PD $ Ecmcs Project

WOLLO UNIVERSITY
KOMBOLCHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL STREAM
COURSE NAME: - PLANT DESIGN AND ECONOMICS (ChEg 5193)
TARGET GROUP: - 5TH YEARS, 1ST SEMISTER
SECTION: - A
TASK: - DESIGN OF A PLANT FOR PRODUCTION OF ACTIVATED CARBON FROM

COCONUT SHELL
NAME ID No
1. GETASEW GUADIE ……………………. WOUR/1307/10

2. BETELEHEM HAILU ……………..….…. WOUR/0957/10
3. MULU TESFAYE ………………………... WOUR/1790/10
4. REDIET KASSA ……..…………………... WOUR/1917/10
5. SELAM TESHOME …………………….... WOUR/1991/10
Submission date: 06/10/2014

May, 2014
KOMBOLCHA, ETHIOPIA
DESIGN OF A PLANT FOR PRODUCTION OF ACTIVATED CARBON 2014 E.C
FROM COCONUT SHELL
DECLARATION
We declare that this project has been done by active participation of group members. It does not
involve any another person without the team member.
Name Signature Date

1 GETASEW GUADIE ____________
2 BETELEHEM HAILU ____________
3 MULU TESFAYE ____________
4 REDIET KASSA ____________
5 SELAM TESHOME ____________
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 2

FROM COCONUT SHELL
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, we want to give special thanks to GOD, who gives courage strength and prevent our
health to prepare this project. Secondly, we are deeply extending our sincere appreciation to our
teacher GETAHUN for his valuable advice. And all group member for their active participation.
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page iii

FROM COCONUT SHELL
ABSTRACT
A production plant was designed to produce 2.9 tons of activated carbon per day from coconut
shells, in order to capture the projected market for activated carbon in air purification
applications. The production process consists of a pyrolysis stage and an activation stage. A
downdraft gasifier is utilized as the pyrolysis reactor in order to maximize the energy efficiency
of the process, and a separate cyclone and condenser were added to capture and purify the
valuable byproducts of the pyrolysis reaction. A fluidized bed reactor was utilized as the
activation reactor, due to its superior heat and mass transfer properties over conventional
reactors currently used in industry. An extensive heat exchanger network was implemented to
capture and recycle the heat and water produced by the activation reaction, in order to minimize
the plant’s thermal and water footprint. Based on the demand projection, plant capacity of 4350
ton per year of assorted activated carbon from coconut shell that works 300 days per year
with 5 shifts per day of proposed and designed. The plant economics shows that the project
needs a total investment cost of 45,449,449.41ETB. The project has financially viability with an
internal rate of return (IRR) of 13.56% and the net present value (NPV) of 322,274955ETB at
discount rate of 12%, the payback period is 2.72 year and the rate of return is 29.84%. The
project has a net profit of 13560356ETB/year with a breakeven point of 7,836,112kg. And also
the project has a profitability of 1.437. Due to the expected high product demand and anticipated
profits, construction of the plant is strongly recommended.
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page iv

FROM COCONUT SHELL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page No
DECLARATION...................................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT......................................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................................viii
ACRONYMS.......................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE...................................................................................................................................1
1. INTDODUCTION............................................................................................................................1
1.1. BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem............................................................................................................2
1.3. OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................................................2
1.3.1. General Objective.................................................................................................................2
1.3.2. Specific Objectives...............................................................................................................2
1.4. Scope of the project.....................................................................................................................2
1.5. Significance of the project..........................................................................................................3
1.6. Limitations..................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO..................................................................................................................................4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................4
2.1. Product assessment.....................................................................................................................4
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................5
2.1.2. World demand of activated carbon................................................................................8
2.1.3. Local demand of activated carbon.................................................................................9
2.2. Raw material source identification.............................................................................................9
2.2.1. Raw materials used around the world..........................................................................10
2.2.2. Factors affecting raw material selection......................................................................11
2.3.Application of a product...........................................................................................................12
2.3.1. Metal finishing field....................................................................................................12
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FROM COCONUT SHELL
2.3.2. Environmental field.....................................................................................................12

2.3.3. Medical application.....................................................................................................12
2.3.4. Water Purification........................................................................................................13
2.3.5. Activated Carbon Filters..............................................................................................13
CHAPTER THREE............................................................................................................................14
3. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF ACTIVATED CARBON...................................................14
3.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS IN PYROLYSIS STAGE..........................................................15
3.2. Description at activated stage...................................................................................................16
3.2.1. Chemical activation.....................................................................................................16
3.2.2. Physical activation.......................................................................................................16
3.3. Process Rationale......................................................................................................................18
CHAPTER FOUR..............................................................................................................................19
4. MATERIALS AND METHODS...................................................................................................19
4.1. Materials....................................................................................................................................19
4.2. Methods.....................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER FIVE................................................................................................................................21
5. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE.....................................................................................21
5.1. Material balance........................................................................................................................21
5.2. ENERGY BALANCE...............................................................................................................26
CHAPTER SIX...................................................................................................................................33
6. EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND SELECTION.................................................................................33
CHAPTER SEVEN............................................................................................................................40
7. COST ESTIMATION...............................................................................................................40
7.1. Estimating the purchased equipment cost.................................................................................40
7.2. Estimating Capital Investment..................................................................................................45
II. Total capital investment............................................................................................................45
7.3. Estimating total product cost.....................................................................................................46
CHAPTER EIGHT.............................................................................................................................49
8. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS......................................................................................................49
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FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER NINE................................................................................................................................52
9. PLANT LOCATION......................................................................................................................52
9.1. Choice of plant location...............................................................................................................52
9.2. Environmental impact assessment............................................................................................53
CHAPTER TEN.................................................................................................................................54
10. PLANT LAYOUT....................................................................................................................54
CHAPTER ELEVEN..........................................................................................................................55
11. Economic and Social Benefits and Justification.......................................................................55
11.1. Socio economic analysis............................................................................................................55
11.2. Job opportunity..........................................................................................................................55
CHAPTER TWELVE.........................................................................................................................56
12. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION........................................................................56
12.1. CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................56
12.2. RECOMMENDATIONS...........................................................................................................57
REFERENCE....................................................................................................................................59
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page vii

FROM COCONUT SHELL
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Coconut tree (www.cyclopida. Com)..................................................................................10

Figure 2-2: coconut shell (www.cyclopida .com)..................................................................................11
Figure 3-1: Process flow sheet of activated carbon production.............................................................15
Figure 8-1: Cash flow diagram...............................................................................................................51
Figure 10-1: plant layout........................................................................................................................54
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page viii

FROM COCONUT SHELL
LIST OF TABLES
Table 5-1: thermodynamic property of components..............................................................................27

Table 5-2: The value of parameters in each Reaction............................................................................29
Table 5-3: Components of hot fluid with their property value...............................................................31
Table 6-1: summary of equipment and selection...................................................................................39
Table 7-1: Typical equipment capacity delivered capital cost correlations (CE index = 435.8)...........40
Table 7-2: Typical percentage of fixed-capital investment values.........................................................45
Table 7-3: labor operating cost...............................................................................................................46
Table 7-4: Cost of raw materials and utilities based on the material balance........................................47
Table 7-5: Estimation of total product cost............................................................................................48
Table 11-1: Stockholder based on education level.................................................................................55
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page ix

FROM COCONUT SHELL
ACRONYMS
NPV = net present value
IRR = internal rate of return
PAC = powdered activated carbon
GCA = granular activated carbon
PP = payback period
ROI = rate on investment
LCA = life cycle assessment
FBR = fluidized reactor
PI = profitability
index PV = present
value CFI = cash
inflow CFO = cash out
flow
TPC = total production cost
TCI=total cost investment
EPA=environmental protection agency
WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page ix

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTDODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
The first known use of activated carbon dates back to the Ancient Egyptians who utilized its adsorbent
properties for purifying oils and medicinal purposes. By the early 19th century both wood and bone
charcoal was in large-scale use for the decolorization and purification of cane sugar. By the late 1930’s
there was considerable industrial-scale use of carbon for gaseous and liquid phase application and new
manufacturing processes had been developed to satisfy the needs of industry. During the 1939-1945
war, a further significant development took place the production of more sophisticated chemically
impregnated carbon for entrapment of both war and nerve gases. [4]
Modern day uses of carbon are diverse, to say the least. Cameron carbons, for instance, are used in
consumer products such as refrigerator deodorizers and at the other end of the spectrum in high
technology applications such as nuclear power plant containment systems. In order to fulfill the
requirements of such a variety of industries, Cameron Carbon presently supplies in excess of 30
different types of activated carbon.[8] On December 21, 2011, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) finalized new regulations that aim to reduce the mercury and other toxic emissions from coal
and oil-fired power plants. The standards set by the Mercury and Toxic Standard (MATS) will reduce
mercury emissions by 90%, acid gas emissions by 88%, and sulfur dioxide emissions by 41% (EPA).
The use of activated carbon injections is one method of reducing mercury emissions (EPA). With the
implementation of MATS, the demand of activated carbon is expected to rise dramatically.
Typically, activated carbon is made from coal. But given the non-renewable nature of this material,
manufacturers are looking for other resources of carbon, such as carbonaceous agricultural by-
products, to prepare activated carbon. The plant utilizes coconut shells to produce activated carbon.
Coconut shells are a good resource because they have high carbon content, low ash content and their
natural structure is compatible for producing micro porous activated carbon. Coconut shells are
usually the waste products of coconut processing plants such those who produce coconut oils and
coconut flakes. Their disposal is costly and may cause environmental problems. [1]

FROM COCONUT SHELL
1.2. Statement of the problem

Commercially available activated carbons are still expensive due to the use of nonrenewable and
relatively high-cost starting material such as coal. Due to the non-renewable nature of this material, it
is better to look for other organic precursors such as bamboo, coconut shell, sawdust, seeds and wood
and similar agro wastes and biomaterials. These materials have been found to be suitable precursors
owing to their high carbon and low ash. Coconut shells are usually the waste products of coconut
processing plants such those who produce coconut oils and coconut flakes. Also coconut shell is an
agricultural waste and is available in very large quantities throughout the tropical countries of the
world which contributed significantly to CO2 and methane emissions when it is burnt as a means of
solid waste disposal. And their disposal is costly and may cause environmental problems. By taking
into consideration environmental and economic problems we have decided to produce activated
carbon from coconut shell.
1.3. OBJECTIVES
1.3.1. General Objective

The general objective of this project is design of a plant for production of activated carbon from
coconut shell.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives

 To produce high quality with law cost activated carbon using pyrolysis and fluidized bed
reactors in laboratory scale.
 In order to use an abundant and renewable resource to make activated carbon and to save raw
material costs by purchasing the waste shells from coconut plants
 To establish the optimum conditions for production of activated carbons using coconut shells.
 To investigate the characteristics the prepared activated carbons.
1.4. Scope of the project

In our project coconut shell is used as a main raw material for production of activated carbon. This
study adopted experimental design. The experiment is carried out in the laboratory to determine the
ash content and carbon content of coconut shell. The preparation of activated carbon is based on two-
step physical process. First, carbonation and then activation using steam. The experiments were
carried out in a furnace which can heat up to a temperature of about 1100°C. This project is will
address high quality activated carbon to the society and will solve environmental and economic
problems by converting agricultural waste (coconut shell) into useful product (activated carbon)
within laboratory scale and the small scale production of activated carbon would be scaled up into
large industrial scale to meet the requirement of activated carbon.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
1.5. Significance of the project

