Module 4 – HOUSING

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this discussion, the students are expected to:

1. Describe the factors in determining the farm site and consideration in planning the house structure
2. Identify the types of poultry house, roof/floor and materials, housing management, housing
fixtures/structures and cage systems/arrangement in poultry.

It’s important to house the birds safely and comfortably. There are a number of options, but in any set-up, the
birds need protection from wind, rain, heat, cold and predators.
Poultry housing design plays a vital role in the determination of the internal climatic conditions of the house for
optimum health, growth and productive performance of the birds. Consequently, the type of poultry housing system
employed by the proposed poultry farm is a function of the prevailing climatic conditions of the region where the farm
is located. While open poultry house system has been adjudged a good method of housing in the tropical countries
because of the simplicity of its construction, ease of heat management and minimal management cost, the controlled
housing system is the most common in the temperate regions of the world (Ojerinde and Adedamola, 2019).

Factors in Determining the Farm Site

1. Land Availability and Cost

2. Topography of the Area
3. Neighbors and Human Population
4. Water Supply
5. Availability of Electricity
6. Transportation Facilities
7. Feed Supply
8. Peace and Order Condition
9. Farm Layout and Farm Plans

Planning the House Structure

1. Type of stock
The buildings and its fixtures should suit the purpose for which birds are raised.
2. Production capacity
The house and its equipment should provide sufficient space for the desired number of birds to be kept
3. Environmental factors
The poultry houses should be designed to provide the birds with comfortable range of temperature and
good ventilation in order to obtain efficient production.
4. Sanitary features
The design and construction of the buildings should permit ease in cleaning and disinfections.
5. Labor efficiency
The structures and arrangement of poultry houses and equipment should allow for the handling of
maximum number of birds with the least expenditures of time and labor. If economically feasible, labor
saving devices should be used in the farm.

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Types of Poultry Houses
1. Brooder house
 Used in rearing very young chicken from day old to about 4 weeks of age.
 Afford additional heat because the temperature regulating mechanism of chicks does not become
functional until about the 4th week of age.

2. Grower house
 Used to rear chicks after the brooding period.
 Broilers are raised in this house until market age.
 Pullets are confined until 19th week of age (before they start to lay eggs)

3. Layer house - used to house hens in production

 Pullets are transferred in this house at 19th week of age
 Constructed with fixture to facilitate egg collection, minimize breakage of eggs.
 Caging
 saves space, prevent cannibalism, and facilitates detection of non-producers.

Types of Roofs
1. Shed or single span type - simplest type of roof; usually used in small construction and backyard situation.
2. Gable or double span type - most conventional system of roof construction.
3. Monitor type - desirable for big establishments; big double span with an outlet for air at the top of the roof.
4. Semi-monitor type - like the monitor type, except that the outlet on top is made only on one side of the roof;
both monitor and semi-monitor types are very expensive construction systems; most popular choice of big
establishments.

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Types of Housing Management
1. Range type
The most extensive type where the birds run freely over a large area and
experiencing nearly natural condition.

2. Restricted range type or semi-confinement type. The birds do not

wander freely but they have a limited space.

3. Complete confinement. The birds are totally confined.

Table 3. Space requirements for poultry housing and facilities

A. Floor space
Cages Elevated floor/ litter
Broilers
0-4 wks old 0.25 sq. ft./bird 0.5 sq. ft./bird
Over 4 wks old 0.5 sq. ft./bird 0.9-1.0 sq. ft./bird

Replacement pullets
0-6 wks old 0.2 sq. ft./bird 0.5 sq. ft./bird
7-18 wks old 0.4 sq. ft./bird 1.0 sq. ft./bird
Layers
Above 18 wks old 0.6 sq. ft./bird 1.25 sq. ft/bird

B. Feeder space
Broilers Linear feeder/bird
0-4 wks old 0.4 cm (1.5 in)
Over 4 wks old 7.5 cm (3.0 in)
Replacement pullets
0-4 wks old 2.5 cm (1.0 in)
4-10 wks old 5.0 cm (2.0 in)
10-18 wks old 7.5 cm (3.0 in)
Layers (above 18 wks old)
Cages 10.0 cm. (4.0 in)
Elevated floor/litter 7.5 cm. (3.0 in)

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C. Waterer space
Linear waterer/bird
Broilers
0-4 wks old 2.5 cm. (1.0 in)
Over 4 wks old 4.0 cm. (1.5 in)
Replacement pullets
0-6 wks old 2.5 cm. (1.0 in)
7-18 wks old 4.0 cm. (1.5 in)
Layers (above 18 wks old)
Cages 7.5 cm. (3.0 in)
Elevated floor/litter 4.0 cm. (1.5 in)

Floor Types and Materials

1. Litter floor - wood shavings, rice hulls, ground corncobs, peanut

hulls, chopped rice straws, seashore sand.

