
settlement shall be considered as
a long term effect developing
gradually and its effect shall be
considered as being modified by
concrete creep, however the
maximum reduction due to creep
shall be limited to 40%.
NO SETTLEMENT *
TOTAL SETTLEMENT *
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT *
Deformation Loads : Thermal Effect

Thermal Effect:§215 of IRC:6-2017
There are two temperature effects that cause forces in a bridge viz.
temperature gradient (TG) in the girder and a uniform temperature
(TU) range applied to the entire structure.
Uniform Temperature Effect (TU):
Expansion and contraction due to temperature variation will induce force in
the bridges with indeterminate/restrained structure arrangement.
IN case of simple supported bridge, no uniform temperature effect will be
considered.
Effective bridge temperature for the location of the bridge shall be estimated
from the isotherms of shade air temperature given on Figs. 15 and 16 of
IRC:6-2017.
Coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction for normal concrete will be taken
as 1.20x10-5 /°C.
Deformation Loads : Thermal Effect

Temperature Gradient Effect (TG):
Effect of temperature difference
within the superstructure shall be
derived from temperature
differences which occur when solar
radiation and re-radiation causing a
gain/loss in heat through the top
surface of the superstructure.
Positive and reverse temperature
differences have to be considered
as a short-term effect for the
superstructures of bridge only. The
non-linear thermic diagram defined
in §215.3 IRC 6-2017 will be used:
Deformation Loads : Creep & Shrinkage Effect

Creep and Shrinkage Effect:§217 of IRC:6-2017
These are time dependent properties of concrete.
Creep and shrinkage factors are calculated for individual structural
elements with account taken for member thickness, age of the
concrete when loaded and nature & timing of the applied loading.
For reinforced concrete members, the shrinkage coefficient for
purposes of design may be taken as 2 x 10-4
Time dependent effects of creep and shrinkage for precast and in-situ
portion of the structure shall be computed in accordance with
IRC:112-2020.
Limit State Design

What is Limit State:
Acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirements before
failure occurs is called a Limit state
IRC:112-2020
Limit State Method
• Partial safety factor for material (γm) for yield and ultimate stress.
• Working loads are factored (increased) as per partial safety factor (γf) causing
Limit State of strength
• .
• Post buckling and post yielding plays important role in estimating capacity of
structural elements at Limit State.
• Deformations are evaluated at working loads.
Limit State Design

Serviceability Limit States: (For the comfort of the users)
States that correspond to conditions beyond which specified service
requirements for a structure or structural member are no longer met
The structural behavior in the SLS shall be analyzed with regard to
 Stress limitations;
 Crack widths;
 Deflections;
Both short-term and long-term design situations shall be considered.
Ultimate Limit States: (for the safety of structure & people)

States associated with collapse or with other similar forms of structural
failure
Structural behavior in the ULS shall be analyzed with regard to:
 Safety against structural failure;
 Static equilibrium of the whole structure;
Limit State Design

Actions:
Action can be permanent (persistent) or variable (transient),
accidental, or seismic
Persistent actions can be either favourable or unfavourable.
Transient actions are always considered as unfavourable.
Design Situations:
Persistent/Basic Design Situations, which refer to the conditions of
normal use
Transient/Temporary Design Situations, which refer to temporary
conditions applicable to the structure, e.g. during execution or repair
Accidental Design Situations, which refer to exceptional conditions
applicable to the structure or to its exposure, e.g. to fire, explosion,
impact or the consequences of localised failure
Seismic Design Situations, which refer to conditions applicable to the
structure when subjected to seismic events.
Design Value of Load : For Limit State Design

Characteristic Value:
Characteristic value of an action is generally the main representative
value, which can be based upon the statistical distribution of
magnitudes of action
Partial Safety Factors:
Partial factor associated with the uncertainty of the action which takes
account of the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action
values from the representative/characteristic values
/ Combinational Values
Combination of Loads : Limit State Design