 The study is significant in that it will be used as an initial idea to do further detailed researches
regarding to decrease the environmental impacts of the waste and producing a quality activated
carbon.
 The use of renewable agricultural and coconut oil plant by products for activated carbon
production would be great advantage for solving environmental and economic problems,
 The use of coconut shell for producing activated carbon would be a great advantage over other
raw materials since coconut shells have high carbon content, low ash content and their natural
structure is compatible for producing micro porous activated carbon.
 Production of activated carbons locally and from locally available materials would be one of
the most lucrative and environment-friendly solutions to the society as it would transform
negative-valued wastes to valuable materials.
1.6. Limitations
 Although activated carbon is used to remove harmful pollutants and toxins from the air, the
process used to make it will release CO2, which is a greenhouse gas.
 The pyrolysis process requires a high energy input.
 The harsh doping agents used in chemical activation are hard to remove at the end of the
process and remain trapped in the activated carbon.
 The macro pores produced by chemical activation have a low surface-area to volume ratio and
are too large to trap contaminants selectively.
The limitations can be either minimized or totally eliminated by using different mechanisms. The CO2
emission problem can be solved by using CO2 – purification and recycling it pyrolyzer. The pyrolysis
process requires high energy input, but it generates bio-oil and syngas. These byproducts are
marketable and sold in their crude state, so the cost of input energy can be gained from these
byproducts. And the limitation of using chemical activation can be solved by using steam activation
process. The steam activation process is highly exothermic. Thus, the excess energy is utilized to
produce steam, which is sold back to the energy grid.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Product assessment

Activated carbons are useful adsorbents due to their porous structures, the presence of various
oxygenated functional surface groups depending on the precursor’s nature and the procedures used in
there, and thus activated carbons show differences in their adsorptive behavior. To produce these
carbons, chemical, physical and mixture of both as activating agents are used and a number of
activation procedures have been reported in the literature using the above said activating agents. In
general it can be classified as two-stage process such as pyrolysis and activated stage. [2] Activated
carbons are carbonaceous materials that can be distinguished from elemental carbon by the oxidation
of the carbon atoms found on the outer and inner surfaces. These materials are characterized by their
extraordinary large specific surface areas, well-developed porosity and tunable surface-containing
functional groups. For these reasons, activated carbons are widely used as adsorbents for the removal
of organic chemicals and metal ions of environmental or economic concern from air, gases, potable
water and wastewater. Wet oxidation methods involve the reaction between the carbon surface and
solutions of oxidizing agents such as phosphoric acid H3PO4, nitric acid HNO3, hydrogen peroxide
H2O2, zinc chloride ZnCl2, potassium permanganate KMnO4, ammonium per sulphate (NH4)2SO8,
potassium hydroxide KOH, etc. From the above oxidizing agents, phosphoric acid and zinc chloride
are usually used for the activation of lignocellulose materials, which have not been carbonized before.
On the other hand, potassium hydroxide is usually used to activate coal or chars precursors. However,
phosphoric acid activation is widely preferred over zinc chloride because ZnCl2 has bad
environmental impact and the activated carbon produced when using it cannot be used in the food and
pharmaceutical industries.
The precursors of activated carbon include coconut shell and wood, Olive stones, sugarcane bagasse,
pecan shells, palm seed, apple pulp, rubber seeds and molasses. Due to the growing need for activated
carbons in our society and the high cost of raw materials and production, many researchers have
attempted various wastes such as tires, resins, agricultural byproducts, and dried Sewage sludge as raw
materials and proposed new production methods for activated carbons with potential applications in
pollution control.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
2.1.1. INTRODUCTION
Definition of activated carbon
Activated carbon, also widely known as activated charcoal or activated coal is a form of carbon which
has been processed to make it extremely porous and thus to have a very large surface area available
for adsorption or chemical reactions. The word active is sometimes used in place of activated. Due to
such high degree of micro porosity, just 1 gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 500
m2, as typically determined by nitrogen gas adsorption. Sufficient activation for useful applications
may come solely from the high surface area, though further chemical treatment generally enhances the
adsorbing properties of the material. Activated carbon is most commonly derived from charcoal. [3]
Properties of activated carbon
Activated carbon products can be characterized by its activity and physical properties. Activity
properties include pore size distribution that defines the available pore volume of a carbon over three
pore size regions: the micropore, mesopore, and macropore regions.
 Micropore region - less than 100 Angstroms

 Mesopore region - between 100 and 1,000 Angstroms
 Macropore region - greater than 1,000 Angstroms
Pore size distribution properties are key indicators of a carbon's potential performance for removing
contaminants (adsorbate) from water. A broad range of pore sizes must be available, both for ease of
movement of adsorbate through the carbon pores and for the adsorption of particular molecular sizes.
Liquid phase carbons often contain a broader pore size distribution to remove color bodies and larger
organics, while maintaining some microporosity for the removal of taste and odor compounds.
Physical properties include surface area, product density, mesh size, abrasion resistance, and ash
content. Typical measured carbon properties include:
Iodine Number: standard testing done to estimate the surface area of the activated carbon by
measuring iodine adsorption at a given set of standard testing conditions, reported in mg I2 adsorbed
per/g carbon
Surface Area: amount of surface available for adsorption for a given mass of carbon, measured using
techniques such as BET nitrogen adsorption; reported in units of m2/g.
Product Density: several properties available including apparent density which is the density of the
carbon at maximum packing efficiency, reported in g/cc or lbs/cf.
Mesh Size: measure of particle range of the granular product, usually reported as a range of sieve

FROM COCONUT SHELL
openings, such as 12 x 40 for a carbon that passes a 12 mesh screen, but is retained on a 40

FROM COCONUT SHELL
mesh screen with a specification on the amount that can be retained on the larger opening screen or
passing the smaller opening screen; basis is US sieve sizes.
Abrasion Number: measure of the ability of the carbon product to resist attrition; this important
property permits one to understand how durable the activated carbon is in applications where
backwashing is required, carbon will be transferred, or treatment velocities are above average.
Ash Level: a measure of the non-carbon content of the activated carbon; all base materials have a
certain ash constituency with the content varying from base material to base material; for example,
coconut shell carbon tends to have more alkali earth metals, while coal-based carbons have more
heavy metals.
2.1.1.1. Working principle of activated carbon

Physical adsorption is the primary means by which activated carbon works to remove contaminants
from liquid or vapor streams. Carbon's large surface area per unit weight allows for contaminants to
adhere to the activated carbon media. The large internal surface area of carbon has several attractive
forces that work to attract other molecules. These forces manifest in a similar manner as gravitational
force; therefore, contaminants in water are adsorbed (or adhered) to the surface of carbon from a
solution as a result of differences in adsorbate concentration in the solution and in the carbon pores.
Physical adsorption occurs because all molecules exert attractive forces, especially molecules at the
surface of a solid (pore walls of carbon), and these surface molecules seek to adhere to other
molecules. The dissolved adsorbate migrates from the solution through the pore channels to reach the
area where the strongest attractive forces are located. Contaminants adsorb because the attraction of
the carbon surface for them is stronger than the attractive forces that keep them dissolved in solution.
Those compounds that exhibit this preference to adsorb are able to do so when there is enough energy
on the surface of the carbon to overcome the energy needed to absorb the contaminant. Contaminants
that are organic, have high molecular weights, and are neutral, or non-polar, in their chemical nature
are readily adsorbed on activated carbon. [4] For water adsorbate to become physically adsorbed onto
activated carbon, they must both be dissolved in water so that they are smaller than the size of the
carbon pore openings and can pass through the carbon pores and accumulate. Besides physical
adsorption, chemical reactions can occur on a carbon surface. One such reaction is chlorine removal
from water involving the chemical reaction of chlorine with carbon to form chloride ions.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
2.1.1.2. Structure of activated carbon

In order to explain the capabilities of activated carbon, an appreciation of its structure is most useful.
Much of the literature quotes a modified graphite-like structure; the modification resulting from the
presence of micro crystallites, formed during the carbonization process, which during activation, have
their regular bonding disrupted causing free valences which are very reactive. In addition, the presence
of impurities and process conditions influence the formation of interior vacancies, in the
microcrystalline structures. Such theory generally explains pores as the result of faults in crystalline
structures. The generally accepted graphite-like structure theory falls down since the hardness of
activated carbon is not in keeping with the layered structure of graphite. Furthermore, the
manufacturing conditions are different; in particular the temperature range utilized for activated
carbon production is lower than that required for graphitization. Supporters of the graphite-like
structure generally only explain the modified microcrystalline structure and ignore photographic and
other methods of examining the residual macro structure.
2.1.1.3. Classification of activated carbon

The types of activated carbon available in the current market are powder, granular and pellet. It is
classified according to its particle sizes and shape, and each type has its specific application. However,
some broad classification is made for general purpose based on their physical characteristics.
I. Powdered activated carbon (PAC)
The size of powder activated carbon is less than 100μm in size with an average diameter between 15
and 25μm. Thus, they present a large internal surface with a small diffusion distance. PAC is made up
of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve
or sieve. Powdered activated carbons are mainly used in liquid phase adsorption and flue gas
treatment. In wastewater treatment, the most common used of powdered activated carbon is in the
secondary treatment called powdered activated carbon treatment process.
PAC is not commonly used in a dedicated vessel, owing to the high head loss that would occur. PAC is
generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers,
and gravity filters.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
II. Granular activated carbon (GAC)
Granular activated carbon has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon
and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important
factor. These carbons are therefore preferred for all adsorption of gases and vapours as their rate of
diffusion are faster. Granulated carbons are used for water treatment, deodorization and separation of
components of flow system. GAC can be either in the granular form or extruded. GAC is designated
by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapors
phase applications.
III. Extruded activated carbon (EAC)
Extruded activated carbon combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused
together extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm.
These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical
strength and low dust content.
IV. Impregnated carbon
Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as iodine, silver, cations such as
Al, Zn, Fe, Li, and Ca have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control
especially in museums and galleries. Due to antimicrobial/antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated
carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from
natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and Al (OH) 3, a
flocculating agent. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of H2S and thiols.
[4]Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.
2.1.2. World demand of activated carbon

World demand for activated carbon is projected to rise 8.1 percent per year to 2.1 million metric tons
in 2018. Tightening regulatory standards, particularly in the two largest markets -- the US and China --
will drive growth. In the US and other industrialized countries, these stricter standards will reflect
increasing emphasis on mercury removal; in contrast, in China and other developing countries
stronger standards and stepped up enforcement will stem from efforts to battle air and water pollution
caused by rapid industrialization.
Mercury removal applications in the US is expected to more than double by 2018 in response to the
full implementation of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Mercury and Air Toxics Standards.
Activated carbon injection is projected to be the primary technology used for mercury removal from
coal-fired power plants, cement plants, solid waste incinerators, and industrial boilers in the US.