2. Elevated Floor/Slat floor – uses

bamboo splits, rattan strand, wood or lumber,
meshed wire for flooring

3. Battery system - made up of several cage tiers.

Housing Fixtures
1. Artificial brooders
2. Feeders and waterers
3. Dropping boards - boards placed in between tiers to serve as receptacle for
chicken droppings.

4. Labor-saving devices - movable feed bins, carts, manure scrapers.

Other Structures
1. Feed bodega
2. Sheltered manure pit
3. Incinerator
4. Egg sorting and storage room (egg farming)

Cage System
These maybe categorized according to the number of birds in a cage, as follows:

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 1. Single-bird cages – one bird in a cage
but is seldom used today.
2. Multiple-bird cages – holds 2 or more
birds, usually not more than 8 or
10, with 3 or 4 being the
most common
3. Colony cages – large laying cages
suitable for holding between 20 and 30 pullets.

Cage Arrangement

To conserve space thereby reducing the investment in which the laying cages are placed, many methods have
been originated to get more cages in a given area. These led to the following general classification of cage
arrangement.

1. Single-deck
Placing but one tier of cages in a house produces a high housing investment. The arrangement is
practical only in areas with a warm climate where the “house” consists of nothing but a roof.
2. Double-deck
This type is popular because the upper deck is offset, allowing the droppings to fall through the wire
mesh to the house floor without touching the lower deck. The offset arrangement is often called step-stair
system.
3. Triple-deck
To conserve space still further, three decks are common. However, the upper two decks are only
partially staggered or not staggered at all. To prevent the droppings from falling on the birds below, tilted
dropping boards installed below the top cages cause the manure to fall into one area.
4. Four-deck
It is the same as the triple deck except that four decks are used.
5. Flat-deck
Although these are single-deck installations, the cages are placed close together without walkway for
servicing the birds. All work is done from a motorized catwalk that moves back and forth over the cages.

References:

ATI-ITCPH. Primer on Organic Agriculture (Livestock). Reprinted by DA-RFO VI.

College of Agriculture, Central Luzon State University. 2015. Agriculturist Licensure Examination Review
Manual in Animal Science.

PCARRD-DOST. 2008. The Philippines recommends for table egg production. Los Baños, Laguna.
PCARRD-DOST. Philippines Recommends Series No. 23-B,

5
Evaluation

Essay: Answer the following questions in 3 to 5 sentences. (5 points each)

1. In constructing poultry houses, how could you assure that the comfort of the birds are met?
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of raising poultry on range.

MODULE 5 - FEEDS AND FEEDING

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this discussion, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of feeds and feeding management in poultry
2. Describe the classes of nutrients, feeds for different classes of chicken, and forms of feeds
3. Perform the feed formulation.

Introduction

In terms of cost, feed is the most important input for intensive poultry production. Poultry need a steady
supply of energy, protein, essential amino acids, minerals, vitamins and, most important, water. All the essential
nutrients should be present in the feed mixture in order to obtain a profitable rate of growth or egg production as well
as good health. It is impossible for all nutrients to be in a perfect balance in commercial or practical diets, but it is
possible to formulate a ration that is close to meeting an animal’s nutrient requirements. If the diet is balanced except
for one underfed nutrient, then the entire production of the animal will be limited to the level of that “limiting nutrient”
and all other nutrients will be wasted.
Likewise, overfeeding can be harmful to animals and to the environment. Animals that become
overconditioned or obese may be unproductive and at greater risk of health problems. Excess feed is often wasted
and may remain in the feeding area, become contaminated, and end up in the manure pile.

Essential Nutrients

1. Carbohydrates
It includes sugar, starch, cellulose and gums. Very little occurs as such in animal body. Carbohydrates make
up approximately ¾ of plant dry weight and thus, the largest part of animals food supply. It is formed by
photosynthesis in plants.
It is a source of energy and heat and is stored in animal body by converting to fats.

