Our Earth

 Aryabhat and Bhaskara were famous Astronomers

 Aryabhat discovered in 6th century that day and night are due to rotation of Earth
 Aryabhat was born in Patna (Pataliputra), he was also a Mathematician and 1 st used
Algebra
 Aryabhat calculated the value of Pie
 Aryabhat wrote Aryabhatiya (Maths) and Aryabhatasidhanta (Astronomical
calculations)
 1st Indian experimental satellite that was launched in April 1975 was named
Aryabhata. Aryabhata died in 550 AD.
 Thickness of Earth’s crust is 35-60Km. It is thinner below the oceans
 Radius of Earth is 6400 Km
 Core is the hottest part of Earth and mainly consists of iron
 Nitrogen slows down the rate of burning of materials
 Oceans are rich source of common salt and iodine
 The layer of ice in the oceans, lakes etc prevents further cooling of water below it
 Nicholas Copernicus, Polish, gave for the 1st time the idea that planets move around
the sun
 Mercury has no atmosphere
 Venus’s atmosphere consists mainly of CO2. Venus reflects most of the sunlight and
is therefore visible
 Mars is half the size of Earth and its atmosphere mainly consists of Nitrogen
 Nicholas Copernicus born on 19.2.1473 at Torun, Poland
 Copernicus Tower is an observatory tower for looking at heavenly bodies

Environment

 The available Oxygen is less when one moves up the altitude

 Paper and cloth are biodegradable, plastic is not
 Plant called Portulaca (Dhoop Khirri), all flowers of this plant bloom after sunrise and
close down after sunset
 In some plants like Bauhinia (Kachnar), leaves fold during night and again open up
during the daytime
 Cows can tolerate hot weather better than buffaloes
 Cactus stores waters in its stem and is called Succulent plant
 Leaves of palm trees are serrated to reduce the effect of wind
 Soil with smaller particles is called clay

Matter

 Water can dissolve Oxygen as well as CO2 but cannot dissolve Nitrogen and Methane
 Paper, cloth , bamboo and Bakelite (plastic) are bad conductors of heat
 Liquid mercury is a good conductor of heat
 Air and water are bad conductors of heat
 Paper, dry cloth and rubber are bad conductors of electricity
 Water is a bad conductor of electricity but when salts are dissolved in it then it
conducts electricity
 Michael Faraday invented basic principle of an electric generator used for producing
electricity. He constructed dynamo effect. Born on 22.9.1791 in England and died on
25.8.1867
 Iron, Nickel and Cobalt are attracted by a magnet

Substances

 Sambhar lake is in Rajasthan

 Wood is made up of cellulose and water
 The process of separating husk from wheat grains by making the mixture fall from a
height is known as winnowing
 Process of filtering water from heavy materials dissolved in it due to settling of heavy
particles at the bottom is called decantation
 Decantation can also be used to separate two liquids ie water and oil.
 Alum (phitkari) is used to separate lighter particles dissolved in water. Alum dissolves
in water and makes the light particles heavy and they settle down. This process is
known as Loading
 Centrifugation is rotating the mixture and the heavier particles settle at the bottom.
This process is used in dairies for separation of cream from milk. Example is churning
of curd and butter being lighter floats at the top
 Harmful organisms are killed in water using ultra violet rays
 Chlorine is used to kill harmful bacteria in water
 Evaporation is useful in order to separate common salt from water
 Sublimation is phenomenon of changing directly into gaseous state from solid state
and vice versa. Examples are Ammonium Chloride (Nausadar), camphor, naphthalene
and iodine

Changes
 Bacteria convert milk into curd
 Galileo Galilie gave the fundamental of pendulum
 Galileo was born on 15 Feb 1564 in Italy. He made a pendulum clock; he also made
his own telescope. He also demonstrated that light and heavy objects both fall with
same velocity and touch the ground at the same time
 Galileo died on 8 Jan 1642
 Louis Pasteur was born on 27 Dec 1822. He developed the process of pasteurization
for preserving milk
 Pasteur is remembered for the study of microbes
 Charcoal can be obtained from sugar by heating sugar and this process is known as
charring of sugar

Measurement
 SI unit of temperature is Kelvin
 National Physical Laboratory (NPL) New Delhi is responsible for maintaining the
National Standards for all SI units
 1 quintal = 100 kg, 1 ton = 10 quintals
 Early device for measuring time was sundial. Sundial’s plate is kept in North-South
direction
 Historical sundials are at Jantar Mantar, Delhi and Jaipur, built by Maharaja Jai Singh
II
 Maharaja Jai Singh II was born in1686, at the age of 13 ascended to the throne of
Amber. He built four Jantar Mantars (Delhi, Varanasi, Jaipur and Ujjain). He also
designed three instruments namely Samrat Yantra, Ram Yantra and Jai Prakash
 Maharaja Jai Singh II planned and built the city of Jaipur
Characteristics of Living
 Gum and latex (white milk in aak, banyan and rubber trees)
 Earthworms move away from saline medium and light
 Plant cells have hard cell walls made up of cellulose, animal cells do not have cell
walls
 Fungus (such as mushroom), algae, mosses and ferns on the trunks of trees are non
flowering plants
 Coconut trees and palm trees have no branches
 Lemon, corinda (karonda), henna, lantana, bougainvillea and pomegranate are shrubs
 Balsam, wheat, paddy, mustard and kochia are herbs
 Plants whose life cycle from seed germination to fruits is completed in one season are
called annual plants. Examples include wheat, paddy, mustard, moong, gram, petunia
and balsam, they are generally herbs
 Plants whose life cycle from seed germination to fruits is completed in two seasons
are called biennial plants. Examples include carrot, radish, turnip and potato
 Plants which grown on land and require moderate supply of water are called
mesophytes, plants which grow in dry climate and survive with minimum water are
called Xerophytes (examples are ber, cacti and babool). Xerophytes generally have
long roots and have thin and spiny leaves
 Plants that live in lakes and ponds are called hydrophytes (examples include lotus,
water lily, water hyacinth and water chest-nut)
 Organisms feeding on dead and decomposed bodies are called saprophytes (examples
include mushroom), those feeding on living bodies are called parasites (cuscuta and
mistletoe)
 Vertebrates have bony skeleton with a backbone. Vertebrates are divided into pisces
(fish), amphibians (frogs), reptiles (lizards and snakes), aves (birds) and mammals
(man, monkey, kangaroo, cow etc)
 Parasite entamoeba causes dysentery
 Scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica, wheat is Triticum aestivum, paddy is
Oryza sativa
 Influenza, tuberculosis, cholera, ameobic dysentery, aspergillosis and malaria are
diseases in animals while smut and rust are diseases of plants
Function of Living Organizations
 Oesophagus is scientific name of food pipe
 Banyan (bargad), maize and sugarcane trees have supporting roots
 Leaf has three parts – leaf base, stalk and leaf blade
 Pea plant has coil like leaves that help the plant in climbing, these modified leaves are
called leaf tendrils
 Pollen is contained in anthers, which are the swollen top of stamen (center of the
flower)
 Carpel is the female part of the plant and is found at the centre of the flower. Ovary is
the swollen part at the base of the carpel
 Ovules contained in the ovary are converted into seeds and ovary turns into fruit
 Three pairs of salivary glands are present in our mouth
 Stomach has acidic juice which helps in digestion of proteins
 Absroption of digested food into blood takes place in the small intestine whereas the
waste material moves into the large intestine
 The large intestine absorbs the water from undigested food
 Small intestine (3m) is longer than large intestine (1.5m)
 Oxygen enters blood from the lungs
 Diaphragm is a heavy muscle in our chest which helps in breathing out
 Blood vessels are of three types veins, arteries and capillaries
 Arteries carry blood from heart to all parts of body
 Blood is purified by lungs when it re-enters the heart through veins
 Capillaries form the connection between veins and arteries
 For measuring pulse, Stethoscope is used