COMBINATION OF LOADS: §Annex-B to Cl.202.3 of IRC:6-2017
For Limit State Design Approach, load combination as given in Annex-B
shall be adopted. The combination factors take into account the
probability of simultaneous occurrence of loads.
Combination Principle:
While working out combinations, only one variable load shall be
considered as leading load at a time. All other variable loads shall
be considered as accompanying loads. In case if the variable loads
produce favourable effect (relieving effect) the same shall be ignored.
Combination of Loads under ULS: (For Checking Equilibrium & Structural Strength)
Basic Combination
Accidental Combination
Seismic Combination
Combination of Loads under SLS: (To satisfy the serviceability requirements)
Rare Combination: for checking the stress limit.
Frequent Combination : for checking the deflection, vibration
Quasi-Permanent Combination : for checking the crack width

COMBINATION OF LOADS under Ultimate Limit State:
For checking the equilibrium of the structure, under ULS Basic
Combination, the partial safety factor for loads shown in Column No.
2 or 3 under Table B.1 shall be adopted.
For checking the structural strength of the structure, under ULS
Basic Combination, the partial safety factor for loads shown in Column
No. 2 under Table B.2 shall be adopted.
Under ULS Accidental Combination, for checking the equilibrium of the
structure, the partial safety factor for loads shown in Column No. 4 or 5
under Table B.1 and for checking the structural strength, the partial
safety factor for loads shown in Column No. 3 under Table B.2 shall be
adopted.
Under ULS Seismic Combination, for checking equilibrium of structure,
the partial safety factor for loads shown in Column No. 6 or 7 under Table
B.1 and for checking the structural strength, the partial safety factor for
loads shown in Column No. 4 under Table B.2 shall be adopted.

COMBINATION OF LOADS under Serviceability Limit State:
Serviceability limit state check shall be carried out in order to have
control on stress, deflection, vibration, crack width, settlement and to
estimate shrinkage and creep effects. It shall be ensured that the design
value obtained by using the appropriate combination shall be less than
the limiting value of serviceability criterion as per the relevant code.
Under SLS Rare Combination, for checking the stress limits, the partial
safety factor for loads shown in Column No. 2 under Table B.3 shall be
adopted.
Under SLS Frequent Combination, for checking the deflection, vibration
and crack width in pre-stressed concrete structures, partial safety factor for
loads shown in column no. 3 under Table B.3 shall be adopted.
Under SLS Quasi-Permanent Combination, for checking the crack width
in RCC structures, settlement, creep effects and to estimate the
permanent stress in the structure, partial safety factor for loads shown in
Column No. 4 under Table B.3 shall be adopted.
Partial Safety Factors for Loads: Limit State Design

Partial Safety Factors for Loads: Limit State Design

Method Of Analysis
Deck Modelling Options

To be discussed
Method of Analysis
This method consists of converting the bridge deck

structure into a network of rigidly connected beams
or into a network of skeletal members rigidly
connected to each other at discrete nodes i.e.
idealizing the bridge by an equivalent grillage
Method of Analysis
Grillage Method of Analysis
Essentially a computer-aided method for analysis of bridge decks
The deck is idealized as a series of beam elements (or grillage)
connected and restrained at their joints
Each element is given an equivalent bending and torsional inertia to
represent the portion of the deck which it replaces.
Bending and torsional stiffness in every region of the deck are assumed
to be concentrated in nearest equivalent grillage beam
Restraints, load and supports may be applied at the joints between the
members.
Slab longitudinal stiffness are concentrated in longitudinal beams;
transverse stiffness in transverse beams.
Equilibrium in slab requires torque to be identical in orthogonal
directions.
Method of Analysis
Basic Theory of Grillage Method of Analysis
Basic theory includes the displacement of Stiffness Method.
Essentially a matrix method in which the unknowns are

expressed in terms of displacements of the joints
Solutions of the problem consists of finding the values of the