2. Fats (Lipids or Ether Extract)

Fats will yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. It functions as dietary supply, source of
heat, essential fatty acids and as a carrier for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

3. Proteins
They are the principal constituent of the organ and soft structures of the animal body. The dietary requirement
(%) is highest in the young growing animals and decline gradually to maturity.

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 3.1. Essential Amino Acids- essential to the animal and must be supplied in the diet because the animal cannot
synthesize them fast enough to meet its requirement.
1. Phenylalanine 6. Methionine
2. Valine 7. Histamines
3. Threonine 8. Arginine
4. Tryptophan 9. Leucine
5. Isoleucine 10. Lysine

3.2. Non- Essential Amino Acids- essential to the animal but are normally synthesized or sufficient in the diet
and need not be supplemented.
1. Alanine 7. Glycine
2. Asparagines 8. Hydroxyproline
3. Aspartic Acid 9. Proline
4. Cysteine 10. Serine
5. Glutamic Acid 11. Tyrosine
6. Glutamine

4. Vitamins
These are food nutrients needed in very small amounts but essential to life. They are grouped into:

4.1. Fat-soluble vitamins – are generally stored in the body, hence there is no need to supply these vitamins
daily.
 Vitamin A (Retinol) - does not occur in plant production but rather as carotenoids or pro vitamin A.
Yellow corn provides carotene, which can be converted by the body to vitamin A.
 Vitamin D (Calciferol) - Has two forms- ergocalciferol (Vit. D2) from plants and cholecalciferol (Vit. D3)
from animals.
 Vitamin E (Tocopherol) - is abundant in whole cereal grains particularly in the germ.
 Vitamin K (Menadione) - is the only fat-soluble vitamin synthesized by microorganisms in the
alimentary tract. This synthesis is a major source of vitamins for most species of higher animals. Synthetic
form of Vit. K is water- soluble.

4.2. Water-Soluble Vitamins- are not generally stored or synthesized in the body; therefore it must be added in
poultry rations. These vitamins are available commercially in synthetic forms.
 Thiamine (Vit. B1)
 Riboflavin (Vit. B2)
 Pantothenic acid (Vit. B3)
 Niacin (Vit. B4), Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide
 Pyridoxine (Vit. B6)
 Folic Acid (Vit. B8)
 Cyanocobalamine (Vit. B12)
 Ascorbic Acid (Vit. C)
 Biotin (Vit. H)
 Choline

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5. Minerals
This group of nutrient is essential to growth and reproduction. Bone formation is impossible without
minerals. Eggs will be laid without any shell in the absence of S, Zn, Mn, Mg, Se, Mo and F. Of these minerals, only
Ca and P are needed in large amount and so, they must be supplied in concentrate form in the diet.

Macro minerals (major minerals)

1. Sodium 5. Magnesium
2. Chlorine 6. Potassium
3. Calcium 7. Sulfur
4. Phosphorus

Micro minerals (trace minerals)

1. Iron 6. Zinc
2. Fluorine 7. Iodine
3. Manganese 8. Cobalt
4. Molybdenum 9. Copper
5. Selenium

6. Water
Water is an essential part of the diets of chickens. Water softens feeds and aids in the digestion, absorption
and transport of feed nutrients. It cools the body and equalizes body temperature. The damage due to neglect in
watering is more serious than damage due to neglect in feeding. Eggs and meat contain about 75% water.

Common Feedstuff Used in Formulating Poultry Rations

A. Sources of Carbohydrates and Fats
1. Yellow Corn – most popular grain used for poultry feeds. It contains 8-9% CP, is high in energy and
low in fiber. It is highly digestible and palatable. It contains Vitamin A and yellow pigmenting
compound.
2. Rice bran – its composition varies according to its kind and quality. The good quality rice bran
contains 11% protein. It can be a good source of energy. It is usually high in fiber but contains an
adequate amount of fat.
3. Copra meal – a by=product of coconut meat after the oil is extracted. It contains an adequate amount
of carbohydrates but is used for its protein. It has about 21% CP. It is low in amino acid and
methionine.
4. Corn gluten feed – a by-product in the manufacture of corn starch. It contains about 25% CP and is a
good source of carbohydrates.
5. Molasses – a by-product in the manufacture of white and brown sugar. It is very rich in carbohydrates
and contains more proteins.
B. Sources of Protein
1. Fishmeal – good source of high quality protein. On the average, a high quality fish meal contains 60-
65% protein. It also contains an adequate amount of carbohydrates and fats.
2. Soybean oil meal – contains about 44% CP and is also a good source of energy. This is the only plant
protein source that can replace animal protein in the diet of the chicken.