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Canada and the European Union also have mercury emissions standards in place, although these
regulations are not as stringent as those in the US.[6]

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In China and other developing parts of the world, growth in activated carbon demand will be
promoted by a combination of regulatory changes and rising output from key manufacturing
industries. Industrial air treatment is increasing in importance as many urban areas in industrializing
countries struggle with significant air pollution issues. Activated carbon is effective at removing
pollutants such as SO 2 and NOx, which are two of the most heavily regulated air pollutants.
US demand for activated carbon will rise 11.2 percent per year to 1.3 billion pounds in 2017, driven
by the EPA’s new mercury removal standards. Industrial air purification will be the fastest growing
application, surpassing water treatment as the largest use by volume. Motor vehicle applications will
lead gains among smaller uses. This study analyzes the 758 million pound US activated carbon
industry, with forecasts for 2017 and 2022 by type, application, and US region.
2.1.3. Local demand of activated carbon

Rising manufacturing activity in our country going to industrializing we should support increased
demand for activated carbon. Rapid growth in output from the pharmaceutical and, to a lesser extent,
chemical industries will require increased use of activated carbon to purify feed water and other
components in the manufacturing process. In each city and university in our country affected by
pungent smile from industrial waste and food waste, as developing nations implement activated
carbon production to remove this unwanted pungent smile. Environment is the broad concept
encompassing the whole range of diverse surroundings, which we perceive, experience and react to
events and changes that are taking place on it. It includes land, water and air. One of the main
problems prevailing in this environment is pollution. It is the unhealthy and undesirable change in the
environment that is caused directly or indirectly by the human beings, either in the process by living or
through any industrial processes. To prevent this environmental problem activated carbon has a great
value.
2.2. Raw material source identification

It has already been stated that essentially any carbonaceous material can potentially be activated. In
addition to the more common raw materials discussed earlier, others can include waste tires, phenol
formaldehyde resin, rice husks, pulp mill residues, corn cobs, coffee beans, coconut shells and bones.
Present total annual world production capacity is estimated at 300,000 tons: available as granular,
extruded or powdered product. [2] Most of the developed nations have facilities to activate coconut
shell, wood and coal. Third world countries have recently entered the industry and concentrate on
readily available local raw materials such as wood and coconut shell.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
2.2.1. Raw materials used around the world
A. Coconut shells
They are obtained from the coconut tree scientifically as Cocosnucifera. It contains about 75% volatile
matters that are removed, largely at source by partial carbonization, to minimize transport costs. The
cellulosic structure of the shell determines the end product characteristics, which (at 30 40% yield on
the carbonized basis) is a material of very high internal surface area consisting of pores and capillaries
of fine molecular dimensions. The ash content is normally low and composed mainly of alkalis and
silica.
Figure 2-1: Coconut tree (www.cyclopida. Com)
B. Coal
Coal is also a readily available and reasonably cheap raw material. The obtained activate depends on
the type of coal used and its initial processing prior to carbonization and activation. It is a normal
procedure to grind the coal and reconstitute it into a form suitable for processing, by use of a binder
such as pitch, before activation. (This is typical for extruded or pelletized carbon). An alternative
method is to grind the coal and utilize its volatile content to fuse the powder together in the form of a
briquette. This method allows for blending of selected materials to control the swelling power of the
coals and prevents coking.[1] If the coal is allowed to “coke”, it leads to the production of an activated
carbon with an unacceptably high proportion of large pores. Blending of coals also allows a greater
degree of control over the structure and properties of the final product.
C. Wood
Wood may be activated by one of two methods, i.e. physical (steam) or chemical activation, depending
on the desired product. A common chemical activator is phosphoric acid, which produces a char with a
large surface area suitable for decolonization applications. The carbon is usually supplied as a finely
divided powder which since produced from waste materials such as sawdust, is relatively cheap and
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can be used on a “throw-away” basis. Since activated carbon is

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manufactured from naturally occurring raw materials, its properties will obviously be variable. In
order to minimize variability it is necessary to be very selective in raw material source and quality and
practice a high level of manufacturing quality control. Other commonly used raw materials include;
Maize cobs, Coffee husks, Bagasse, Bamboo waste and from Chicken waste (for making Mercury
adsorbent).
2.2.2. Factors affecting raw material selection

Most organic materials rich in carbon that do not fuse upon carbonization can be used as a raw
material for the manufacture of activated carbon. In the selection of raw material for the preparation of
porous carbon, several factors are taken into consideration, these include;
 carbon content
 Inorganic content (i.e. ash)
 density and volatile content
 The stability of supply in the country or availability
 Potential extent of activation
 Cost
 Degradation upon storage
Low content inorganic materials is important to produce activated carbon with low ash content, but
relatively high volatile content is also needed for the control of the manufacturing process. Raw
materials such as coconut shells and fruit stones are very popular for many types of activated carbon
because their relatively high density, hardness and volatile content are ideal for the manufacture of
hard granular activated carbon. Coconut shells together with peach and olive stones are used
commercially for the production of micro porous activated carbons for a very wide range of
applications.
Figure 2-2: coconut shell (www.cyclopida .com)

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2.3. Application of a product

Activated carbon is used in gas purification, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification,
sewage treatment, air filters in gas masks and respirators, filters in compressed air and many other
applications. Recently Activated Carbon filters have gained popularity among recreational users of
Cannabis, and other smoking herbs for their use in effectively filtering out "Tar" from the smoke.
Some of the applications include:-
2.3.1. Metal finishing field

This is one of the major industrial applications of activated carbon. It is very widely employed for
purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is a main purification technique for removing
organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added for
plating solutions to improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness,
smoothness, ductility, etc.[8] Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic
oxidation and catholic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted break down products in
solution. Their excessive build up can adversely affect the plating quality and physical properties of
deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance
to the desired level. Activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite, is used as stationary phase
in low pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as
mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols.
2.3.2. Environmental field

Here, activated carbon adsorption has numerous applications in removing pollutants from air or water
streams both in the field and in industrial processes such as spill cleanup, groundwater remediation,
drinking water filtration, air purification, volatile organic compounds capture from painting, dry
cleaning, gasoline dispensing operations, and other processes.[14]
2.3.3. Medical application

In medical applications activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral
ingestion. It is thought to bind to poison and prevent its absorption by the gastrointestinal tract. In
cases of suspected poisoning, medical personnel administer activated charcoal on the scene or at a
Hospital’s emergency department. Dosing is usually empirical at 1 gram/kg of body mass (for
adolescents or adults, gives 50-100g), usually given only once, but depending on the drug taken, it
may be given more than once. In rare situations activated charcoal is used in Intensive Care to filter
out harmful drugs from the blood stream of poisoned patients. Activated charcoal has become the
treatment of choice for many poisonings, and other decontamination methods such as ipecac-induced
emesis or stomach pumping are now used rarely.

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2.3.4. Water Purification

Activated carbon water filters have been used in home water purification systems primarily to remove
taste and odour. Taste and odour, although undesirable, are generally not considered unhealthy. In
recent years, however, activated carbon filters have been used to remove some of the contaminants
that have been discovered in water supplies. Activated carbon is most effective at removing organic
compounds such as volatile organic compounds, pesticides and benzene. It can also remove some
metals, chlorine and radon.[6] As with any treatment system, it cannot remove all possible drinking
water contaminants. Because Activated carbon systems are limited in the types of compounds they can
effectively remove, it is essential that the home owner determine which water contaminants are
present before using such a system thus results in the need of water analysis.
2.3.5. Activated Carbon Filters

Home Activated carbon treatment systems are quite simple. The activated carbon is normally
packaged in filter cartridges that are inserted into the purification device. Water needing treatment
passes through the cartridge contacting the AC on its way to the faucet. AC filters eventually become
fouled with contaminants and lose their ability to absorb pollutants. At this time, they need to be
replaced or regenerated. An AC filter must be deep enough so that the pollutants will adsorb to the AC
in the time it takes the water to move through the filter. The appropriate filter depth depends on the
flow rate of water through filter. The slower the flow rate, the better the removal.[13] As the
contaminated water stream passes through a confined bed of activated carbon, a dynamic condition
develops which establishes a mass transfer zone. This “mass transfer zone” is defined as the carbon
bed depth required to reduce the contaminant concentration from the initial to the final level, at a
given flow rate.

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CHAPTER THREE
3. MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF ACTIVATED CARBON
The production of activated carbon involves two major processes, the pyrolysis of coconut shells and
the activation of char. Pyrolysis is essentially carbonizing biomass under anaerobic conditions.
Pyrolization is the ideal method to prepare char because it results in a high yield of char. Other
methods such as gasification and combustion produce gases with little or no char. In the pyrolysis
process, recycled CO2 is used as the carrier gas because it is a byproduct of the activation process.
The activation process occurs in a fluidized bed reactor (FBR). The FBR is chosen because of its
superior abilities in distributing heat, mixing, and reacting materials. The activation process uses
physical activation with steam instead of chemical activation. The char is assumed to be pure carbon.
[7] The activation process yields activated carbon, char and steam. The overall process is a semi-
continuous because of the holding times in the pyrolysis and activation process. In pyrolysis, the
exiting gas flow rate varies as reactions occur between the carbon and CO2 and as volatiles escape
from the coconut shells. In the activation process, the gas flow rate varies as reactions occur between
the carbon, steam and oxygen. The process also integrates heat exchanger networks to minimize
energy consumption.[11]
Before pyrolysis process the raw coconut shell must be first prepared and cleaned. Pyrolysis step (or
also called as Carbonization) involves heating the source materials to temperatures ranging between
600 to 900ºC in the absence of air. This process is to eliminate most of the non-carbon elements such
as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur as volatile gaseous products. Low molecular weight
volatiles are first released, followed by light aromatics and finally the hydrogen gas, the resultant
product being a fixed carbonaceous char. The mutual arrangement of these aromatic sheets is irregular
and leaves free interstices between the sheets, which may be filled with the tarry materials. To remove
these tarry materials, activation process is carried out. It also enlarges the diameters of the pores,
which were created during the carbonization process and creating new porosity.

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Figure 3-3: Process flow sheet of activated carbon production
3.1. PROCESS DESCRIPTIONS IN PYROLYSIS STAGE

After preparing and cleaning raw material coconut shell is crushed by jaw crusher in to small
fragments (100mm to 25mm) and then belt conveyor transports the fragments to pyrolyzer, which
heats them up to 600°C for 30 minutes at a rate of 20°C/min. The shells remain in pyrolyzer for two
hours at 600°C with continuous flow of CO2. Pyrolization of the coconut shells at 600°C and 6 bars
produces char with bio-oil vapors, steam, and incondensable gases as byproducts. The incondensable
gases consist of high amounts CO and small amounts of H2 and CO2, which form syngas. The
following reactions occur in pyrolyzer between the carbon, CO2, and moisture from the shells to
produce the syngas and some of the water.
3H2 (g) + CO (g) ↔ CH4 (g) + H2O (g) (1)
H2O (g) + CO (g) ↔ CO2 (g) + H2 (g) (2)
C (s) + 2H2 (g) ↔ CH4 (g) (3)
C (s) + CO2 (g) ↔ 2CO (g) (4)
C (s) + H2O (g) ↔ CO (g) + H2 (g) (5)

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During the two and a half hour process, the unreacted carbon, bio-oil vapors, steam, and syngas in
stream flow through a cyclone, which separates the unreacted carbon solids from the gases. A vessel
collects the unreacted carbon solids. The bio-oil vapors, steam, and syngas pass through a blower, and
exit which enters a heat exchanger, and leaves at 620 °C. Heat exchanger uses ocean water to cool and
condense the bio-oil vapors and steam in to 95 °C. A compressor compresses the syngas to 4bar and
331 °C. A vessel collects the syngas. When the pressure reaches 76bar, a second identical vessel
collects the remaining syngas.[10] When the pyrolysis reaction is completed, a screw conveyor moves
the coconut char to a cone crusher (pulverizer) which reduces the char size from 25mm to 10mm. A
conveyor belt transports the coconut char to the fluidized bed reactor, in the activation stage of the
production plant.
3.2. Description at activated stage

3.2.1. Chemical activation
In chemical activation, the raw coconut shells are doped with a chemical agent such as ZnCl2 and
H3PO4, and then heated to a moderate temperature between 400 and 800 °C. The pyrolysis and
activation steps occur at the same time, and produce an activated carbon with an open, macro porous
structure. In physical activation, the coconut shells are first pyrolyzed, as described earlier, and reacted
with an oxidizing gas stream such as H2O or CO2 at 900 °C or higher. The resulting activated carbon
has a finer structure and smaller pores, making it better suited for absorbing small particles in liquid
and gas streams.
3.2.2. Physical activation