displacements which must be applied to all joints and supports to
restore equilibrium.
Method of Analysis
Grillage Analysis Programme
When a bridge deck is analyzed by the method of Grillage
Analogy, there are essentially five steps to be followed for
obtaining design responses :
Idealization of physical deck into equivalent grillage.
Evaluation of equivalent elastic inertia of members of
grillage
Application and transfer of loads to various nodes of
grillage
Determination of force responses and design envelopes and
Interpretation of results.
The method can be extended to cater for three dimensional
systems (space-frame analysis).
Method of Analysis
Principle of Grillage Analysis:
The bridge structure is very stiff in the horizontal plane due
to the presence of decking slab. The transitional
displacements along the two horizontal axes and rotation
about the vertical axis will be negligible and may be ignored
in the analysis
Thus, a skeletal structure will have three degrees of
freedom at each node i.e. freedom of vertical displacement
and freedom of rotations about two mutually perpendicular
axes in the horizontal plane
In general, a grillage with [n] nodes will have [3n] degrees
of freedom or [3n] nodal deformations and [3n] equilibrium
equations.
Method of Analysis
Principle of Grillage Analysis:
All span loading are converted into equivalent nodal loads

by computing the fixed end forces and transferring them to
global axes
A set of simultaneous equations are obtained in the process
and their solutions result in the evaluation of the nodal
displacements in the structure.
The member forces including the bending & the torsional
moments can then be determined by back substitution in
the slope deflection and torsional rotation moment
equations
Method of Analysis
Grillage Mesh:
Bridge Deck Idealized Model (Deflected)

Method of Analysis
Principle of Grillage Mesh Idealization:
The logical choice of longitudinal grid lines for T-beam or I-
beams decks is to make them coincident with the centre lines of
physical girders and these longitudinal members are given the
properties of the girders plus associated portions of the slab,
which they represent. Additional grid lines between physical
girders may also be set in order to improve the accuracy of the
result.
Edge grid lines may be provided at the edges of the deck or at
suitable distance from the edge.
For bridge with footpaths, extra dummy longitudinal grid lines of
each footpath portion is also provided. The above procedure for
choosing longitudinal grid lines is applicable to both right and
skew decks.
Method of Analysis
Principle of Grillage Mesh Idealization:
When intermediate cross girders exists in the actual deck, the
transverse grid lines represent the properties of cross girders and
associated deck slabs.
The grid lines are set in along the centre lines of cross girders. Grid lines
are also placed in between these transverse physical cross girders, if
after considering the effective flange width of these girders portions of
the slab are left out.
When there is a diaphragm over the support in the actual deck, the grid
lines coinciding with these diaphragms should also be placed.
The spacing ratio may also reflect the span width ratio of the deck.
Therefore, for square and wider decks, the ratio can be kept as 1 and for
long and narrow decks, it can approach to 2
In skew bridges, with small skew angle say less than 15o and with no
intermediate diaphragms, the transverse grid lines are kept parallel to
the support lines.
Method of Analysis
Possible grillage arrangement for skewed decks:
Long, narrow, highly skewed bridge deck.

(a) plan view (b) grillage mesh (c ) alternative mesh
Method of Analysis
Slab Idealization for Bending and Torsion
Inertia of Grillage Members
For the purpose of calculation of flexural and
torsional inertia, the effective width of slab, to
function as the compression flange of T-beam or
L-beam is needed. A rigorous analysis for its
determination is extremely complex and in
absence of more accurate procedure for its
evaluation, recommendations given in Cl.
7.6.1.2 of IRC:112-2020 that the effective width
of the slab should be the least of the following
For Outer Girder
For Inner Girder

Method of Analysis
Grillage Mesh [For Skew Angle less than 200]
Method of Analysis
Grillage Mesh [For Skew Angle more than 200]
Method of Analysis
Special Issues in Bridge Modelling

Bridge Modelling Software:
These programs handle varying levels of the bridge design

problem such as: modelling and analysis, integrated design,
component design, substructure design, and some handles
integrated geometric and structural design.
Software Tools available for the Bridge Analysis and Design

STAAD-PRO - [General Analysis and Design Software]
MIDAS CIVIL - [Useful for Construction Stage Analysis and Design]
SAP 2000 Bridge Modular - [Useful for Construction Stage Analysis]
SOFISTIK - [Useful for Construction Stage Analysis]
Spread Sheets for Designs in conformity with Specifications given in
relevant IRC Codes for Design of Concrete and Steel
Sample 3D Modelling & Analysis of Underpasses