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 3. Shrimp meal – contains about 56% CP but is low in energy. It may be used as a substitute for
fishmeal.
4. Ipil-ipil leaf meal – contains an adequate amount of protein (21%) but is fed mostly for its Vit. A content
and yellow pigmenting property. It contains an undesirable chemical property (toxic), mimosine, so that
it must be used in a limited amount (not more than 3%).
C. Sources of Usually Added Minerals
1. Oyster shell and limestone – best sources of the Ca requirements of poultry.
2. Bone meal and rock phosphate – most widely used sources of P in poultry feeding.
3. Salt (common table salt) – most common source of Na and Cl for poultry.

D. Supplements
Vitamin, mineral and antibiotic supplements are available in concentrate forms commercially.

E. Feed Additives
To ensure that the dietary nutrients are ingested, digested, protected from destruction, absorbed and
transported to the cells of the body, certain feed additives are included in the ration.
1. Antifungal agents. These are used to prevent fungal (mold) growth in stored ingredients and mixed
feeds (e.g. propionic acid, citric acid). Molds reduce palatability and may produce mycotoxins. The use
of mold inhibitor is strongly recommended when moisture content of grains exceeds 13-14 %, relative
humidity increases to more than 80-85%, temperature rises above 12.80C or the grain is damaged,
broken or insect infested.
2. Antioxidants. These are preservatives that prevent the oxidation (rancidity) of fats. Unsaturated fatty
acids may react with oxygen to produce undesirable products with offensive odors and toxic properties
and destroy nutrients (fat soluble vitamins). Example of antioxidants is butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) and phosphoric acid).
3. Anticoccidial agents. These are substances used to prevent the incidence of coccidiosis in poultry (e.g.
alkomide, salinomycin).
4. Antitoxins. These are substances that bind mycotoxins present in feeds. (e.g. aluminum silicate,
Polyvinylpyrrolidone)

Feed Formulation
Feed formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion that will give
the animals the proper amount of nutrients needed.

Various Techniques in Feed Formulation

1. Modified Pearson-Square Method
Example: How much each of these feed ingredients will be needed to form a 100kg mixture containing 16% crude
protein?

Step1. Place the percent protein desired in the combination of two ingredients in the center of a square and the
percent protein content of each ingredient at the left corners.

Corn, 8.5 %
16%
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 FM, 50%

Step 2. Subtract diagonally across the square the smaller number from the larger without regard to sign.

Corn, 8.5% 34 (parts of corn)

16 %

SBM, 50% 7.5 (parts of soybean)

41.5 (total parts)

Step 3. The parts of each ingredient can be expressed as a % of the total parts and these can be applied to any
quantity.

34.0 parts of corn x 100 = 81.93% corn

41.5 total parts

7.5 parts SBM x 100 = 18.07% FM

41.5 total parts

81.93% x 100 kg = 81.93 kg. Corn

18.0 7% x 100 kg = 18.07 kg. FM

Step 4. Check

81.93 kg corn x 8.5% CP = 6.96 CP

18.07 kg FM x 50% CP = 9.04 CP
100.0 kg 16.00 CP

2. Trial and Error Method

The use of trial and error method in balancing poultry rations is time consuming. However, unlike the square
method, consideration is given to all nutrients which a poultry raiser cares to include in the formulation. The steps are
summarized as follows:
1. Decide on what nutrients to consider in the formulation. Energy, protein, fiber, calcium and phosphorus
are usually given importance in balancing rations.
2. Refer to feeding standards and list the nutrient requirements.
3. Select suitable feed combinations that could supply the nutrient requirements. Set down an arbitrary
ration, considering acceptable levels of the various feed ingredients used and making sure that the
total is either 100 or 1000 for easy computation. Compute for the total nutrients contributed by each of
the ingredients using the feed composition table. This is done by multiplying the amount of feed
ingredient by the amount of nutrient present in one kg. of the same feed.

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 4. Make necessary adjustments in the amounts of ingredients if the ration does not conform to the
requirements.

To illustrate the application of the “Trial and Error Method”, consider the sample problem below.