Physical activation is chosen over chemical activation for this process. While chemical activation
requires lower reaction temperatures and less energy to produce the steam, the harsh doping agents are
hard to remove at the end of the process and remain trapped in the activated carbon. However, these
agents can later desorb, releasing the chemicals into the liquid or gas that is being purified with
activated carbon. Physical activation only uses steam, so no chemicals are trapped in the final product.
In addition, the macro pores produced by chemical activation have a low surface-area to volume ratio
and are too large to trap contaminants selectively. Only physical activation generates the smaller pores
needed to remove the contaminants from flue gas. Because chemical activation does not produce the
right grade of activated carbon for flue gas treatment, physical activation was chosen despite its higher
temperature and energy requirements. Water is chosen over CO2 as the oxidizing gas because of its
lower cost and environmental impact. The coconut char is heated to 900 °C at a rate of 50 °C/min for
17.5 minutes in the activation stage. The char then reacts with steam for one hour to produce activated
carbon.[9] At this point, the coconut char consists entirely of elemental carbon, and some of the
carbon reacts with water to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. The gas escapes from the
solidchar,leaving,behind pores in the carbon solid. The endothermic carbon-steam reaction takes place
in the reactor as follows:

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C (s) + H2O (g) CO (g) + H2 (g) (6)
The carbon monoxide gas and hydrogen gas auto-combust to make water and carbon dioxide gas by
the following exothermic reactions:
CO (g) + 0.5 O2 (g) CO2 (g) (7)
H2 (g) + 0.5 O2 (g) H2O (g) (8)
A stoichiometric amount of O2 is fed to the FBR to combust the CO and H2 formed during the carbon
activation reaction. The O2 must be fed to the top of the reactor to avoid contact with the coconut
char, since the O2 and the char would combust. The steam activation reaction is endothermic and
requires a large heat input to the FBR. However, this energy can be provided entirely by the complete
combustion of CO and H2, which generates twice the amount of energy needed to drive the activation
reaction. In addition, combustion transforms the byproducts into CO2 and H2O, which can be
recycled to the pyrolyzer and FBR. The water that is consumed in the activation reaction is therefore
regenerated by the combustion reaction, drastically reducing the net water consumption in the process.
To provide the water needed for the carbon-steam reaction, pump pressurizes water to 4bar and pumps
into FBR. The water passes through a metal coil, which surrounds and feeds into FBR. The water
absorbs some of the heat produced by the combustion reactions in the reactor, and vaporizes into
steam at 812 °C. The steam combines with recycled steam and the combined steam flows into the
reactor, where it reacts with the coconut char. The conveyer belt transports the activated carbon out of
the reactor at 900 °C. The activated carbon cools down in transit to the storage location and releases
its heat to the surrounding air, which can be maintained at a cool temperature by fans and air
refrigeration units. Workers package the cooled activated carbon in airtight steel barrels and the
barrels are then shipped. In addition to activated carbon, the FBR produces CO2 and steam at 900 °C.
The CO2 and steam leave the reactor and pass through a heat exchanger. The CO2 stream returns to
the compressor for pyrolysis stage, which completes the CO2 cycle. Although the CO2 and steam
produced in the activation stage are recycled to the pyrolyzer and fluidized bed reactor, an initial
charge is needed every day, assuming that the 24 process shuts down at the end of each day. When the
reactors first start up at the beginning of the work day, CO2 or water is not available since no reactions
have taken place yet. After CO2 and steam for the first batch are provided from outside sources, the
CO2 and steam produced by the first batch can be recycled for use in subsequent batches.

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3.3. Process Rationale

The production process for making activated carbon from steam and coconut shells is designed to
minimize energy and utility requirements. The reaction conditions are chosen to minimize the reaction
time and temperature to save energy, and the heat produced by the pyrolyzer and fluidized bed reactor
is recaptured and recycled as much as possible to further reduce the overall heat duty. The steam and
carbon dioxide by-product streams are also recycled as inputs to the two reactors to reduce both utility
and material cost and the raw coconut shells are reduced in size in order to prevent excessive void
space within the furnace. Reducing the size also allows for a faster and more even heat transfer since
the particle’s surface area increases. However, the shell fragments should not be so small that they will
burn instead of carbonizing, which will result in less char production and higher gas yields.[2]
The bio-oil and syngas are recovered because they are sellable products and their capture would
reduce the plant’s environmental impact. Currently, they are left as crude by-products. Lab tests must
be performed in order to determine their true compositions before any purification processes can be
designed. Unreacted carbon is also recovered but must be analyzed to see if it can be recycled to the
pyrolysis process. The coconut char can be converted to activated carbon by physical or chemical
activation.

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CHAPTER FOUR
4. MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1. Materials
The materials that we have used to done our project are:
 Raw coconut shell

 Steam, carbon dioxide and air
 Distilled water
Apparatus used
 Dehydration Unit, Electric Furnace

 Crucible, Activation Unit
 Plastic pail, Crusher
 Draining tray, Sieve, (mesh)
 Drum or burning sink
4.2. Methods
We have used the following methods in our experiment. But before performing the experiment, we
had collected the raw coconut shell, and we had bought the necessary chemicals. The methods are as
follows:
I. Crushing
The coconut shells were crushed into small pieces of about 2mm diameter to give large surface area
for dehydration. Then they were sieved to get rid of dust particles and other impurities.
II. Dehydration
The crushed coconut shells were then placed in an oven maintained at 105oC and soaked for 24 hours
in order to remove the moisture. The dried coconut shells were placed in airtight plastic pails to
prevent re-absorption of moisture from the atmospheric air.
III. Pyrolysis
The crucible was charged with just sufficient coconut shells, and the lid tightly fitted to ensure an
airtight environment. Then the crucible was placed in the furnace carefully and the furnace closed.
The furnace was switched on and heated to a temperature of 460oC, then held constant for 30 minutes
to allow pyrolysis to take place. This was also repeated for a time of 45 and 60 minutes. The same

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procedure was also repeated at temperatures of 520 and 560oC. As is the case in dehydration, the
charcoal obtained from pyrolysis were kept in airtight bags and weighed.

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V. Activation
The charcoal from pyrolysis was then placed in the activation unit and the furnace heated to a
temperature of 750oC. Steam from the pressure cooker was then allowed to flow through it for 30
minutes with temperature held constant. At 750oC, the above was repeated for other two activation
times of 60 and 75 minutes for all the samples from pyrolysis. The whole procedure was repeated for
activation temperatures of 850 and 950oC. At the end of activation, samples had been obtained.
Samples were labeled according to the procedure done on them with various parameters labeled to
facilitate the ease of carrying out of the successive tests.
The different operating parameters and preparation variables for the activated carbon were:
 Dehydrating temperature and time of 105oC for 24 hours.

 Pyrolysis temperature of 460, 520 and 580oC with soaking period of 30, 45 and 60 minutes
each.
 Activation at temperatures of 750, 850 & 950oC for 45, 60 and 75 minutes each.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
5.1. Material balance
It is assumed that the percent yield by mass of char, bio-oil, water, and gas are 27%, 19%, 33%,
and 21% respectively in pyrolysis unit. Since the actual composition of bio-oil is unknown, for
calculation purposes, the bio-oils are assumed to be 100% phenol. The carbon content of coconut
shells is 53.73%. The char is assumed to be pure carbon. The activation process yields activated
carbon, char and steam. The system is steady stat and batch process.
General material balance equation is; Input – output +generation – consumption =accumulation
But at steady stat generating, consumption and accumulation equals to ZER
Mass balance on FBR:
H2O (MH2O), CO2 (Mco2)
Char (Mchar) activated carbon (Mac)

Fluidized bed
O2 (Mo2) reactor
Steam (Mst)
The desired output level is 2,900 kg of activated carbon per batch as described earlier in the
literature review. For the reaction conditions of 900°C and 1 hour reaction time, the activated
carbon yield is 55% of the char feed (Li et al.194).
Mchar * 0.55 = 2900; Mchar = 2900/0.55= 5273kg/batch
Therefore, 5,273 kg of pyrolyzed char per hour must be fed into the fluidized bed reactor. The
remaining 45% of the char mass (2,373 kg) is oxidized by the carbon-steam reaction to create a
porous structure in the remaining carbon solid, which becomes activated carbon.
C (s) + H2O (g) CO (g) + H2 (g) (A19)
Since the incoming char is assumed to be pure elemental carbon, the mass of carbon lost by the
activation process can be converted to the moles of carbon oxidized by the above reaction.

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(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜ƒ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑥i𝑑i𝑧𝑒𝑑)

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜ƒ 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑥i𝑑i𝑧𝑒𝑑 =
𝑀w𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛
Carbon reacts with water in a 1:1 molar ratio to form CO and H2 gas, also in 1:1 ratios. The
byproduct gases, in turn can be combusted in the following reactions to generate heat
CO (g) + 0.5 O2 (g) CO2 (g)

H2 (g) + 0.5 O2 (g) H2O (g)
Each mole of carbon oxidized produces one mole each of CO and H2. Each mole of byproduct
gas reacts with 0.5 mole of O2, so one mole of O2 must be fed into the FBR for each mole of
carbon oxidized, in order to achieve complete combustion of the byproducts.
2373 kg/
In total carbon oxidized = = 197.7kmol/batch. In each batch, requiring a feed of
12 𝑘g/𝑚𝑜𝑙
197.7 kmol of O2 and producing 197.7 kmol of H2O and CO2 each per batch.
Now we are going to calculate the mass of steam input to FBR
 Mass of O2(in) = 197.7 kmol*32 kg/kmol = 6326.4kg/batch
 Mass of H2O(out) = 197.7 kmol *18kg/kmol = 3558.8kg/batch
 Mass of CO2 (out) = 197.7kmol *44kg/kmol = 8698.8kg /batch
 Mass of char(in) = 5,273 kg, Mass of activated carbon(out) = 2900kg/batch
 Mass of steam (in) =?
 Over all mass balance on FBR:

since FBR operates at steady state,
Min =Mout ; Mst +Mchar+Mo2 = Mac +
MH2O + MCO2
Mst = 2900 + 3558.8 +8698.8 – 5,273 – 6326.4 = 3558.2kg/batch
Mst = 3558.2kg/batch

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Mass balance on pyrolyzer

M3 (Carbon, bio-oil, Co, Co2, H2O, H2)
Coconut shell (M1) char (M4)

(6.98% moisture Pyrolyzer
53.73% carbon, 25 oc, 1bar)
Co2 (M2) (600oc, 6bar)
By backward material balance the mass of char is calculated to be 5273kg i.e. M4 =5273kg
Sudaram and Natarajan made an experiment using a 30 cm tubular reactor with a 3.3 cm inner
diameter and the carrier gas flow rate become 100cm3/min for their pyroylsis unit. And our
pyrolysis unit is designed to be 15.2 m3, the CO2 flow rate is scaled according to the following
equation:
CO2 ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑆𝑢𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑎j𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟i𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
(𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑠i𝑠 𝑢𝑛it ) (𝑆𝑢𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑎j𝑎𝑛)
=
Volume of the Sudaram and Natarajan pyrolysis unit (cylindrical)