Quadrilateral plane elements
simulating the top slab

simulating walls and wing walls
Quadrilateral plane elements with elastic

interface conditions, simulating the bottom slab
and the foundation of the wing walls
Sample 3D Modelling & Analysis of Composite Bridges

Beam elements
for the longitudinal and
transverse direction
+
auxiliary quadrilateral Cross sections of the
plane elements longitudinal beams

simulating the abutments
Piles simulated with beam elements

Soil-structure interaction simulated with springs
Design Considerations
C : Capacity
D : Demand
ULS Flexure : Concrete Stress-Strain Relations

Parabolic-Rectangle Stress Distribution (Theoretical)
c2 : Compressive strain at

peak stress for Parabolic-
Rectangle Stress Distribution
cu2 : Ultimate compressive
strain for Parabolic-Rectangle
Stress Distribution
ULS Flexure : Concrete Stress-Strain Relations

Rectangular Stress Distribution : (Simplified)
c3 : Compressive strain at peak stress

for Rectangle Stress Distribution
Design of RCC & PSC Type Superstructure [IRC:112-2020]
General Rules & Specifications
Design stress strain curves for steel
Grade of Reinforcing Steel [Table 6.1 of IRC:112-2020]

Design stress strain curves for Prestressing Steel
Stress and Deformation Characteristics for Normal Concrete
[Table 6.5 of IRC:112-2020]
fck : Characteristic Cube Strength of concrete at age 28 days
fcm : Mean concrete compressive strength at age 28 days
fctm : Mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete at 28 days
Ecm : Secant modulus of elasticity of Concrete
fctk,0.05 : Lower characteristic axial tensile strength of Conc. below
which 5% of test results would be expected to fall for specified Conc.
fctk,0.95 : Upper characteristic axial tensile strength of Conc.
cl : Compressive strain in the concrete at the peak stress
c2 : Compressive strain at peak stress for Parabolic-Rectangle Stress Distribution
cu2 : Ultimate compressive strain for Parabolic-Rectangle Stress Distribution
c3 : Compressive strain at peak stress for Rectangle Stress Distribution
cu3 : Ultimate compressive strain for Rectangle Stress Distribution
Reinforcing Steel : (Table 18.1 of IRC:112-2020)
Mild Steel : Grade-I –
IS:432 (Part1)-1982
HYSD Steel : Fe415,
Fe500 & Fe500D
conforming to IS:1786-
2008
For seismic zones Ill, IV
& V; HYSD steel bars
having minimum
elongation of 14.5% and
conforming to other
requirements of IS
1786:2008 shall be
used.
For Design of RCC and PSC superstructures, Limit state design approach
as presented in IRC:112-2020 is adopted.
Specifications for materials properties viz. concrete, reinforcement and
prestressing will be as prescribed in IRC:112-2020
The Poisson’s ratio for uncracked concrete may be taken as 0.2 and that
for cracked concrete as zero.
For calculating effects of seasonal temperature variation, value of 0.5
times Ecm may be used to account for temperature induced stresses as
modified by creep effects. For diurnal variation of temperatures, value
of Ecm may be used.
When continuity is obtained in composite construction by changing the
statical system, consideration should be given to the secondary effects
of differential shrinkage and creep on the moments in continuous
beams and on the reactions at the supports [Ref. Cl. 7.7.2]
If the concrete strengths of the two components of the composite
member differ by more than 10N/mm2, allowance for the difference in
moduli of elasticity should be made in assessing stiffness and stresses
[Ref. Cl. 7.7(4)]
Maximum Prestressing Force will be in accordance with Cl. 7.9.2
Partial Safety Factor for prestressing will be as per Cl. 7.9.4 (6)
For concrete of grades higher than M60, the shear strength shall be
limited to that of strength grade M60 for design purpose [Cl. 10.1]
Minimum shear reinforcement may be omitted in slab members where
transverse redistribution of loads is possible [Cl.10.2(2)]
Maximum compressive stress in concrete under rare combinations of
loads shall be limited to 0.48*fck, in order to keep the longitudinal
cracks, micro cracks or creep within acceptable limits. [Ref. Cl. 12.2.1(1)]
Where compressive stress in concrete under quasi-permanent loads is
within 0.36 fcm(t0), linear creep may be assumed [Ref. Cl. 12.2.1(2)].
In order to avoid inelastic strain and undesirable cracking/deformation
of structure, maximum tensile stress (taking due account of long term
creep of concrete) in the reinforcement shall be limited to 0.8 fyk under
rare combination of loads [Ref. Cl. 12.2.2]
For Limiting Crack Width and Decompression limit for PSC for given
condition of exposure [Ref. Cl. 12.3.2]
Deflection limits for live load under frequent load combination will be
considered as per [Cl.12.4.1]
Concrete and reinforcement at End Anchorage Block shall be designed
to transfer load not less than 110 percent of nominal UTS of tendons it
is expected to hold. The crack width shall not exceed 0.25 mm at 80
percent of UTS. [Ref. Cl. 13.2.3]
Classification of exposure conditions [Cl. 14.3.1 & Table 14.1]
Durability Recommendations for Service Life of at Least 100 Years
[Table 14.1]
For post tensioned tendons, the minimum clear cover measured from the
outside of the sheathing shall be 75 mm. [Ref. Cl. 14.2.(2)]
For pre-tensioned tendons, minimum cover shall be 65 mm [Ref. Cl. 14.2 (3)]
Minimum cover can be reduced by 5 mm in case of factory made precast
concrete elements, high performance concrete, use of stain-less steel
reinforcement [Ref. Cl. 14.2.(4)]
Surface reinforcement to control cracking in webs should normally be provided
in beams over 1.0 m deep. The maximum spacing of bars shall be 200 mm. [Ref.
Cl. 16.5.4(2)]
The area of surface reinforcement As.sur should be not less than 0.01 Act.ext
where Act.ext is the area of cover portion outside the stirrups/links. [Ref. Cl.
16.5.4 (4)]
Secondary transverse reinforcement should be provided in one-way slab. This
should be at least 20 percent of the main reinforcement. [Ref. Cl. 14.2.(4)]
For seismic zones III, IV & V, HYSD bars having minimum elongation of 14.5%
and conforming to other requirements of IS:1786 shall be used [Cl. 18.2.3(2)]
For Effect of the Live Load on Deck Slab [Ref. Informative Annexure B-3] for
dispersion of load along and across the span.
For Average Annual Relative Humidity [Ref. Table A7-1 under Annexure-A7]
Deep beams (span/depth ratio less than 3) can be designed using appropriate
elastic models or by plastic methods. [Cl. 16.9(1)]
ULS Shear : Principles of Shear Control