A farmer wishes to formulate a ration containing 14 % CP using the following feed ingredients/feedstuffs:
Yellow corn, rice bran, copra meal, SOM, oyster shell and salt.

Steps in computation:
1. Read and understand the problem.
2. Write what are given in the problem.
3. Formulate your own parts by weight.
4. Multiply each part by weight to the given percent CP. Percent CP should be divided first by 100.
5. Get the sum of the product of each ingredient (parts by weight and percent CP) as calculated CP.
6. Get the difference between desired CP and calculated CP.
7. Identify the feed ingredient with the highest and lowest % CP, and then get the difference of their
respective % CP.
8. Get the quotient between the difference of DCP and CCP and the difference of the highest and lowest
% CP (6 and 7).
9. Add or subtract the quotient to the highest and lowest % CP into the PBW.
10. If the CCP is lower than the DCP, reverse the mathematical procedure in step 9.

Feedstuff PBW % CP
Yellow corn 45.0 x 8.8 = 3.96
Rice bran 25.0 x 13.0 = 3.25
Copra meal 17.0 x 21.0 = 3.57
Soybean oil meal 12.0 x 44.0 = 5.28
Oyster shell .5 x 0 = 0
Salt .5 x 0 = 0
100 16.06% calculated CP

1. CCP - 16.06% 4. 12.0 – SOM

DCP - 14.00% -5.85
2.06 % 6.15 – new PBW of SOM

2. 0.44 – SOM 45.0 – YC

- 0.088 – YC + 5.85
0.352 50.85

3. 2.06 = 5.85
0.352

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Feedstuff PBW %CP

Yellow corn 50.85 x 8.8 = 4.47

Rice bran 25.00 x 13.0 = 3.25
Copra meal 17.00 x 21.0 = 3.57
Soybean oil meal 6.15 x 44.0 = 2.71
Oyster shell .5 x 0 = 0
Salt .5 x 0 = 0
100 14.0% CP

Types of Poultry Feeds

A. Broilers
1. Pre starter/Chick booster – given to chicks from day old to 2 weeks.
2. Chick starter/Broiler starter – given to chicks from 2 weeks old to 4 weeks old.
3. Broiler finisher – given to chicks from 4 weeks old until desired market weight and age are achieved.

B. Layers
1. Chick booster – given to chicks from day-old to 2 weeks of age.
2. Chick starter – given to chicks from 2 to 10 weeks of age.
3. Chick grower mash - given to chicks from 10 to 24 weeks of age.
4. Chicken layer mash – given to chicks from 25 weeks of age and onwards.

Forms of Feeds
1. Mash - a mixture of ground and powdered form of feedstuffs.
2. Pellets – compressed mash feed. Feeds are compressed through pelleting machine.
3. Crumbles – coarsely ground pellets.

Advantages of Pelleting
1. Less feed loss due to wind
2. Reduces feed dustiness
3. Keeps all ingredients bound in pellet form during handling
4. Destroys bacteria in feeds (e.g. Salmonella)
Increases feed density, allowing chicken to consume more low energy (high fiber) feeds
5. Markedly increases consumption of certain feed ingredients that are otherwise unacceptable to chickens
when they are not pelleted
6. Less feed wastage from feeders

Disadvantages of Pelleting
1. Added cost of pelleting
2. Wasting of fine particles when pellets break into crumble
3. Increased water consumption of chicken that often results to wet droppings.
4. Increased incidence and severity of cannibalism.

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Table 4. Feeding Guide for Broilers
Age (weeks) Type of feed Amount of feed Price/kg Total cost
(g/chick/day) (Php) (Php)
1–7 Chick booster 15
8 – 14 Chick booster 35
15 – 21 Chick starter 60
22 – 28 Chick starter 80
29 – 35 Broiler finisher 100
Total

Table 5. Feeding Guide for Layers

Age (weeks) Type of feed Amount of feed (g/chick/day)
1–2 Chick booster 10 – 17
3 – 10 Chick starter 23 – 53
11 – 20 Chick grower 56 – 80
21 – onwards Chicken layer mash 88 – 110

Important Points to Ensure Adequate Feed Intake

1. Good quality feeds
2. Optimum housing temperature
3. Proper ventilation
4. Sufficient allowance of floor space, feeder and waterer
5. Good flock health condition

Measures to Minimize Feed Wastage

1. Avoid filling beyond 1/3 of the capacity of the trough feeders. This will require frequent feeding but less
feed will be wasted through beaking out. Also, the feed will remain fresh and more palatable.
2. Use the right size of feeder for a particular age of chicken. Each feeder should have a guard or lid to avoid
the feed from being beaked out.
3. Check feeders (bottom and sides) regularly. Remove caked or moldy feeds.
4. Avoid water spillage on the feed. Regularly check waterers for leak or overflow.
5. Store feeds away from rodents. Institute rat control in poultry houses.
6. Screen poultry houses to keep away wild birds. Besides consuming feed, wild birds are potential carriers
of diseases.