Force and Motion

 Isaac Newton discovered the phenomenon of gravity

 Isaac Newton was born on 25 Dec 1642 in England
 Newton wrote two important books – Principia (theory of universal gravitation) and
Opticks
 Newton died on 31 March 1727
 N/m2 is called Pascal and is the unit of pressure
 As we go up, pressure starts decreasing
 Manometer is used to measure pressure difference
 Archimedes was a Greek scientist and Mathematician, born in Sicily

Health
 Word ‘Hygiene’ was developed from Hygeia, the Greek goddess of health
 Energy giving foods (carbohydrates, fats); body building foods (proteins) and
protective foods (minerals and vitamins)
 Enamel is the hardest part of human body
 Use of earthen pots for drinking water leads to settling down of suspended impurities
in water
 Diseases for short period are called acute diseases and those for longer periods are
called chronic diseases
 Helicobacter Pylori was responsible for peptic ulcers, Robert Warren (born in 1937)
 Marshall and Warren received the Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine in 2005
 Staphylococci causes acne, Trypanosoma (protozoan) causes sleeping sickness,
Leishmania (protozoan) causes kala-azar
 Edward Jenner proposed the cure of smallpox

Soil

 Top soil is most fertile and is also called A-Horizon, the next layer is called B-
Horizon
 In humid regions the soil becomes acidic due to leaching of soluble salts. Saline soils
are mostly alkaline
 Soil particle size greater than 2mm in diameter is called gravel, 0.05 to 2.0mm is
called sand, 0.005 to 0.05mm is called silt, less than 0.005 is called clay
 Soils can be classified as sandy, loamy and clayey, The loamy soil is most suitable for
plant growth as it contains both small and large particles
 The red soil is highly mature and is found in Indian peninsula, it is poor in lime,
magnesium, phosphorous, nitrogen and humus but is rich in potash
 The black soil (also known as black cotton soil) is formed from Basalt (basic ferro-
magnesium and ash bed). Black soil is clayey and contains high amount of iron,
calcium, magnesium and aluminum but a less amount of nitrogen and phosphorous
 The laterite soil is red in color and contains hydrated oxides of aluminum and iron
with quartz grains. It is acidic and generally non fertile
 Soils transported due to gravity are called colluvial soil and those transported through
water are called alluvial soils. Alluvial soils contain smooth round particles
 Indo-gangatic soils are alluvial and are loamy and rich in organixc matter

Biology
Life on Earth:

 Earth is around 4.5 billion years old

 Thickness of crust varies from 35km to 60 km. The solid part of Earth’s crust is called
lithosphere. The oceans, lakes, rivers constitute hydrosphere
 India should have atleast 33% of forest cover
 Water pollution may cause cholera, dysentery, typhoid, gastroenteritis, jaundice,
fluorosis and bone disorders
 Residuals of fertilizers when thrown into water promote certain weeds that use up
most of the dissolved oxygen in water and also prevent sunlight from reaching the
depths of water. This is known as Eutrophication
 Trees that grow in forest provide firewood, timber, medicines, fruits, rubber, gum,
resins, honey, bee-wax, lac etc
 Redwood trees of California are 100m tall
 Aristotle classified animals according to whether they lived on land or water
 Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles including a nucleus
 Charles Darwin first described the idea of evolution in his book The Origin of
Species
 The warm and humid regions of the earth are rich in diversity of plant and animal life
 Robert Whittaker in 1959 classified organisms into – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae
and Animalia
 Carl Woese in 1977 classified organisms into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria
 Monera do not have a defined nucleus or organelles. Eg blue-green algae or
cynobacteria, mycoplasma
 Protista are unicellular Eukaryotic (cells with membrane bound organelles)
 Fungi are heterotrophic Eukaryotic organisms. Eg yeast and mushrooms
 Plantae are further classified into 5 categories – Thallophyta, Bryophyta,
Pteridophyta, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
 Animalia are divided into 10 types – Porifera (Sponges found mainly in marine
habitat), Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes (symmetrical body), Nematoda, Annelia,
Arthopoda, Mollusca, Protochordata, Vertebrata

Water:

 Most of the fresh water is frozen in glaciers and water available for use is only 0.01%
 Water in Ganga and Brahamaputra flows throughout the year
 Bleaching powder is added to water to make it safe for drinking
 Potassium permagnate is added into well water because it acts as a germicidal
 Solidification of water and condensation of water vapour releases energy
 Ice is lighter than liquid water
 When water is solidified into ice its volume increases
 At 4C the density of water is 1 kg per litre, the value of density decreases below 4C
 Distilled water is obtained from steam but since it does not contain any salts it is not
suitable for drinking
 CO2 is readily soluble in water
 Water can be decomposed into its components by passing electricity. This process is
known as Electrolysis
 Dilute sulphuric acid is used in Electrolysis. Hydrogen is collected at cathode
(negative end of the battery) and is twice the amount of Oxygen at anode
 Water molecules have property of getting attracted to each other, this property is
electrical in nature
 Water from some sources produces sticky particles instead of foam when mixed with
soap. Such water is called hard water. Hard water contains salts of calcium and
magnesium
 1litre of sea water has 35gm of salt. Apart from common salt, Sodium bromide,
magnesium chloride and potassium iodide are also present
 Highest salinity is sea water is found in Dead Sea
 DNA is Deoxyribonucleic acid
 Nucleus helps in control and multiplication