= 𝜋𝑟2𝑙 =3.14 * (1.65 * 1.65) cm2 * 30 cm = 256.46 cm3
100𝑐𝑚3/𝑚i𝑛
Therefore, 𝐶𝑂2 (ƒ𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒) = * (15.2 𝑚3) = 5.9𝑚3/𝑚i𝑛
256.46 𝑐𝑚3
The CO2 flow rate is calculated to be 5.9 m3/min. Using the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, we can
calculate molar flow rate of Co2(𝑛)
R= 0.08206 l.atm/mole.K, P = 6bar, T= 600 +273 = 873k
1atm = 1.013 bar, x = (6bar * 1atm)/ 1.013bar = 5.9atm
X = 6bar
𝑉 = (5.9 𝑚3 𝑙 𝑙
) * (1000 ) = 5900
𝑚i𝑛 𝑚3 𝑚i𝑛
5900𝑙
5.9𝑎𝑡𝑚 *
𝑃𝑉 𝑚i𝑛 485.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛= = =
𝑅𝑇 0.08206(𝑙. 𝑎𝑡𝑚) 𝑚i𝑛
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑘 * 873𝑘

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𝑀𝑐𝑜2 = 𝑀𝑤 (𝑐𝑜2) * 𝑛 𝑐𝑜2 = 44𝑔 485.9𝑚𝑜𝑙

* = 21.59 kg/min
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚i𝑛
And process time of 2.5 hours, the CO2 mass requirement:
= 21.59kg/min*2.5hr*60 (min/hr) = 3,239 kg i.e. M2 = 3239kg of CO2 per batch
 Over all mass balance on pyrolysis

M1 + M2 = M3 + M4, M1+3239 = M3 + 5273, M1 – M3 = 2034….............(1)
And the percent yield by mass of char is 27% i.e. M4 = 0.27*(M1)
0.27M1 = 5273; M1 = 5273/0.27 = 19,529 kg/batch
M1 = 19,529kg/batch
From (1) M1 – M3 = 2034
M3 = 19,529 – 2034 = 17,495kg/batch
The percent yield by mass of bio-oil is 19%; mass of bio-oil = 0.19*19529 = 3711kg. The mass
of coconut shells is 19,529 kg, these amounts to 5,273 kg of char and 3,711 kg of bio-oils. The
carbon content of coconut shells is 53.73%, which amounts to 10,493 kg. The char is assumed to
be pure carbon (5273kg carbon) and the bio-oils are 75.4% carbon (2798.094kg carbon). The
remaining 2,422 kg of carbon is assumed to react with the moisture water and CO2 in the
following reactions to produce H2O, bio-oil, syngas (CO, H2, and CO2):
3H2 (g) + CO (g) ↔ CH4 (g) + H2O (g)….......................(A3)
H2O (g) + CO (g) ↔ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)….........................(A4)
C (s) + 2H2 (g) ↔ CH4 (g)…............................................(A5)
C (s) + CO2 (g) ↔ 2CO (g)................................................(A6)
C (s) + H2O (g) ↔ CO (g) + H2 (g)...................................(A7)
The carbon reacts with the moisture in the coconut shells and the CO2 gas. The moisture content
is 6.98%; M(moisture) = 0.0698*19529 =1,363 kg. The mole of carbon reacted in the above
reaction:

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1363𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 75.7𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 18𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
3239 𝑘g
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝐶𝑂2 i𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 =
44𝑘g/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 73.6𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
73.6kmol of carbon is reacted with 73.6kmol of CO2 in 1:1 ratio to form 147.2kmol of CO in
reaction (A6). And 75.7kmol of carbon is reacted with 75.7kmol of H2O in 1:1 ratio to form
75.7kmol of CO and 75.7kmol of H2 in reaction (A7). In reaction (A5), carbon reacts with H2 in
1:2 ratio i.e. 37.85kmol of H2 is reacted with 75.7kmol of C to form 75.7kmol of CH4.
3711𝑘g
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜ƒ 𝐶𝐻4 = = 231.2𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
16𝑘g/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
In reaction (A3), 155.5kmol of CH4 is produced. In this reaction H2 is react with CO in 3:1 ratio
i.e. 155.5kmol of CO and 51.83kmol of H2 is required. In the reaction 155.5kmol of H2O is
produced simultaneously with CH4. The percent yield by mass of the syngas is 22% and water is
of 33% yield by mass i.e. mass of H2O = 0.33*(1363+2422) = 1,060 kg.
1060𝑘g
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝐻2𝑂 i𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = = 48.89𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
18𝑘g/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
From the above listed reactions the net produced mol of H2O = 155.5 – 75.7 = 79.8kmol. From
this 30.9kmol is reacted with 30.9kmol of CO to produce 30.9kmolof CO2 and 30.9kmol of H2
in reaction (A4).
 Mol of CO produced = 147.2 + 75.7 – 155.5 + 30.9 = 132kmol/batch

 Mol of H2 produced = 75.7+30.9 – 51.83 – 37.85 = 17kmol/batch
 Mass of CO = 132*28 = 3696kg, Mass of H2 = 17*2 = 34kg/batch
The percent yield of syngas (CO2+CO+H2) is 22%;
(MCO2 + 3698 + 34) = 0.22M1 = 0.22*19,529 = 4296.38
MCO2 = (4296.38 – 3732) = 704kg/batch
The remaining is the mass of unreacted carbon; MC+704+3698+34+3711+1060 = 10,493
,MC = 1533 kg/batch

FROM COCONUT SHELL
5.2. ENERGY BALANCE
Assumption: steady stat, reaction can occur, generating term is exist etc.
General energy balance equation
Energy accumulation =Energy in –Energy out + Generation + Heat absorbing – Heat lose .but the
equation is based on equipment could vary each term.
A. Energy balance on jaw crusher

Bond crushing law and work index: A somewhat more realistic method of estimating the power
required for crushing and grinding was proposed by Bond in 1952. Bond postulated that the
work required to form particles of size Dp from very large feed is proportional to the square root
of the surface-to-volume ratio of the product;
𝑆𝑝 6
=
𝑉𝑝 Ø𝑆𝐷𝑝
𝑃 𝐾𝑏
=
𝑚 √𝐷𝑝
Where m=mass flow rate, Dpb and Dpa particle size in and out respectively Wi = work index.
Index (Wi) is defined as the gross energy requirement in kilo watt hours per ton (2000 lb) of feed
needed to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80 percent of the product passes a 100m
screen. Wi is depend on material type so, in our case the material is carbon (graphite); Wi=15.16.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
=11hP = 11x746W = 8206W
B. Energy balance on pyrolyzer
2,422 kg of carbon is assumed to react with the moisture water and CO2 in the following
reactions:
3H2 (g) + CO (g) ↔ CH4 (g) + H2O (g) (A3)
H2O (g) + CO (g) ↔ CO2 (g) + H2 (g) (A4)
C (s) + 2H2 (g) ↔ CH4 (g) (A5)
C (s) + CO2 (g) ↔ 2CO (g) (A6)
C (s) + H2O (g) ↔ CO (g) + H2 (g) (A7)
The carbon reacts with the moisture in the coconut shells and the CO2 gas. The moisture content
is 6.98%, or 1,363 kg, and is assumed to be water. The reaction calculations on pyrolysis are the
heat of reaction (ΔH°298 K) and standard Gibbs free energy (ΔG°298 K) are calculated for each
reaction using the following equations:
(A8) & (A9)
Δ𝐻°𝑟𝑥𝑛, 298𝑘1 = Δ𝐻°𝐶𝐻4 + Δ𝐻°𝐻2𝑂 − 0, Δ𝐻° 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0

Δ𝐺°298 𝐾, 298𝑘 = Δ𝐺°298 𝐾 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 − Δ𝐺°298 𝐾 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
By direct substitute from table below we get each value in table 5.2
Table 5-1: thermodynamic property of components

FROM COCONUT SHELL
°,
Species ΔĤ,298k ∆G 298k
H2o(g) 820050 104200
Co(g) -92307 -95299
CH4(g) -74520 -50460
Co2(g) -395599 -394559
Where ΔH°form is the heat of formation and ΔG°form is the standard Gibbs energy of formation for
each species. Since the reactions occur at 600°C, the reaction rate, k, is calculated at 600°C using
the Arrhenius equation: (A10)

Where ko is the frequency factor or Arrhenius constant, EA is the activation energy, and R is the
universal gas constant.
Since reactions A3 to A8 are reversible, the backwards reaction rate, kreverse, is required. The
reactions are assumed to be in equilibrium in order to determine the equilibrium constant, K,
which is equal to:
(A11)
Once K is found, then kreverse can be calculated. The reverse rate constant is calculated using the
following derivation: ∆Grxn = ∆GRxn° + RTln (K) (A12)
Where ΔGrxn = 0 since the reactions are in equilibrium. Therefore, equation A10 becomes:
k mean ko in this equation (A13)

Combining equation A11 and A13 results in the following equation:
(A14)
By substituting equation A10 into A14, kreverse can be calculated:
(15)

FROM COCONUT SHELL
The activation energy for the reverse reaction is equal to

𝐸𝑎, 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = 𝐸𝑎 ƒ𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 + |, Δ𝐻°𝑟𝑥𝑛, 298 𝐾 | (A16)
When ΔH°rxn, 298 K is negative, if the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse reaction must
overcome both the activation energy and the heat of the reaction. When ΔH°rxn, 298 K is
positive, then EA, reverse is equal to:
EA, reverse = EA, forward − 𝐾ΔH°rxn 298 𝐾 (A17)
the reaction is endothermic so the reverse reaction has smaller activation energy than the
forward reaction. The reverse ΔH°rxn, 298 K is just the negation of the forward ΔH°rxn, 298 K.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Table 5-2: The value of parameters in each Reaction
Δ𝐻° ΔG 𝐸𝑎ƒ𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 = Eareverse=Eaforward

𝑘
298K Rxn,298K 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑘 -k, Δ𝐻°𝑟𝑥𝑛, 298
𝑘𝑜 Δ𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛
Reaction (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
= exp (− ) (kJ/mol)
𝑅𝑇
1 -206.1 -142.12 124.7 31,005 6.39x106
2 -41.16 -28.62 67 1,958,100 8.06x107
3 -74.81 -50.72 147 1,070,000 8.005x107
4 172.45 120.02 279.5 1.03 x 108 -1.776x1010
5 131.29 91.4 159.4 2,581 -3.387x105
Total = 777.6 = -1.75933x1010
C. Energy balance on FBR
The energy required to pre-heat the coconut char and oxygen to 900 °C from room temperature,
with no phase change; Qi = Cp,i * Ni * ΔT (A23)
Where Qi is the heat required, Cp is the molar heat capacity, N is the number of moles, and ΔT is
the temperature change. The coconut char is fed into the FBR at room temperature, and must be
held in the loading area of the FBR for a short period of time to allow the char to be heated to
900 °C. Based on protocol implemented by (Li et al) a heating rate (dT/dt) of 50°C/min was
chosen.
…………………….. (A24)
Tfinal = 900oC, Tinitial = 25oC, dT/dt = 50oC; Δt = (900 oC – 25 oC)/(50oC/min) = 17.5min
The wait time (Δt), required for the preheating step = 17.5min
FROM COCONUT SHELL
. In each batch, requiring a feed of 197.7kmol of O2

and producing 197.7kmol of H2O and CO2 each.
Pre-heating for oxygen and carbon:

Qo2 = Cpo2*No2*(900-25), Cp @298K = 0.918kJ/kgoC and Cp of carbon@298k = 8.23J/mol.k
= 0.918*197.7*(900-25) = 5.71x106 kJ/hr for O2
And by similar fashion pre-heating of carbon = 1.85x106 kJ/hr
The energy released by the combustion of the byproducts is;
ΔHrxn, comb = nCO*ΔĤcomb (CO) + nH2ΔĤcomb (H2) (A25)
Where nCO and nH2 are the moles of CO and H2 formed per batch.
ΔHrxn, comb = 197.7kmol/hr*520991.4kJ/kmol + 197.9kmol/hr * 0 = 1.03x108kJ/hr
Arbitrarily assuming that 80% of the excess heat is retained inside the FBR, the amount of heat
available for driving the endothermic processes energy is;
Qavailable = 0.8(ΔHrxn, combustion − Qpreheating oxygen) (A26)
= 0.8(1.03x108 kJ-5.71x106 kJ)/hr = 7.82x107kJ/hr
The activation energy of the steam carbon reaction is 252.3 kJ/mol
Qcons = ΣQendothermic process = Qheat carbon + Eactivation + ΔHrxn, activation (A27)
Qcons = 1.85x106 kJ+252.3 kJ+1.03x108kJ =7.49x107 KJ/hr
The remaining energy inside the FBR (Qacc)
Qacc = Qavailable - Qcons = 7.82x107kJ/hr - 7.49x107 kJ/hr = 3.29x106 kJ/hr

FROM COCONUT SHELL
D. Energy balance on heat exchanger
Coolant (182.3kmol/hr)
Syngas, bio-oil (4oC, 1bar) syngas, bio-oil

Heat
H2O (600oC, 6bar) exchanger (95oC, 1bar)
Coolant (182.3kmol/hr)
Syngas contains (CO, H2, and CO2)
Q = CpMT; Qhot = CpMT (hot) and Qcold =CpMT (cold)
Qcold = Qhot; CpMT (hot) = CpMT (cold)
Cold: M = 182.3kmol/hr * 18kg/kmol = 3281.4kg/hr, Cp = 4.18kJ/kg.k
T = T2 – T1; T1 = 4oC, T2 =?
Hot: M = 9206kg, T = 600 – 95 = 505oC = 778k and Cp = Cp of mixture
𝐶𝑝 𝑜ƒ 𝑚i𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ɛ𝑐𝑝i𝑥i
Where cpi is specific heat capacity of the species and xi is mol fraction of the species.
Table 5-3: Components of hot fluid with their property value
Component Mass Miwt(kg/kmol) ni=Mi/Miwt(kmol) xi Cpi Cpixi

(Mi) =ni/ntotal (kJ/kg.k)
kg
H2 34 2 17 0.037 14.3 0.529
CH4 3711 16 232 0.508 2.25 1.143
CO 3697 28 132 0.29 1.04 0.302
CO2 704 44 16 0.035 0.85 0.03

FROM COCONUT SHELL
H2O 1060 18 58.9 0.13 1.87 0.243
Total 9206 456 1 2.25
Cp of mixture = 2.25kJ/kg.k
CpMT (hot) = CpMT (cold);
 (𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑) = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1; 𝑇2 = 𝑇 + 𝑇1 = 901.9 − 4 = 905.9

𝑘𝐽
𝑇ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 (𝑄) = 𝐶𝑝𝑀𝑇 = 4.18 kg
𝑘g.𝑘 * 3281.4 * 1hr/3600sec * 1174.9k
hr
Q = 4476.45kw

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER SIX
6. EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND SELECTION
DESIGN OF MAIN PROCESS EQUIPMENT IS AS FOLLOWS
The following section gives an overview of the equipment calculations.

 PUMP
For the pumping equipment, the pump head, H, across the pump from the suction, s, to the
discharge, d, is calculated from the following equation.[10]
Where V is the average velocity of the fluid, z is the elevation, P is the pressure, ρ is the fluid’s
density and g is gravity. Assume Vd and Vs are equal and there is no change in elevation;
𝐻 = Δ𝑃/ 𝜌𝑑𝑔 (A29)
The power consumption, Pc found from the following equation from (Seider 561):
(A30)
Where Pc is the theoretical power, ηp is the pump efficiency, and Q is the flow rate in (gpm).
For a flow rate in the range of 50 to 5,000 gpm, the pump efficiency is equal to from (Seider
562); ηp = −0.316 + 0.24015ln(Q) − 0.01199ln(Q)2 (A31)
The suction pressure = 1bar and discharge pressure = 4bar; Δ𝑃 = 4 − 1 = 3𝑏𝑎𝑟
Δ𝑃
Using equation (31); 𝐻 =
= 1000𝑘g/𝑚3*9.8𝑚/𝑠2 = 31𝑚. Given a flow rate of 50.7 gpm of
𝜌𝑑 g 3𝑏𝑎𝑟

FROM COCONUT SHELL
water, ηp = −0.316 + 0.24015ln (50.7) − 0.01199ln (50.7)2 = 0.53 From equation A32, the power
50.7*31*1000
consumption; 𝑃𝑐 = =2.968kw
33,000*0.53
Pump selection: Type: centrifugal and material of construction: stainless steel
 CONVEYORS (BELT AND SCREW CONVEYOR
Seider gives the following relation between flow rate and belt width for belt conveyor and also
between screw diameter and flow rate for screw conveyor.
Belt width (W1) = 14in for Q1 = 11ft3/min
Belt width (W2) = 60in for Q2 = 86600ft3/min and
Screw diameter (D1) = 6in. for Q1 = 1.2ft3/min

Screw diameter (D2) = 20in. for Q2 = 3,000 ft3/min
From these values we can make relation between Q and width;
𝑄 – 𝑄1 86600 − 11 𝑄 − 11
𝑄2 – 𝑄1 = ; 60 − 14
=
W − 14
; (ƒ𝑡3/𝑚i𝑛) = 18.552 * W − 25,313
W2 – W1 W – W1
𝑄2 – 𝑄1 𝑄 – 𝑄1 3000 − 1.2 𝑄 − 1.2
= ; = ; (ƒ𝑡3/𝑚i𝑛) = 208.93 * D − 1,178.6
𝐷2 – 𝐷1 𝐷 – 𝐷1 20 − 6 𝐷−6
 Belt conveyor transports coconut shell. Mass flow of coconut shell = 19,529kg/batch.
 Assume five minute transport i.e. M = 19529/5 = 3905.8kg/min
 Density of coconut shell = 1738kg/m3; Q = 2.247m3/min = 6544781.9in3/min
Q = 18.552 * W − 25,313; W = 326.83in = 1.334m
 Screw conveyor transports the final product; M = 2900kg/5min = 580kg/min
 Density of carbon = 2267kg/m3; Q = 580/2267 = 0.25m3/min = 3676531.25in3/min
0.25m3/min = 208.9*D – 1,178.6; D =183.75in = 0.75m
The residence time for one batch = 60min; V (screw) = 0.25*60 = 15m3

FROM COCONUT SHELL
 VESSEL: used to store carbon that comes from cyclone and bio-oil byproduct. The
mechanical design of the vessel is based on the following data:
 Volume = 6.6 m3, D = 2.4m, mass = 7665kg, density = 1158kg/m3,
 Design pressure is assumed to be 10% above the working pressure
 Construction of matrials stain les steel (104)
 Working pressure = 1500psi = 1020.8atm, T = 331 oc design stress @ 331oc =
102.5N/mm, take allowance 2mm.
4𝑣
Length of the vessel; L = 6.6*4 = 1.4m
𝜋𝑑2 = 3.14*2.4*2.4
Design pressure= (working pressure –atmospheric pressure)*1.1
= (1020.8-1)*1.1=1121.78atm
The vessel of carbon store and bio-oil is similar size.
The minimum thickens of the vessel
Materials of construction: Stainless steel. To resist corrosion that could be occurred by some
ashes with carbon, it is better to use stainless steel as construction material.
 HEAT EXCHANGER
The total surface area of each heat exchanger is estimated from the following equation:

FROM COCONUT SHELL
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹Δ𝑇𝑙𝑚 (A32)
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, F is the correction factor, and ΔTlm is the log
mean temperature difference. The log mean temperature is equal to:
(A33)
By assuming counter flow, ΔT1 = Thi – Tco = 905.9 – 600 =305.9oC and
U = 2806.11 W/m2°C for gas to gas streams and F = 0.9 for conservative estimates when water
is service fluid (Turton 381). The heat duty (Q) = 4476.45kw. 𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴𝐹Δ𝑇𝑙𝑚
Heat exchanger selection
Type: Shell and tube (shell and tube heat exchanger have high efficiency of heat transfer)
Material of construction: Carbon steel shell and stainless steel (low grade) tubes. The shell is
difficult to clean and replace so it should be constructed from materials of high corrosive
resistance and strong. On the other hand tubes are easy to clean and substitute.
 PYROLYZER:
Density of coconut shell = 1738kg/m3, Mass of coconut shell = 19529kg,
Volume of pyrolyzer = Mass of coconut shell/ density 19529Kg/1738Kg/m3 = 11.2 m3.
Add additional 4 m3 to the volume for the top and bottom headspace as a corrosion allowance i.e.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
VT = 15.2m3. The diameter between 1m to 3m is permissible for pyrolyzer so, chose 1.5m
diameter i.e. radius = 0.75m.
V
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟2L; L = 15.2𝑚3 = 8.6𝑚. The length of pyrolyzer (L) = 8.6m
𝜋𝑟2 = 3.14*0.75*0.75𝑚2
Materials of construction: carbon steel, since high amount of ashes are produced inside the
pyrolyzer the pyrolyzer must be constructed from materials of high resistance.
 FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR
The volume of the reactor is found using the following equation:

W𝑠 = ρcAchs (1−∈ s) = ρcAch (1−∈ ) (A34)
Ws = weight of settled char, 𝐴𝑐 is cross-sectional area of the bed, h𝑠 is height of the settled bed,
h is height of the bed at any time, c𝑠 is porosity of settled bed, c is porosity of expanded bed, and
ρc is density of carbon char. In order to find c𝑠, the following equation is used:
ϵs = 1 – (r/6) (A35)
Where r is radius of particles, the char particle size is about 1cm, so r is assumed to be 1cm;
ϵs = 1 – (r/6) = 1 – 1/6 = 0.833
The char batch mass is 5273 kg, ρc = 2267kg/m3
𝐴𝑐ℎ𝑠 = W𝑠/ (𝜌𝑐 (1 − c𝑠) = 5273/(2267*(1 – 0.833)) = 14m3
Notice that Achs is also volume of the bed, thus the minimum volume required for the reactor is
found at a value of 14 m3. (Alcocer 18) establish an aspect ratio of 3.3:1 between A c to hs for a
similar reactor i.e. Ac/ hs = 3.3; Ac = 3.3 hs
3.3 hs2 = 14m3; h s2 = 4.24m2; h s= 2.06m; A c= 6.798m2
The minimum fluidization velocity (umf) is calculated from the following equation:

FROM COCONUT SHELL
(36)
Where μ is viscosity of fluidizing gas, (g = 9.81m/s2), ρc is density of char (= 2267kg/m3), ρg is

density fluidizing gas, and As (area of settled bed) is defined as:
The variable, ϕ, is a dimensionless parameter defined as:
And ϵmf is equal to: c𝑚ƒ = (0.071/𝜑)1/3 = (0.071/1.25)1/3 = 0.38. The fluidizing gas for the
process is steam at 110oC and 1bar; (ρg = 1.236kg/m3, μ = 1.261x10-5kg/ms)
Materials of construction: (Stainless steel is preferred): unwanted tarry materials may flow into
the FBR with char. These materials may corrode the reactor. So, we must use non corrosion
resistance materials.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
 COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATION:
The power of the compressor required for specific application is based on the flow rate of the air
(O2). The flow rate of O2 in to the FBR is = 106kg/min. Seider gives the relation of flow rate and
power, at 106kg/min, power required = 184kw.
Material of construction: stainless Steel; Type centrifugal (most commonly used type
Table 6-4: summary of equipment and selection
Equipment Size and/or capacity Type Material of

construction
Shell and tube A = 10 m , Q = 4476.45kw
2
Shell and tube Carbon steel
heat shell, shell
exchanger and tube
Crusher Crushing capacity Jaw Stainless steel