For a certain shear force
(VEd) < (VRd,c), no
calculated shear
reinforcement is necessary
If the design shear force is
larger than value (VRd,c),
shear reinforcement is
necessary for the full
design Shear Force (§10.3
of IRC:112-2020)
Shear reinforcement is calculated with the variable inclination truss analogy.
With this reason, strut inclination may be chosen between two values
(recommended range 1≤ cot θ ≤ 2,5)
Shear reinforcement may not exceed a defined maximum value to ensure
yielding of the shear reinforcement. Maximum design shear force VRd,max is
limited by the ultimate crushing strength of the diagonal concrete member.

It should be noted that in variable angle truss model of shear
behaviour, all shear will be resisted by the provision of links with
no direct contribution from the shear capacity of the concrete itself
Advantage of Variable Angle Truss Analogy for Shear


Condition for No Shear Reinforcement :
§10.3.2 of IRC:112-2020
Shear design value under which no shear reinforcement is
necessary in elements (general limit)
Design for SLS Condition

Stress Limitation in Concrete: §12.2.1 of IRC:112-2020
For Rare Combination : Compressive Stress < 0.48 x fck
(in order to keep longitudinal cracks, micro cracks or creep within acceptable limits)
For Q-P Combination (for linear Creep): Compressive Stress < 0.36 x fck
(In case compressive stress exceeds 0.36 fck, non-linear creep shall be
Considered. Generally avoided)
Stress Limitation in Reinforcement (Steel): §12.2.2
Cl.12.2.2
of IRC:112-2020
of IRC:112-2011
Under Rare/Q-P Combination : Tensile Stress < 0. 8 x fyk
yk
For
For No
No Check
Check for
for Fatigue
Fatigue :: Tensile
Tensile Stress
Stress <
< 300
300 MPa
MPa
Crack Width Limitation in Concrete: §12.2.3 & Table 12.1 of IRC:112-2020
Under Moderate Exposure Condition : Crack Width < 0.3 mm
Under Severe Exposure Condition : Crack Width < 0.3 mm
Under Very Severe & Extreme Exposure Condition : Crack Width < 0.2 mm
General Design Parameters: Refer IRC:112-2020

Modulus of Elasticity Steel Reinf. : Es = 200 KN/mm2 (Cl.6.2.2)
Material safety factor (s) for Steel for Basic & Seismic Combination =1.15
For Material safety factor (s) for Steel for Accidental Combination =1.0
Poisson's ratio for Un-cracked Concrete  = 0.2 (Cl.6.4.2.5)
Poisson's ratio for Cracked Concrete  = 0.0 (Cl.6.4.2.5)
For long term effect, value of Ecm (Secant Modulus of elasticity of Conc.)
will be modified by a factor (1/1+) accounting for long term creep
effects where  is the creep co-efficient defined by Eq. 6.9 & Table 6.9
for Relative Humidity of Area
Minimum shear reinforcement may be omitted in members such as slabs
(footing) where transverse redistribution of loads is possible. [Cl.10.2.1(2)]
Design of Steel Composite Type Superstructure
General Rules & Specifications [IRC:22-2015] & [IRC:24-2010]
Structural safety has to be assessed for Service limit state, Fatigue Limit State
and Ultimate Limit State [Ref. IRC:22 Cl. 601.2]
Material Safety Factors [Ref. IRC:22 Cl. 601.4
Section Classification of the Girder [Ref. IRC:22 Cl. 603.1.1]
Class-1 /Plastic : Cross-sections which can develop plastic hinges and have the
rotation capacity required for failure of the structure by formation of a plastic
mechanism.
Class-2 / Compact : Cross-sections which can develop plastic moment of
resistance but have inadequate plastic hinge rotation capacity for formation of a