Sustenance of individual:
 Mistletoe grows on mango, mahua trees
 Pitcher plant, sundew and bladderwort are insectivorous plants
 Alga and Fungus live together in Lichens
 Plants mainly require potassium, phosphorous and nitrogen
 Water and minerals absorbed by the roots are transported with the help of conducting
tissues called xylem
 Food synthesized by the plant are transported to other parts through phloem
 Enzymes involved in digestion are amylase (mouth and pancreas), pepsin (stomach),
trypsin (pancreas), lipase (pancreas) and sucrose
 Amylase converts starch into sugars, Pepsin converts proteins into amino acids and
peptides, Aminopeptilase and Maltase (small intestine) convert peptides and maltose
into glucose and simple sugars
 Energy is released during respiration
 Respiration in takes place in mitochondria
 Exchange of gases in plants takes place through diffusion via stomata
 Reactions in respiration can be of two types – glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle. In glycolysis glucose if broken down into two three carbon atom compounds.
Glycolysis does not require oxygen.
 TCA produces water, CO2 and energy
 Haemoglobin in our blood binds the oxygen and thus helps in respiration
 Presence of blood in urine is caused due to damage of tiny filters in kidney because of
a bacteria called Streptococcus
 Air we breath finally goes to the lungs through alveoli. Alveoli rovides the surface
where exchange of gases occurs in blood
 Haemoglobin has very high affinity for O2, CO2 is more soluble in water than O2
therefore, it is transported via blood
 O2 is carried by RBCs and food, nitrogenous waste and CO2 is carried by blood
plasma
 O2 rich blood comes to hearth through upper-left chamber called left atrium. Then it
is transferred to left ventricle. Deoxygenated blood comes to the right atrium, then
goes to the right ventricle which sends in to lungs for regard-oxygenation
 Fishes have only two chambered hearts, amphibians and many reptiles have three
chambered hearts
 Blood pressure is higher in arteries than in veins. Blood pressure is measured by
sphygmomanometer. High blood pressure is caused by contraction of arterioles which
resists in blood flow
 Arteries carry blood away from heart to various organs of the body
 Veins collect blood from organs of the body to the heart
 The smallest kind of arteries are called capillaries, which then join together to form
veins
 Platelet cells in our blood help in cloting

Control in Organisms
 Pavlov first experimented the phenomenon of conditioned responses
 Nervous system is of two kinds – Central Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous
System
 CNS coordinates the voluntary and conscious activities. It main organs are brain,
spinal cord and nerves.
 ANS controls involuntary and unconscious actions. It organs are same as CNS but
through special centres
 A nerve cell is also known as neuron (smallest functional unit of nervous system)
 Neuron’s cell body is called Cyton
 A nerve cell has one axon on one side and several dendrites on the other side
 A neuron is attached to the axon of other neuron
 Axon is enveloped in Myelin Sheath and gives a speed of 100m/s to the nerve
impulse carrying information
 Nerve cells are the longest cells in our body
 There are 12 pairs of nerves in the brain and 31 pairs in spinal cord
 Nerves taking messages from brain to other parts of the body are called motor or
efferent nerves and nerves taking message from body parts to brain are called sensory
or afferent nerves
 Sense organs receive the signals and convert the signal into nerve impulses
 Generally reflexes involve spinal cord but the overall response is controlled by the
brain
 Six important glands are –

S.No. Gland Hormone Action of hormone

 1 Pituitary TTH (excess Stimulates thyroid
production inhibits
pituitary gland)
2 Thyroid Thyroxin Stimulates respiration
3 Adrenal Adrenalin Alarm reaction
4 Pancreas Insulin Promotes blood sugar
5 Testis Testosterone Promotes sperms in males
6 Ovary Estrogen Promotes blood circulation

 Pituitary gland is closest to brain and is called the master gland and it controls the
functions of other glands
 Plants do not have nervous system
 Common plant hormones are Auxins (Stimulates growth), Cytokinis (Stimulates cell
division), Gibberellines (Stimulate flowering)
 Phloem are called food tubes and Xylem are called water tubes in plants
 Cambium lies between the two and forms new phloem and xylem
 Pitcher plant and sundew capture insects
 Animals have antenna to find their way
 A single cell Amoeba (Protozoan) forms pseudopodia (false feet) in water
 Euglena (single cell) moves by flagella
 Paramecium moves by the means of cilia
 Frogs swim using their tails
 Muscles are attached to the bones via tendons
 Gustatory receptors detect taste and olfactory receptors detect smell. Information is
acquired at the dendritic tip of a cell and it sets off a chemical reaction that creates an
electrical impulse
 Brain and spinal cord constitute the Central Nervous System and the communication
between CNS and other parts is coordinated through cranial nerves arising from brain
and spinal nerves arising from spinal cord
 Brain is divided into three parts – the fore-brain, mid-brain and hind brain
 Fore brain is the main thinking part of the brain which receives the sensory impulses
from various receptors
 Involuntary actions are controlled by mid brain and hind brain
 Hind brain has cerebellum and is responsible for precision of voluntary action and
maintaining the balance of the body
 Chhui-mui (Mimosa family) is touch-me-not plant
 Plant cells change shape by changing the amount of water in them
 Light, gravity change the directions in which plants grow, shoots bend towards light
and roots away from light
 Growth of plants in response to gravity is called geotropism, with respect to chemicals
is called chemotropism (growth of pollen tubes towards ovules)
 When growing plants detect light a hormone named Auxin is produced which moves
to the shaded part of the shoot
 Gibberellins help in growth of the stem, cytokinins promote cell division, abscisis
acid is a hormone which inhibits growth and leads to wilting of leaves
 Adrenaline is secreted by adrenal glands in animals, thyroxin hormone regulated
carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism
 Testosterone is males, oestrogen in females lead to puberty
 Insuli9n is secreted by pancreas and helps in regulating blood sugar levels