FROM COCONUT SHELL
= 19.529ton/hr
Pyrolyzer V = 15.2m3, L = 8.6m, - carbon steel
D = 1.5m
Reactor V = 14m3 A = 6.798m2, Fluidized bed Stainless steel
hs = 2.06m, umf = 115x105m/s
Pump Power = 2.968kw, Head =31m, Centrifugal stainless steel
Efficiency = 0.53
Conveyor W = 1.334m = 16in, Belt Aluminium
Q = 2.247m3/min
L = 75.76m = 248.5ft
Screw conveyor D = 0.75m = 9in, L 111.52ft Screw Aluminium
Q = 0.25m3/min
Vessel W = 7665kg,V = 6.6 m3, D = - Stainless steel
2.4m, L= 1.4m,
Minimum thickness =
14.7cm
Compressor 184kw, Q = 106kg/min Centrifugal Stainless steel
CHAPTER SEVEN
7. COST ESTIMATION
7.1. Estimating the purchased equipment cost
The cost of purchased equipment is the basis of several pre design methods for estimating capital
investment.
Table 7-5: Typical equipment capacity delivered capital cost correlations (CE index = 435.8)

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Equipment Material of Capacity Base Base cost Size Cost

Construction Measure size QB CB ($) Range exponent
M
Agitated CS Volume (m3) 1 1.15 × 104 1–50 0.45

reactor
Pressure SS Mass (t) 6 9.84 × 104 6–100 0.82

vessel
Shell-and- Heat transfer
CS 80 3.28 × 104 80–4000 0.68
tube heat area (m2)
exchanger
Compressor Power (kW)
SS 250 9.84 × 104 250– 0.46
(Including
10,000
motor)
Centrifugal SS (high
Power (kW) 1 1.97 × 103 1–10 0.35
pump, grade)
(small)
(Source: chemical process design and integration, Wiley 2005, table 2.1)
In order to estimate the cost of purchased equipment, there are two methods;
I. By obtaining firm bids from fabricators or suppliers
II. Updating cost values from the file of past purchase orders using current cost
index
In our project we have used the second method to estimate the purchased equipment cost.
Assumption:
 Current cost index = 441.9 (the recent chemical engineering cost index in 20th century)
 The equipment cost can be calculated based on cost base
 The cost of fluidized bed reactor and pyrolyzer have same base cost with agitated reactor

FROM COCONUT SHELL
COST OF PURCHASED EQUIPMENTS;
(A37)
Where, CE = equipment cost with capacity (Q)

CB = known base cost for equipment with capacity (QB)
M = constant depending on equipment type
And the equipment cost must be up-to-date and put on a common basis using cost indexes.
𝐶1 𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐸X1
𝐶2 = 𝐼𝑁𝐷𝐸X2
Where, C1 = equipment cost in year 1, C2 = equipment cost in year 2
INDEX1 = cost index in year 1 and INDEX2 = cost index in year 2
A. COST OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

FROM COCONUT SHELL
B. COST OF FLUDIZED BED REACTOR;
Working capital is what must be invested to get the plant into productive operation.
C. COST OF PROLYZER;
D. COST OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

FROM COCONUT SHELL
E. COST OF VESSEL
F. COST OF COMPRESSOR
G. COST OF BELT CONVEYORS
H. COST OF SCREW CONVEYORS

FROM COCONUT SHELL
I. COST OF JAW CRUSHER
The total purchased equipment cost = $ 357,704
7.2. Estimating Capital Investment
I. TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Table 7-6: Typical percentage of fixed-capital investment values
Components Assumed (%) of TFC Cost ($)
Purchased equipment 25 357,704
Purchased-equipment installation 8 114,465.28
Instrumentation (installed) 6 85,848.96
Piping (installed) 7 100,157.12
Electrical (installed) 5 71,540.8
Buildings (including services) 5 71,540.8
Yard improvements 2 28,616.32
Service facilities (installed) 11 157,389.76

Land 1 14,308.16
Engineering and supervision 8 114,465.28
Construction expense 12 171,697.92
Contractor’s fee 3 42,924.48
Contingency 7 100,157.12
Total fixed cost 100% 1,430,816
II. Total capital investment
Total capital investment = Total fixed cost + Working
capital Total fixed cost = $ 1,430,816 = 38,632,032ETB
 WORKING CAPITAL;
Working capital is what must be invested to get the plant into productive operation.
For an estimate of the working capital investment, take either:

FROM COCONUT SHELL
(a) 30% of annual sales, or

(b) 15% of total capital investment
Take 15% of total capital investment; WCI +TFCI = TCI, 0.15TCI +TFCI = TCI
7.3. Estimating total product cost
Table 7-7: labor operating cost
Work specification Amount required Monthly salary (ETB) Yearly salary

(ETB)
Plant manager 1 10,500 126,000
Production head 1 7500 90,200
Quality control head 1 4000 48,000
Man power head 1 8000 96,000
Purchasing and sales 1 4300 51,600
head
Accountant 1 3500 42,000
Secretaries 3 2500 90,000
Mechanics 1 3,100 37,200
Laboratory technician 3 3,600 129,600
Security guard 2 1,400 33,600
Production line worker 18 2,000 432,000
Other labour workers 25 1200 360,000
Cleaners 3 1000 36,000
Driver 2 2500 60,000
Total OL 63 105,900 1,631,400

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Table 7-8: Cost of raw materials and utilities based on the material balance
Raw Quantity per annum Unit price (ETB/kg) Total cost Reference
materials (ETB/year)
Coconut 41,010,900kg 0.5/kg 20,505,450 faostat.org
shell
CO2 6,801,900kg - 132,928.56 Stoodyind.co
m
Steam 7,472,640kg - - -
O2 13,285,440kg - - -
Process 14442 m3/yr 13.5/m3 194,967 Seider, 2010
water
Electricity 40,782 MW 1.62/kW-hr 81,564 Seider, 2010
Total 20,914,909.56
 DEPRECIATION;
Assumption;
 The average service life (n) of all equipment is assumed to be 12years
 The value of the property depreciates linearly
 Assume the salvage value of the equipments (Vs) = $ 70,000
𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐i𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛 = ; (A38)
𝑛
Where V = original value = $ 357,704, Vs = salvage value, and n = service life = 12 years
357704 – 70,000
Depreciation = = $ 23,975.33𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
12

FROM COCONUT SHELL

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Table 7-9: Estimation of total product cost
Components Factors Cost (ETB/year)

A. Direct production cost
1.Raw material cost Calculated 20,914,909.56
1.Manufacturing 2.Operating labor (OL) Calculated 1,631,400
cost 3.Direct supervision 8%OL 130,512
4. Maintenance and repair 3% FCI 42,924.48
5. Laboratory charges 7%OL 114,198
Direct production cost 22,833,944.04
B. Fixed charges
1.Depreciation - 647,334
2.Capital charge 1%FCI 14,308.16
3.Insurance 0.7%FCI 10,015.712
Fixed charges (FC) = 671,657.872
C. plant overhead 5%OL 81,570
Manufacturing cost 23,587,171.91
2.General expenses 1.Adminstrative cost 3%TPC 752,782.08
2.Distribution and selling cost 2%TPC 501,854.72
3. Research and development 1%TPC 250,927.4
Expenses
Total general expenses 6%TPC 1,505,564.165
Total product cost = Total general expenses + Manufacturing cost

𝑇𝑃𝐶 = 0.06 𝑇𝑃𝐶 + 23,587,171.91
𝑇𝑃𝐶 – 0.06𝑇𝑃𝐶 = 23,587,171.91
0.94𝑇𝑃𝐶 = 23,587,171.91

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER EIGHT
8. PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
I. Gross profit
Gross profit = total annual sales value - TPC
The production capacity is 2900kg/batch, 1 batch takes 4hours and we have 20 working hours
per day (5batch). We have 300 working days per year.
The amount of product sold per year = 2900*5*300 = 4,350,000kg/annum
Unit price of activated carbon = 10.7ETB/kg
The total annual sales value = 4,350,000 *10.7 = 46,545,000ETB/annum
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜ƒi𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑇𝑃𝐶
46,545,000 − 25,682,914 = 20,862,086𝐸𝑇𝐵/𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
II. Net profit
Net profit = gross profit – tax

The tax is 35% of the profit in Ethiopian,
Annul tax = 0.35*20,862,086 = 7,301,730ETB/annum
Net profit = 20,862,086 – 7,301,730 = 13,560,356ETB/annum
Rate of return
Rate of return = Net profit 13,560,356

𝑥100% = x 100% = 29.84%
Total capital investment 45,449,449.41
Payback period
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑝𝑒𝑟i𝑜𝑑 = ƒi𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝i𝑡𝑎𝑙 i𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

(A39)
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜ƒi𝑡+𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐i𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛
38,632,032𝐸𝑇𝐵
= 13,560,356ETB/year+647,334ETB/year = 2.72years (3 years).

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Break even
analysis
ƒi𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝i𝑡𝑎𝑙 i𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜i𝑛𝑡 = (A40)
𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑟i𝑐𝑒 – 𝑣𝑎𝑟i𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜ƒ 𝑢𝑛i𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛i𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜ƒ 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 25,092,736.08𝐸𝑇𝐵/𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚

= = 5.77𝐸𝑇𝐵/𝑘𝑔
4,350,000𝑘g/𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜i𝑛𝑡 = 38,632,032𝐸𝑇𝐵

= 7,836,112𝑘𝑔
(10.7𝐸𝑇𝐵/𝑘g−5.77𝐸𝑇𝐵/𝑘g)
At the breakeven point, the total product sold is 7,836,112kg of activated carbon
Net present value (NPV)
(A41)
Where CF is the annual cash flow, i = interest rate, and n = project life = 12.
Take the minimum acceptable rate (i) =12%, and cash flow can be calculated as;
Cash inflow (CF) = Net profit + Depreciation

= 13,560,356ETB/year + 647,334ETB/year = 14,207,690ETB/year
Internal rate of return (IRR)
To calculate IRR, make the NPV = 0,

NPV = 0 PV – TCI = 0 PV = TCI

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Profitability index (PI)
(A42)
 Cash inflow (CFi) = 46,545,000ETB/year

 Cash flow out (CFo) = TPC + Tax = 32,394,466.08ETB/year
Cumulative cash flow
Breakeven point
0 Time in year

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Payback period= 3 yrs

Figure 8-4: Cash flow diagram

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER NINE
9. PLANT LOCATION
9.1. Choice of plant location
The importance of the geographical location of the plant can be over emphasized. The location
considered for the sitting of activated carbon plant is around Bahr Dar city in Amara region.
After detailed analysis of the various location factors appropriate for sitting the activated carbon
plant has been decided in Amara region. Different aspects of site selection must be given some
consideration. There are a number of considerations concerning the choice of site locations for
activated carbon plant with in the country. Some of these are general considerations are:
 Raw material availability
 market competency in terms of distribution
 transportation accessibility
 accessibility of utility
 governmental low
 customers
 suitability of the environment to cultivate coconut tree
 Weather condition suitability for growth of coconut plant
 Center of the market to distributed our product to any industry the
 The plant erect where Power availability is nice.
 Human power can be getting easily and cheapest compare to other city.
 A good working environment is preferable for the workers.
 Distance from coconut cell land must be also considered.
 Source of water
Generally raw material for production of activated carbon (coconut shell) is available in large
amount in Bhar Dar city and around the city , Market availability in that site is better because there
are a lot of factory’s near to Bahardar city like plastic , textile, and some distance from the city in
Combolcha, Gonder,mekel, Bure and others in addition to this there is accessibility of
infrastructures like electricity, communication, water, transportation so we decided that the plant