plastic mechanism due to local buckling.
Class-3 / Semi-Compact : Cross-sections in which the extreme fibers in
compression can reach yield stress, but cannot develop the plastic moment of
resistance due to local buckling.
Class-4 / Slender : Cross-sections in which the elements buckle locally, even
before reaching yield stress.
Cross Sections with webs in Class-3 & flanges in Class-1 or 2 may be treated as an
effective X-Section in Class 2 with an effective web as per Fig.4 [IRC:22 Cl. 603.1.3]
Design against vertical shear and its effect on plastic moment capacity [Ref.
IRC:22 Cl. 603.3.3.2 ]
Reduction in bending resistance under high shear force [Ref. IRC:22 Cl 603.3.3.3]
If V is less than 0.6Vd there is no reduction in the plastic bending resistance of
the section. When V> 0.6Vd, the bending resistance is reduced as the
contribution of web to bending gets diminished.
Design of Shear Connector [IRC:22 Cl. 606.1]
Design for Fatigue [IRC:22 Cl. 605.1]
Limit of Deflection and Camber [IRC:22 Cl. 604.3.2] Calculated deflection of
composite girder under live load and impact shall not exceed 1/800 of span of
the girder. Necessary camber may be adopted as per clause 504.6 of IRC:24-
2010 to offset the effect of all permanent loads to comply with the above
requirement.
Splices in tension members shall have a sectional area 5 percent more than that
required to develop the load in the member[IRC:24 Cl. 506.2.9]
Minimum thicknesses of plate for plate girder will be 8mm when both sides are
accessible for painting [IRC:24 Cl.504.7]
Bridge Bearings
Bridge Bearings
Function of Bridge Bearings
Bearings are elements transferring
vertical loads from Superstructure
to Substructure, but allowing
unrestrained rotation &
displacement of superstructure,
thus avoiding large forces to be
transferred to substructure and
foundation.
Bearings are critical elements
within overall bridge systems.
They can potentially cause
significant problems, if they do not
function properly. Malfunction in
bearings can cause distress/
failure of the bridge.
Bridge Bearings
Function of Bridge Bearings.... Contd
Allows rotation between superstructure and substructure
Functions as per design requirements : It prevents displacements (Fixed
Bearings), or allow displacements in only one direction (Guided
Bearings) or allows displacements in all directions (Free Bearings).
Enables unrestrained movement of the deck, ensuring that large forces
are not transferred to the substructure and foundation due to restraints
in movement.
Recent Bridge bearings are also designed to act as seismic protectors,
that arrests and dissipate energy during earthquakes and other seismic
activities.
Bridge Bearings
Bridge Bearings
POT BEARINGS
Pot Bearings can be Fixed, Guided and Free Type
Elastomer inside a steel pot is confined & functions like a viscous fluid.
Flat brass sealing rings are used to contain the elastomer inside the pot.
Suitable for the design load between 1 MN to 50 MN and more
Bridge Bearings
SPHERICAL BEARINGS
This is a very robust bearing
system that is traditionally
considered to be the most
reliable for larger span bridges
It can be designed to
accommodate large loads (1 MN
to 100 MN) and rotations.
It requires high degree of
manufacturing quality control.
These are multi-rotational
Bearings. Can accommodate hig
her rotations
Height of the bearing is
comparably low
Continuity Consideration
Thank you for your kind