Reproduction

 Amoeba reproduces via fission, Yeast and Hydra via budding, Spirogyra (algae) via
fragmentation, Mucor (fungus) and Fern via Spore formation
 Cutting a part of mature plant and putting it in solid leads to formation of new plant.
This is known as asexual or vegetative reproduction. Eg. Strawberry (buds) , cactus,
iris, potato (tubers), rose, ginger (rhizomes – stems that grow sideways)
 Methods of vegetative reproduction include Grafting, Cutting, Layering, Tissue
culture
 Sugarcane, bananas, pineapple, sweet potato, ginger and turmeric are grown using
grafting
 Bougainvillea, sugarcane and cactus are grown using cutting
 Jasmine, Roses are grown using layering
 Bananas and pineapple are grown using tissue culture
 Male gametes are found inside the pollen grains, females gametes are found inside the
ovules, which are in the ovary
 Fertilized ovule is called zygote. Zygote begins to divide and forms an embryo

Our Food

 The main form of carbohydrates are starch and sugar, ie. Rice, wheat, maize, potatoes,
sugar and jiggery
 Fats are essential for absorption for vitamins in our body
 Fats can be classified as saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fats come from animals.
Milk, meat ghee etc contain saturated fats
 Vanaspati oil is an example of saturated fat that is obtained from plants
 Saturated fats also contain cholesterol
 Unsaturated fats are found in sunflower oil, olive oil, mustard oil and other vegetable
oils
 Proteins are made up of amino acids. Daily requirement of proteins in our body is 50-
60gm
 Some vitamins are water soluble and others are fat soluble. Vit A is a fat soluble
vitamin; Deficiency of Vitamin A causes night blindness. Vitamin Bs are water
soluble. Deficiency of Vitamin B causes beri-beri. Vitamin C is water soluble and is
destroyed by heat. Deficiency of Vitamin C causes scurvy. Vitamin D is a fat soluble
vitamin. Deficiency of Vitamin D causes rickets
 Bones and teeth are made up of calcium and phosphorous
 Dry storage mode is used for storing non-perishable foods like foodgrains, flour,
cereals, sugar and spices
 Food poisoning is caused by Salmonella and Clostridium
 Smoking is used to dry up meat. Salt, sugar, vinegar do not allow bacteria or fungus

Health and Diseases

 Consumption of too much salt causes high blood pressure
 Consumption of too much fat soluble (Vit A, D, E and K) can lead to
Hypervitaminosis. Vitamin A accumulates in liver, Vitamin D promotes calcium
absorption damaging kidneys
 Pulse polio vaccine was conducted for the 1 st time December 1995. OPV is given in
form of three drops at 1.5, 205 and 3.5 months of age
 Malnutrition is of two types Kwashiorkor (deficiency of proteins) and Marasmus
(deficiency of both proteins and carbohydrates)
 Polio is also a water borne disease
 Major minerals needed in our body are calcium, phosphorous, sodium, potassium and
magnesium
 Yellapragada Subba Row discovered the role of Vitamin B12 in curing pernicious
anaemia. He also discovered the medicine for filariasis. He was born on 12 January
1895 in Andhra Pradesh.
 In 1925, he developed a method named Fiske-Subba Row method for determining
phosphorous concentration. He also discovered the cause of Tropical Sprue disease as
folic acid deficiency. He also discovered tetracyclines (antibiotics) He also discovered
Diethyl Carbamazine as the medicine for Filariasis. He further developed Teorpterin
as the effective medicine against blood cancer. He died in 1948
 Diseases caused due to disorders in hormone are called metabolic diseases
 TB and Pneumonia are transmitted via air
 Cholera affects stomach and small intestine and is caused by Vibrio bacterium
 TB is transferred vai air through phlegm or sputum of a patient, TB is cuases by
Mycobacterium Tuberulosis
 Treatment of TB is based on Chemotherapy
 Immunization with Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) provides some protection against
this disease
 24th March is the World TB Day
 Typhoid is an infection of intestine caused by Salmonella Typhi (bacterium), vaccine
name is TAB
 Polio (or Poliomelitis) is caused by Poliovirus
 Rabies or hydrophobia is transmitted with the bite of animals particularly dog, Pasteur
(after Louis Pasteur) vaccine is the cure
 Chicken-Pox is an acute infectious disease cause by a virus named Varicella Zoster,
the first attack of Chicken-pox produces immunity to the disease
 Diarrhoea and Gastroenteritisare caused by bacteria (E.Coli, Shigella), protozoa and
viruses
 Common cold is caused by Rhinovirus
 Vaccination is a word derived from latin word ‘Vacca’ which means cow
 Edward Jenner (1795) observed that milkmen and milk maids seldom suffered from
small pox

Cell Structures and Functions

 The word Cell was coined by Robert Hooke in 17th century
 Cork is formed from the bark of the trees
 Smallest cell (0.1 micrometer) is found in Mycoplasmas (Bacteria), Ostrich egg (170
mm in diameter) is the largest cell
 Nerve cell is a meter long
 Yellow yolk is a single cell
 All cells are bound by a membrane called cell membrane or plasma membrane. Plant
cells also have cell walls
 Cell wall and plasma membrane give shape to cell
 Nucleus is generally at the centre of the cell but in plant cell it lies at the periphery
 The liquid in nucleus is known as nucleoplasm. Nucleus contains chromosomes
 Liquid in the cell outside nucleus is known as cytoplasm
 Largest cell organelles in the cell are called plastids found in plant cells. The green
plastids are called chloroplast. The red colour of tomato is due to red plastids
 Mitochondria are rod-shaped or spherical shaped and they provide energy.
 Vacuoles store food and generally larger in plants than in animals
 Sometimes projections outside the cell membrane are called cilia (found in
paramecium) and flagella, they both help in movement
 Both plant and animal cells have plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria and
vacuoles. Animals cells do not have plastids and cell wall
 Cell is a Latin word and was 1st discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665
 Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell in 1839
 Purkinje coined the term Protoplasm for the fluid in the cell
 The cell theory was given by Schleiden and Schwann and was extended by Virchow
 Water is gained by the cell if the solution is Hypotonic, water is lost by the cell if the
solution is hypertonic
 Plants absorb water through osmosis
 Plasma membrane is made of proteins and lipids
 Cell wall, found in plants, is made up of cellulose
 Cell walls enable plant cells to stay in Hypotonic solutions by preventing them from
bursting
 Nucleus has a double layer membrane
 Nucleus has chromosomes which are rod-shaped
 Organisms whose cells lack a well defined nuclear membrane are called Prokaryotes,
organisms with cells having nuclear membrane are called Eukaryotes
 Cell organelles are Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes,
Mitochondria, Plastids, Vacuoles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum is a large network of membrane bound tubes and is of two
types Rough and Smooth. RER looks rough because it has particles called ribosomes
which are the sites of protein manufacture. Proteins are then sent using ER. SER help
in production of fat or lipids. ER also does the function of transportation of material
 Golgi apparatus was 1st described by Camillo Golgi. Golgi Apparatus is involved in
the formation of lysosomes
 Camillo Golgi gave the method of Black Reaction
 Lysosomes are the waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes are also called
suicide bags because they burst when they get damaged
 Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. Energy is released by Mitochondira in the
form of ATP (Adensosine Triphosphate). Mitochondria have their own DNA and
ribosomes and therefore are able to make some of their own proteins
 Plastids are present only in plant cells. Chromoplastids contain chlorophyll
 Blood, Phloem and muscle are tissues
 Dividing tissues are also called Meristematic tissues
 Lignin is a substance which acts as cement and hardens the cells
 Xylem and Phloem tissues are complex cells because they are made up of more than
one type of tissues
 Xylem consists of tracheids and vessels which are tubular columns and help in
carrying minerals and water vertically. Parenchyma stores food and helps in the
sideways conduction of water
 Phloem contains sieve tubes which are tubular columns with perforated walls in
which material can move in both directions. Phloem transports food from leaves to
other parts of the plant
 Covering tissues in the animal body are called Epithelial tissues
 Blood, bones, ligaments and cartilage are connective tissues
 Bone cells are made of calcium and phosphorous
 Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves for gaseous exchange.
Plant closes these pores when it does not need CO2
 Xylem moves water and minerals from soil, phloem transports products of
photosynthesis from the leaves whether they are synthesized to other parts of the plant
 Transpiration helps in absorption and upward movement of water and minerals from
roots to the leaves
 Translocation is the transfer of soluble products of photosynthesis and occurs in
vascular tissue known as phloem. It also transports amino acids
 Urine is released from urethra but is stored in urinary bladder. Urea is removed from
blood in kidney
 Artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis
 Plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles other waste products are stored in
old xylem as gums and resins