FROM COCONUT SHELL
erect in Amara region around Bahr Dar city .
9.2. Environmental impact assessment
Although activated carbon is used to remove harmful pollutants and toxins from the air, the
process used to make it will release CO 2, which is a greenhouse gas. One of the major benefits of
this project is the significant mercury removal that will result from power plants using the
product. The emission of mercury from the environment will lead to a significant increase in the
quality of human and animal life. Mercury is a naturally occurring element in coal. After coal is
burned in power plants, the demand for activated carbon will increase as coal and oil-fired power
plants fight to stay in compliance. There is a small risk for these new mandates to be minimized
if it is not practical for the power plants to come into compliance and the pollution reduction
technology supply is over-strained. By providing the market with a boost in activated carbon
production, this operation will help minimize the risk of low sorbent supply.[12]
The study outlined herein is a life cycle assessment (LCA) for the mass production of high-
quality activated carbon. The ultimate aim of the process is to be profitable and provide benefits
to the environment with the products’ aftermarket use. With such goals in mind, the negative
impacts of the energy, water, and resource consumption must be evaluated in addition to the
pollutants the process emits, such as CO2. Only then can it be determined if the overall project
positively impacts the environment. As much as possible co 2 emission is minimize by recycling
as energy used in pyrolysis process, so our product manufacturing process is sound with
environment.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER TEN
10. PLANT LAYOUT
The figure below shows a plant layout Activated carbon production.
Figure 10-5: plant layout

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11. Economic and Social Benefits and Justification
11.1. Socio economic analysis
The social service provided by this company is distributing packing activated carbon for the
society with in cheap cost for industry in our country and neighbor’s country and providing
cafeteria service within discount price and removing any unwanted Oder.
11.2. Job opportunity
Job opportunity that this company will provided is for more than 63 workers including skilled and
labor works during all the manufacturing sections are fully working and this number is
continuously increasing in each and every production expansion program
Table 11-10: Stockholder based on education level
Department № of human resource

Plant manager 1
Production head 1
Quality control head 1
Man power head 1
Purchasing and sales head 1
Accountant 1
Secretaries 3
Mechanics 1
Laboratory technician 3
Security guard 2
Production line worker 18
Other labor workers 25
Cleaners 3
Driver 2

FROM COCONUT SHELL
Total OL 63

FROM COCONUT SHELL
CHAPTER TWELVE
12. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
12.1. CONCLUSION
The process yields should be fairly accurate, as they were adapted from published literature.
However, some variability might exist, since the heat and mass transport properties of the
reactors do not stay the same when the reactor is scaled up. A poorer degree of heat or mass
transfer typically results in lower reactivity and yields, as well as poorer product quality. The
char entering the FBR is assumed to be free of volatiles, so that all of the char mass is elemental
carbon. In reality, it is likely that a trace amount of volatiles exists in the char, but they are easily
driven out of the char by the activation reaction. The pyrolysis conditions are chosen to eliminate
nearly all of the volatile content, so the trace amount of volatiles left in the char should have a
negligible impact on the composition of the gas by-product.
The sizing of the storage vessels in the pyrolysis stage and the amount of CO 2 fed to the
paralyzer might be slightly inaccurate because the CO2 is assumed to be ideal, even at the
process pressure of 6bar. In reality, CO 2 is not ideal at the pyrolysis conditions, so the volume of
CO2 required may differ significantly from the calculated value. The heat duty of the FBR should
be fairly accurate, although some variability may exist due to the arbitrarily assumed FBR
energy retention of 80%. The by-products CO and H2 are almost certain to achieve complete
combustion at the reaction temperature of 900 °C, since the auto-ignition temperatures of the two
gases are far below 900 °C. The variability results from the amount of heat lost by the FBR to
radiation and natural convection, which must be determined empirically for the individual
reactor setup. The cost of the equipment may be slightly inaccurate due to the inaccurate pump
and compressor flows, as explained above. Since the true compressor and pump duties are higher
than the values calculated by treating the process as a flow process, the equipment costs will also
typically higher. Some variability in the actual revenue may exist, since the activated carbon was
priced using the highest quality carbon sold by Calgon Carbon. In reality, the product quality of

FROM COCONUT SHELL
the activated carbon produced in this process may be lower, or may vary with minor fluctuations
or changes in the process or equipment.
A potential source of error is the process design and calculations, which includes the nonlinear
correlation between process parameters during scale-up from laboratory-scale equipment to
commercial-scale equipment. As explained earlier, the process parameters are obtained from lab-
scale experiments, which may not be valid after scale-up. However, data for commercial-scale
setups is not widely available, so a simple geometry.
12.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
While the proposed plant is designed to make optimal use of heat and waste streams and
maximize product yield and quality, further investigation and redesigning could potentially
improve upon the financial and technical viability of the current design.
The pyrolyzer in the current design is highly inefficient, with a meager char yield of 27% of the
raw coconut shells fed into the reactor. Chemcad simulations showed that as the pyrolysis
pressure is increased, the char yield increases, resulting in less coconut shell waste. However, a
pressure range of 5 – 7bar is recommended, so the pyrolysis pressure is set at 6 bar. In the future,
a pilot-scale study of the effect of pyrolysis pressures above 7 bar on the char yield and quality is
recommended to determine if the char yield can be increased without sacrificing product quality.
This would reduce the amount of raw coconut shells needed to produce the desired quantity of
activated carbon. The waste can potentially be further reduced by investigating if the unreacted
char from each pyrolysis batch can be recycled, so that at some point, all of the raw coconut shell
mass can be converted into activated carbon.
A small degree of uncertainty exists regarding the composition and quantity of the syngas and
bio-oil produced in the pyrolyzer. While the values obtained from literature and Chemcad
simulations match relatively closely, the small differences will affect whether the syngas and
bio-oil can be further purified and sold as valuable high-energy fuel, or if they should simply be
sold as low-worth crude material. Since the literature values are obtained from laboratory-scale
experiments, the quality and quantity may differ significantly when the pyrolyzer is scaled-up by

FROM COCONUT SHELL
a simple volumetric ratio, rather than by keeping the aspect ratio or flow parameter the same.
Further research on a pilot-scale pyrolyzer is recommended to find the exact composition of the
bio-oil and syngas obtained by pyrolysis at the reaction conditions. This will determine how the
two byproducts should be processed and utilized to obtain the maximum economic benefits. A
heating jacket around the pyrolyzer can be designed using a different MOC to make it more
resistant to the corrosive syngas and bio-oil vapors flowing through it. The current MOC of the
pyrolyis unit is carbon steel, which is susceptible to corrosion from the syngas and bio-oil
vapors. Replacement of the pyrolyis unit is costly; therefore, it is recommended that the
degradative effects of the syngas and bio-oil on carbon steel be investigated in order to determine
if it is necessary to protect the carbon steel with a sacrificial coating, or if it would be worthwhile
to upgrade to a more costly but corrosion-resistant material such as stainless steel.
The current water flow rates for the FBR cooling jackets might not be sufficient to remove the
heat from the FBR, due to the non-ideality of flow and heat transfer in a large reactor. The
cooling jacket calculations currently assume a complete and even transfer of heat between the
hot combustion gases inside the FBR and the water flowing through the cooling coils and pipes
wrapped around and inside the reactor. However, due to the high volumetric flow rates, the flow
is likely turbulent and the heat might not be transferred uniformly to the separate cooling
streams. One stream might absorb more heat than expected, causing less heat to be available to
the other stream and resulting in overheating and under heating of the respective streams. It is
also possible for some of the heat to remain trapped inside the FBR, resulting in an accumulation
of heat in sluggish zones inside the reactor.

FROM COCONUT SHELL
REFERENCE
[1] "Properties of Activated Carbon", CPL Caron Link, accessed 2008-05-024. 2 Michael M, 2
[2] Brittain M, Nagai J, et al. Phase II study of activated charcoal to prevent irinotecan-induced
diarrhea, J Clin Oncol. 22 (21), 4410–7 (2004).
[3] Mattson J. S. and Mark H. B., activated carbon, New York: Dekker, (1971).
[4 ] Baker F. S., Miller C. E., Repic A. J. and Tolles E. D., Activated carbon. Kirk-Othmer
Encycolpedia of Chemical Technology, 4, 1015-1037 (1992).
[7] El-Hendawy A. A., Influence of HNO3 oxidation on the structured and adsorptive
properties of corncob activated carbon. Carbon, 41, 713-722 (2003)
[8] Smisek M. and Cerney S., Active carbon: manufacture, properties and applications,
Elsevier: Amsterdam (1970).
[9] Zhang, Jieling, et al. "Product Analysis and Thermodynamic Simulations from the Pyrolysis
of SevU.S. Secretary of Commerce. "Carbon." 2011. NIST Chemistry WebBook.
12 F December 2017 <http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/>.
[10] "Carbon Dioxide." 2011. NIST Chemistry WebBook. 12 December 2017
<http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/>.
[11] Biofuel. What is Syngas. n.d. 25 March 2012 <http://biofuel.org.uk/what-is-syngas.html>.al
Engineering Plant Cost Index Ei 201102." Chemical Engineering (2011): 55-56.
[12] <http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/>.eral Biomass Feedstocks." Energy and Fuels 21
(2007): 2373-2385.
[13]"ChemicAtkins, Peter and Julio De Paula. Atkins' Physical Chemistry. Great Britain: Oxford
University Press, 2006.
[14] Binford, Jesse S and Henry Eyring. "Kinetics of the Steam-Carbon Reaction." The Journal
of Physical Chemistry 60.4 (1956): 486-491.

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WOLLO UNIVERSITY

KOMBOLCHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE NAME: - PLANT DESIGN AND ECONOMICS (ChEg 5193)

TARGET GROUP: - 5TH YEARS, 1ST SEMISTER

TASK: - DESIGN OF A PLANT FOR PRODUCTION OF ACTIVATED CARBON FROM

1. GETASEW GUADIE ……………………. WOUR/1307/10

Submission date: 06/10/2014

Name Signature Date

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 2

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page iii

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page iv

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page v

2.3.2. Environmental field.....................................................................................................12

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page vi

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page vii

Figure 2-1: Coconut tree (www.cyclopida. Com)..................................................................................10

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page viii

Table 5-1: thermodynamic property of components..............................................................................27

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page ix

NPV = net present value

IRR = internal rate of return

PAC = powdered activated carbon

GCA = granular activated carbon

ROI = rate on investment

LCA = life cycle assessment

FBR = fluidized reactor

value CFI = cash

inflow CFO = cash out

TPC = total production cost

TCI=total cost investment

EPA=environmental protection agency

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page ix

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 1

1.2. Statement of the problem

1.3.1. General Objective

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

1.4. Scope of the project

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 2

1.5. Significance of the project

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 3

2.1. Product assessment

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 4

Properties of activated carbon

 Micropore region - less than 100 Angstroms

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 5

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 6

2.1.1.1. Working principle of activated carbon

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 7

2.1.1.2. Structure of activated carbon

2.1.1.3. Classification of activated carbon

I. Powdered activated carbon (PAC)

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 8

II. Granular activated carbon (GAC)

III. Extruded activated carbon (EAC)

IV. Impregnated carbon

2.1.2. World demand of activated carbon

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 9

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 10

2.1.3. Local demand of activated carbon

2.2. Raw material source identification

WOLLO UNIVERSITY (KIOT) │ CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT│ Page 11