attention !
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AECOM INDIA PVT.

REGIONAL DIRECTOR (HIGHWAY & BRIDGES)

A bridge has to carry a service (which

Box Girder Arch

Bridges which Carry Loads Mainly through

• Only for the very shortest spans, it is possible to adopt a

Forms of Superstructure Types of Bridges

Suspension Bow String Girder Cable Stayed

Each type of bridge carries load differently

Slab Type Superstructure

Beam and Slab Type Superstructure

Hollow Box Girder Type Superstructure

Composite Steel Plate Girder & RCC Slab

Steel Truss & Arch Type Superstructure

efficient structures for span range

Steel Bow String Arch are much

Cable Stayed Bridges

 A typical cable-stayed bridge is a continuous deck with one or more towers

Reference IRC Codes for Bridge Superstructure Design

Reference IRC Codes for Bridge Superstructure Design

Reference IRC Codes for Bridge Superstructure Design

Reference IRC Codes for Bridge Superstructure Design

• Production of the concrete segments in a protective environment where stringent

MORTH’s POLICY ON USE OF PRECAST CONCRETE

An Official Circular “RW/NH-34049/01 /2020-S&R (B)” dated 8th April

Policy on Use of Spine & Transverse Wings Type Section

Bridge Design Loads

Permanent Loads : DL & SIDL

Permanent Loads : SIDL & Earth Pressure

 Earth Pressure (EP) : Acts on the Substructure & Foundation

Permanent Loads : Earth Pressure Effect

Transient Loads : IRC Class Live Loads

Class A Train of Vehicles

Transient Loads : IRC Class Live Loads

Transient Loads : Vehicle Impact & Braking

Transient Loads : Special Vehicle (385 Tonne)

The SV loading shall be considered to ply close to center of

Bridge Design Loads : Transient Loads

Transient Loads : Centrifugal Force

Transient Loads : Footpath Live Load

Where P’ = 4.0 kN/m2 or 5.0 kN/m2 depending on the bridge location

Transient Loads : Wind Load

Transient Loads : Wind Load

Transient Loads : Seismic Loads

Transient Loads : Seismic Load

Design Response Spectra

Transient Loads : Seismic Load

Deformation Loads : Settlement Effect

Deformation Loads : Thermal Effect

Deformation Loads : Thermal Effect

Deformation Loads : Creep & Shrinkage Effect

Limit State Design

Limit State Design

Ultimate Limit States: (for the safety of structure & people)

Limit State Design

Design Value of Load : For Limit State Design

Combination of Loads : Limit State Design

Combination of Loads : Limit State Design

Combination of Loads : Limit State Design

Partial Safety Factors for Loads: Limit State Design

Partial Safety Factors for Loads: Limit State Design

Deck Modelling Options

This method consists of converting the bridge deck