Microorganisms

 Their cells are generally covered with hard outer coating and are called cyst
 Robert Hooke in 1665, observed cork cells, spermatozoa and bacteria
 Louis Pasteur in 1857 explained fermentation process
 Robert Koch in 1872 gave the germ theory of disease and found Tubercle
Bacillus as the cause of TB
 Shikabasaburo Kitasate in 1889 found that Tetanus disease is due to Tetanus
Bacillus
 Alexander Fleming in 1929 discovered antibiotic Penicillin from Penicillium
notatum (a fungus)
 Soil usually includes bacteria, protozoans and fungi
 In 1675, Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria with the help of a microscope
developed by him
 The average size of a bacterium is 1.25 micro meter
 Smallest bacterium is Rod-shaped bacteria and largest bacterium is spiral shaped
 Bacteria do not have membrane bound organelles or a well organized nucleus but
have rigid cell wall
 On the basis of shape bacteria are divided into three types – Rod shaped (Bacillius),
Spherical (Coccus), Spiral (Spirillum)
 Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas are rod shaped, Sterptococcus, Sarcina and Micrococcus
are spherical shaped, Vibrio, Treponema and Campylobacter are spiral shaped
 Blue-green algae are also called Cynobacteria. Nostoc, Anabaena and Oscillatoria are
some examples of blue green algae
 Blue-green algae can fix atmospheric nitrogen, they are also primary producers of
energy, improve water holding capacity of the soil
 Fungus can convert dead organic matter into simple minerals that may be used by the
plants
 Examples of fungi are Mucor, Saccharomyces (Yeast), Penicillium and Aspergillus
 Yeast are unicellular. Iodine staisn the yeats to reddish brown
 Yeast have a strong liking for acidic food that contains ugar. They produce ethyl
alcohol and large quantities of CO2. This is called fermentation
 Along with acetobacter, yeasts are used to produce vinegar, cheese and acetic acid
 Mycoplasma is another class of microorganisms
 Mycoplasma lack cell wall, spherical in shape. They cause diseases like
Pleuropneumonia in animals and witches’ broom in plants
 Mycoplasma are resistant to antibiotics
 Antibiotics also do not have any effect on viruses because they do not have any
metabolism of their own
 Viral diseases are rabies, polio, chicken pox, common cold, influenza and mosaic of
tobacco and potato
 Protozoans are also unicellular. Common examples are amoeba, paramaecium,
Euglena, plasmodium, Entamoeba and Trypanosoma
 Plasmodium causes malaria and its transmitted by the bite of a female anopheles
mosquito
 Entamoeba causes amoebiasis (loose motions)
 Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness
 Treatment of sewage is helped by Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Proteus

Food Production and Management

 Kharif season (June to October) crops are paddy, maize
 Rabi season (November to April) crops are wheat, legumes like clover
 Sowing has different measures like spraying or broadcasting in the case of bajra,
maize and barseem (clover)
 In case of paddy, seeds are sowed in small plot in nursery and then are transplanted in
the field
 Falling of crop plants due to heavy wind and rain at the maturation stage is known as
lodging
 Water retaining capacity of black or clay soild is more than that of sandy soil
 Clover and gram do not require nitrogenous fertilizers since they fix atmospheric
nitrogen through bacteria present in their root nodules
 Addition of nitrogenous fertilizers increases nitrate content and alkanity of the soil
 Sugarcane crops grows over 2-3 years
 Farmers store their grains in jute bags or metallic bin, large scale grain storing is done
in granaries and silos
 During green revolution high yielding varieties of wheat were introduced from
Mexico, but these varities were drwarf and required more fertilizers
 Improved varities by the way of breeding for wheat are Sonalika, Kalyan, Sona; for
paddya regard Jaya, Padma, Pusa 215 and for Maize are Ganga 101, Ranjit
 Among cow and buffalo, buffalo is considered more productive. Buffalo milk is found
rich in fat, proteins, sodium, potassium
 Foot and mouth disease in cattle is common and is cause by virus
 High yielding varities os cow are Friesian-Sahiwal, Hollstein-Friesian and Buffalo are
Murrah, they have been developed through cross breeding
 Hen sits of egg for about 21 days
 Egg shell is made up of Calcium carbonate, the transparent liquid inside the egg is
called albumin
 Excreta of birds is used as fertilizer
 High yielding varities of hens are White leg horn, Rhode island Red, ILS 82, B77
(200 eggs per annum)
 Fresh water fish are Catla, Rohu, Labeo; saline water fish are Tuna, cod
 Rearing of fish is called Pissiculture, Fish farms are called Hatcheries
 Rearing of honeybees is called Apiculture, beewax is sued for making candles
 Carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch
 Some of the energy we derive from food is stored in the form of glycogen
 Nitrogen is used by plants for synthesis of proteins
 Saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase which breaks down starch to give
sugar
 Digestion functions are carried out by gastric glands which release HCL and pepsin
(for digesting proteins). HCL facilitates the digestion of proteins
 Food coming out of small intestine (where food is digested) is acidic and in order to
make the medium neutral pancreatic enzymes act upon it. Bile juice is releases by
liver which is alkaline in nature and bile juice also helps in digesting fats
 Small intestine has finger like projections called villi which increase the surface area
of absorption
 Glucose is broken down into pyruvate and this happens in cytoplasm. Further
pyruvate is broken down into ethanol and CO2 (it happens in the absence of O2). Eg
yeast
 When pyruvate is broken down in the presence of O2 it breaks down into CO2 and
water but the energy released in this is more than in the absence of O2. It takes place
in mitochondria
 Sometimes when O2 is less then pyruvate is broken into lactic acid. It takes place in
muscle cells
 ATP is the energy currency for most cellular processes
 Breathing is faster in aquatic organisms than in terrestrial organisms


Life Processes:

Physics

Heat and Temperature

 Wax melts at 63C, Iron at 1535C, Copper 2336C

 SI unit of heat is joules, calorie is widely used. 1 Cal = 4.186 Joules
 Water is used as a coolant because it requires more heat than other substances for the
same rise in temperature
 Mercury has freezing point of -39C and boiling point of 357C
 In solids, heat is transferred through the process of conduction
 Silver is the best conductor of heat followed by copper, aluminum and iron
 Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat
 Liquids and gases transmit heat due to convection. Convection of air begins only after
the earth has become hot. Heat can also be transferred in the form of radiation
 Thermo flask is used to minimize heat transfer. It is made of two glass layers, the air
between the two layers is removed and the flask is sealed

Light
 We see objects which are not under direct sunlight due to scattering of light
 Pinhole camera produces an inverted image
 Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau was born in Paris in 1819. In 1845 he along with
Leon Foucault clicked the 1st clear picture of sun
 In 1849. He obtained the speed of light in air and proved that light travels faster in air
than in water
 The darkest part of the shadow is called umbra
 When the shadow of earth falls on the moon, it is lunar eclipse, when shadow of moon
falls on the earth it is solar eclipse
 In lunar eclipse, moon rises from the east after the sun sets in the west
 On new moon day moon lies between sun and earth
 During annular solar eclipse, the tip of umbra falls on the earth
 A good plane mirror should reflect most of the light and absorb very little of it
 Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual erect and smaller in size
 Concave mirror image formation

Position of Position of image Nature of image Size of the image

object
Beyond C Between C and F Real and inverted Smaller than the object
At C
Between C and F
Between F and P Behind the mirror Virtual and erect Bigger than the object

 Convex mirrors are used in vehicles, concave mirrors are used in torches and
searchlights and also by dentists
 When light travels from one transparent material to another it gives rise to refraction
 The part of pencil in the water appears to be thicker
 Bending of light depends on the speed of light in the two media
 Refractive index of water with respect to air is 1.33 i.e. the speed of light in water is
3/4th of that in air
 Material with higher refractive index is optically denser
 Turpentine is optically denser than water but has a lower mass density
 Light bends towards normal when passes from a rarer medium to a denser medium
and vice versa
 Sir Isaac Newton (1642/1727) was the forst to obtain the spectrum of sunlight with a
prism
 The phenomenon of splitting the light into different colours is known as dispersion
 Infra red region lies beyond red light
 The sense of heat in the sunlight is felt because of presence of infra red rays in it
 Exposure to ultra violet rays can be hazardous to skin
 Ultra violet rays are u8sed to detect the fake currency
 A ray passing through prism gets deviated towards the base
 A convex lens forms a real or a virtual image of an object placed in front of it
 A double concave lens always forms a virtual and diminished image of the object

Position of Object Position of image Nature of image Size of image

At infinity At f Real Point image
At 2f Between f and 2f Real and Inverted Smaller than the
object
Between f and 2f At 2f Real and inverted Smaller than the
object

At f At infinity Real and inverted Larger than the

object
Between f and the On the same side as Virtual and erect Larger than the
lens the object object

 Microscope has two convex lens fixed at two ends of a small cylindrical tube. Such
microscope was invented by Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). It forms a large
and virtual image
 Telescope is used to see distant objects and has convex lens. Telescope forms an
enlarged and inverted image but another lens is inserted to make the image erect
 Camera has a convex lens and forms a real, inverted and smaller image in size
 Eye lens is held in its place by ciliary muscles
 Iris is the coloured part in our eyes and it controls the amount of light that can pass
through eye lens to the retina

Sound
 Heinrich R. Hertz was a German and was born in 1857. He discovered
electromagnetic waves
 The loudness of sound depends upon the amplitude of vibration
 The frequency of vibration determines the pitch of sounds
 Frequencies of less than 20Hz and more than 20,000 Hz are not audible to human ears
 Vibrations beyond 20,000 Hz are called ultra sonic
 Ultrasound scanning was used by Dr Uday Shankar Sharma
 Sound travels faster in liquid than in air
 Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids or air
 Human ears can detect two different sounds if only there is an interval of 1/10 of a
second between the two sounds
 Reflection of sound is also a measure of depth of ocean
 Bats use the reflected sound to avoid obstacles, also make use of sound reflected by
insects to locate their pray. Bats emit high frequency squeaks
 Stringed instruments include Sitar, Veena, Harp, Santoor, Violin
 Wind instruments make use of vibrating air column. Flute, Shehnai, Nadaswaram
 Percussion instruments have taut skin. Drums, Tabla, Dholak and Mridangam
 Vocal cord of man is about 20mm long and women have around 15mm long
 Birds produce sound with the help of Syrinx but bees make sound by vibrating their
wings very rapidly
 Sound waves are mechanical waves and need medium for propagation
 In longitudinal waves particles oscillate back and forth, in transverse waves particles
move up and down
 Heinrich Rudolph Hertz was born on 22nd Feb, 1857 and discovered Photoelectric
effect and confirmed J.C. Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory
 The loudness of a sound is determined by its amplitude
 Speed of sound in a medium depends on temperature, speed of sound decreases when
we go from solid to gaseous state. If temperature increases so does the speed
 When the source producing sound moves with a higher speed than the sound itself,
then it produces shock waves which contain huge energy
 To hear echo, the time difference must be more than 0.1 sec
 Stethoscope is a medical instrument to hear sounds produced inside the body
 Sounds below 20Hz are called Infrasonic. Rhinoceroses, whales and elephants
produce sound in this zone
 Sounds above 20kHz are called Ultrasonic sounds. Dolphins, bats produce sounds in
this zone
 Ultrasonic waves are used in producing image of heart known as Echocardiography
 Sonar is used to measure the speed, direction of the underwater objects and depths of
ocean

Electricity and Magentism

 Current flows due to flowing of electrons

 Electric current was 1st produced by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) in Italy. The
electric cell had two metals copper and zinc. Negative charges get accumulated on
zinc and positive charges on copper, when they are connected the current starts
flowing from copper to zinc
 J.F.Daniel constrcuted Daniel Cell which had zinc sulphate and copper sulphate.
Daniel cell could supply steady current for longer time than voltaic cell
 Both Daniel cell and Voltaic cells are cumbersome but this difficulty was removed by
Dry cell constructed by Georges Leclanche in 1866
 Dry cell consists of Zinc and Ammonium chloride paste and a mixture of zinc
chloride
 Carbon rod gets positively charge and zinc chloride is negatively charged in a dry cell
 1st secondary cell was developed by Gaston Plante in 1854, one battery usually
consists of six cells. The electrolyte used is a dilute solution of sulphuric acid while
electrodes are made of plates of lead oxide and spongy lead
 Graphite is a conductor of electricity
 Magnet was 1st found in the town of Magnesia. Magnet consists of oxides of iron
 William Gilbert did the 1st study of magnets
 Most of the permanent magnets are made up of ALNICO, an alloy of aluminium,
nickel and cobalt
 In 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oerested discovered the relation between
electricity and magnetism
 A current carrying coil has both a north and a south pole like a magnet and behaves
like an electromagnet
 An electric bell works on the principle of electromagnet
 The reverse effect of producing electricity from magnets was discovered by Michael
Faraday in 1831and Joseph Henry. The current in the wire can be produced by
moving the magnet relative to the wire and the magnitude of the current depends upon
the number of loops of wire in the field

Motion:
 Newton’s first law is that an object resists a change in their state of motion or rest
 Galileo Galilei was born on 15 th Feb, 1564 in Italy. He wrote a book The Little
Balance (La Balancitta). Around 1640, he designed the first pendulum clock.
 Second law of Newton states that when a force acts on a body its velocity changes.
The concept of momentum was also given by Newton
 The third law of Newton states that when one object exerts a force on another body
equal and opposite force is exerted by the second object

Gravitation:
 Newton gave the universal law of gravitation
 Radius of the earth increases from the poles to the equator and the value of g becomes
greater at the poles than at the equator
 Gravity on moon is 1/6th of that on the earth
 Archimedes was a Greek scientist, Lactometer is used to measure the purity of milk
and Hydrometers are used to determine the density of liquid

Work and Energy:

 SI unit of work is Joule (1J = 1Nm)

 James Prescott Joule was a British physicist verified the law of conservation of energy
 Power is work done per unit of time
 Joule is a very small unit hence kWh is used 1 kWh = 3.6 x 10^6 J

 Chemistry

Matter in our surroundings:

 Paanch tatva are air, earth, fire, sky and water

 Temperature of the system (water) does not change after the melting point is reached,
till all the ice melts
 The heat gets used up in changing the state by overcoming the forces of attraction
between the particles
 The amount of heat energy that is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at
atmospheric pressure at its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion
 Water vapour at 373K (100C) has more energy than water at the same temperature
because particles in steam have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent heat of
vaporization
 Solid CO2 is known as dry ice
 Evaporation occurs at below boiling point also
 The rate of evaporation increases with an increase of surface area, an increase in
temperature, an increase in wind speed, a decrease in humidity
 Nail polish remover is acetone
 Cotton is a good absorber of water and helps in absorbing the sweat and exposing it to
the atmosphere for easy evaporation
 Five states of matter are solid, liquid, gas, Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate
 The fluorescent tube (contains helium gas) and neon sign bulbs consist of plasma. Sun
and stars also glow due to presence of plasma in them
 Satyendra Nath Bose and Einstein discovered a new state of matter
 Eric a. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman received the Nobel Prize in
physics for Bose-Einstein Condensate
 BEC is reached by cooling gas of very very low density to a very low temperature
 Brass is an alloy of Zinc (30%) and Copper (70%)
 Suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve
but remain suspended throughout the bulk. Path of light is visible in suspended
solution and not in homogeneous solution
 Colloidal mixture is a heterogeneous solution but appears to be homogeneous. Eg
milk
 Path of light if visible in a solution then it is a heterogeneous solution because
undissolved particles scatter light. This effect is known as Tyndall effect
 Colloidal particles can be separated by centrifugation
 Examples of colloids are smoke, shaving cream, face cream, jelly, cheese milk, clouds
etc
 Chromatography is a technique for separating those solues that dissolve in same
solvent. Eg to separate colours in dye, drugs from blood
 Fractional distillation is used to separate various gases from air, different factions
from petroleum products
 Crystallization is a method used to purify solids from a solution
 Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature
 Metalloids have properties of both metals and non-metals, eg boron, silicon,
germanium
 Bromine is also liquid at room temperature
 Robert Boyle was the 1st to use the word Element in 1661
 Antoine Laurent was the 1st to define element

Atoms and Molecules:

 Maharishi Kanad named small particles Pramanu (atom)

 The word atom was 1st used by Democritus
 Antoine Lavoisier established the two laws of chemical combination
 Law of conservation of mass and Law of constant proportion (Law of definite
proportions)
 Law of definite proportions was later defined by Proust
 John Dalton gave the atomic theory to provide explanation to these two laws
 John Dalton said that all substances are made of atoms and atoms are indivisible
 Dalton was also the 1st scientist to use symbols for elements
 Berzilius suggested that symbols be made from one or two letters from the name of
element
 The name Copper was taken by Cyprus
 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) approves the name of
elements
 Dalton also gave the atomic mass theory
 Amu is equal to the mass of one carbon atom, mass of oxygen atom is 1.33amu
 Carbin-12 isotope was chosen as the standard reference for measuring atomic masses
 Calcium has amu of 40, Hydrogen has 1
 The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called atomicity

Structure of the atom:

 Electron was identified by J.J. Thomson, electron was then discovered by E.
Goldstein in 1888
 J.J.Thomson was the 1st to propose a model for the structure of an atom and was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906
 Ernest Rutherford made alpha particles fall on a thin gold foil
 Rutherford was known as the father of nuclear physics
 He discovered nucleus in an atom and got Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908
 Nucleus is positively charged and Hydrogen atom does not contain neutrons
 Distribution of electrons into different orbits was suggested by Bohr and Bury
 The number of protons determine the atomic number of an atom
 Protons and Neutrons include Nucleons
 Same atomic number and different atomic mass – isotopes, Same atomic mass and
different atomic number – Isobars

Chemical Reaction and Equations:

 Reactions in which heat are called exothermic reactions. Eg burning of natural gas,
respiration
 Nitrogen dioxide fumes are brown in color
 White silver chloride turns grey in sunlight due to decomposition of silver chloride
into silver
 Black coating on silver and brown coating on copper are examples of corrosion
 Chips bags are filled with nitrogen to prevent the chips from getting oxidized
Acid, Bases and Salts

 Acids change litmus color from blue to red and are sour in taste
 Bases change litmus color from red to blue and are bitter in taste
 Litmus is extracted from lichens and is also found in red cabbage and turmeric
 The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is highly exothermic
 Ph stands for potenz in German meaning power
 Human body works in the Ph range of 7.0 to 7.8
 Venus’s atmosphere is made up of sulphuric acid
 Our stomach produces HCL and Magnesium Hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia) is often
used to neutralize acidity
 Tooth enamel is composed of calcium phosphate and is very hard and it starts
decaying at a PH lower than 5.5
 Baking soda is used to relieve from the pain of bee sting
 Vinegar has acetic acid, Orange & Lemon have Citric acid, Tamarind has tartaric
acid, Tomato has Oxalic acid, Sour milk (curd) has lactic acid, ant & nettle sting have
methanoic acid
 Rock salt is brown in color
 Aqueous solution of sodium chloride is called brine and it breaks into Sodium
hydroxide and this process is called Chlor-alkali process
 Baking soda (Sodium Bicarbonate) is a mild base and when heated gives out CO2 and
this makes cakes spongy
 Sodium Carbonate (Washing soda) is also used for making borax
 Hydrated Copper Sulphate contains 5 molecules of water, Gypsum has Copper
Sulphate with 2 water molecules and Plaster of Paris contains Copper Sulphate with
half water molecule

Metals and Non-metals:

 Some metals can be beaten into sheets and are called malleable metals. Eg gold and
silver
 Ability to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility. Gold is the most ductile metal
 Best conductors of heat are silver and copper
 Bromide is a liquid
 Metal oxides are basic in nature except aluminium oxide, zinc oxide
 Potassium and Sodium catch fire if kept in open, therefore are kept under kerosene,
copper does not burn
 Metals react with acids to give bases and hydrogen gas
 Aqua Regia (Latin for royal water) is used to dissolve gold and platinum
 Ionic compounds are solids and hard and generally brittle, have high melting and
boiling points, conduct electricity in molten state
 Gold, silver, copper and platinum are found in free state
 Mainly ores are oxides of metals because oxygen is very reactive
 If metals are of high reactivity then electrolysis of molten ore to obtain pure metal,
metals of medium reactivity can be extracted by calcinations (carbonate ore) and
roasting (sulphide ore) and metals of low reactivity can be extracted by roasting
 Cinnabar (HgS) is an ore of mercury
 Highly reactive metals like sodium, aluminium, calcium are also used as reducing
agent
 Reaction of Ferric oxide with aluminium produces high amount of energy and is used
to join railway tracks. This is known as Thermit reaction
 Those metals which are very high in reactivity cannot be extracted using heating
because they combine with oxygen and therefore are extracted by using electrolysis
method. Eg aluminium. Metals are deposited at cathode (negatively charged
electrode)
 In electrolytic refining of copper, electrolyte is an acidic solution of copper sulphate,
anode is impure copper and cathode is pure copper
 Silver is corroded when it reacts with sulphur and turns black due to silver sulphide
 Copper reacts with moist CO2 and forms green coat
 Iron rusts when exposed to moist air
 Galvanization prevents rusting by applying a layer of zinc
 When iron is mixed with nickel and chromium it becomes stainless steel
 If one of the metals is mercury then the alloy is known as amalgam
 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, solder is an
alloy of lead and tin

Carbon and its Compounds:

 Carbon compounds are poor conductors of electricity
 Methane is the major component of biogas and CNG
 Diamond and Graphite are allotropes of Carbon. Diamonds are rigid 3-dimensional
structure and each carbon atom is linked to three four carbon atoms. Graphite is
smooth and slippery and is formed by linkage of one carbon atom to three other
carbon atoms in a hexagonal structure
 Compounds having double or triple bonds between carbon atoms are called
unsaturated compounds and are more reactive than saturated compounds
 Saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes and unsaturated hydrocarbons which
contain double bonds are called alkenes and unsaturated hydrocarbons which have
triple bonds are called alkynes
 Upon burning, saturated hydrocarbons give clean flame and unsaturated hydrocarbons
give yellow flame with black smoke
 Vegetable oils have long unsaturated carbon chains and animal fats have saturated
carbon chains
 Ethanol is found majorly in alcoholic drinks and is liquid at room temperature; it is
also a good solvent. Ethanol is prepared from sugarcane juice
 Ethanoic acid is called acetic acid, 5-8% of acetic acid in water is called vinegar
 Ester are sweet smelling substances and are used in making perfumes and flavouring
agents
 Micelles is a colloid and will not come together to precipitate because of ion-ion
repulsion
 Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids and detergents are
ammonium or sulphonate salts of the same

Periodic classification:
 There are 114 elements are known to us
 In 1886, John Newlands arranged the elements in order of their atomic mass and
observed that every 8th element had same properties and thus it was called Law of
Octaves
 Law of Octaves is valid upto only Calcium
 Dimitri Mendeleev called rows as periods and columns as groups but could not assign
Hydrogen in the periodic table, isotopes also posed a challenge
 In 1913, Henry Moseley modified the table by basing it on atomic number instead on
atomic mass
 Elements in the same group have same valences
 Size of an atom decreases as we move from left to right in a period because of
increase in number of protons which pull the electrons closer to nucleus. Radius of
Hydrogen atom is 37 picometer
 Silicon, boron, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium is a metalloid