References:

ATI-ITCPH. Primer on Organic Agriculture (Livestock). Reprinted by DA-RFO VI

.
Broiler feeding Program. Lovefeeds. New Panay Agri-Ventures Development, Inc.

College of Agriculture, Central Luzon State University. 2015. Agriculturist Licensure Examination Review Manual in
Animal Science.

13
Fanatico A. 1998. National Center for Appropriate Tect (NCAT). https://thepoultrysite.com/articles/feeding-chickens-
for-best-health-and-performance.

Livestock Feed Formulation Committee. 2000. The Philippines Recommends for Livestock Feed Formulation. Los
Baños, Laguna. PCARRD-DOST. Philippines Recommends Series No. 64-A

Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists (PHILSAN). 2010. FEED REFERENCE STANDARDS. Fourth Edition.
Society of Animal Nutritionists. UPLB College, Laguna, Philippines

http://www.poultryhub.org/index.php/Reproduction#Oviduct_2.

http://www.smallstock.info/info/feed/feed-digest.htm.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2020. Gateway to Poultry Production and Products.
Nutrition and Feeding. http://www.fao.org/poultry-production-products/production/nutrition-and-feeding/en/

Evaluation

1. Describe briefly how the following factors could ensure adequate feed intake of the birds. (2 to 3 sentences
only in each letter; 2 points each)
a. Optimum housing temperature
b. Sufficient allowance of floor space, feeder and waterer
c. Good flock health condition
d. Good quality feeds
e. Proper ventilation

Activity

1. How much feed would be needed to raise 100 heads broiler from day old to 35 days of age? Use the
current price of feeds in your locality. Consider a 2% mortality on the 7 th day of brooding. Show your
computation.

Age (weeks) Type of feed Amount of feed Price/kg Total cost

(g/chick/day) (Php) (Php)
1–7 Chick booster 15
8 – 14 Chick booster 35
Sub-total
15 – 21 Chick starter 60
22 – 28 Chick starter 80
Sub-total
29 – 35 Broiler finisher/Chick grower 100

Total

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 2. Using the techniques in feed formulation, compute the following:

A. Formulate a native chicken ration with 16% CP using the Trial and Error Method. The following
feedstuffs are available.

Feedstuff Parts by weight CP, % Total CP, %

(PBW), kg
Ground yellow corn 8.80

Rice bran 13.00

Snail meat meal 40.00

Tricanthera leaf meal 18.00

Salt 0.00

Total: 100.00 Total:

3. Using the Pearson Square method, formulate a ration with 16% CP using rice bran and snail meat meal.

Recommended inclusion levels for the following feedstuffs using the Trial and Error Method only.

Ground yellow corn – not more than 80.00% of the total mixture (80kg)
Rice bran – not more than 30.00 % of the total mixture (30kg)
Snail meat meal – not more than 10.00% of the total mixture (10kg)
Tricanthera leaf meal – not more than 5.00% of the total mixture (5kg)
Salt – only 0.005 percent of the total mixture (.5kg)

Module 6 - POULTRY MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the practices in poultry management and its importance.
2. Perform the recommended management practices in poultry.

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A. Brooding of Chicks

Brooding - the process of providing heat to the chicks to keep their body warm and comfortable.

Two Ways of Brooding

1. Natural brooding - the broody hens take care and furnish additional heat needed by the chicks from her
body.

2. Artificial brooding - the use of

any device to provide and conserve heat
for the comfort of the chicks.

Sources of Heat for Artificial Brooding

 Electricity
 Kerosene
 Charcoal or wood and rice hulls

Factors Affecting Successful Brooding

1. Proper temperature
Temperature is a very important factor to consider in brooding chicks. Sufficient heat must be provided
especially during the cool months. The range of temperature ideal at various ages of chicks is as follows:

Age of chicks Temperature

(days) (0C/0F)
1-7 32.2 – 35 (90-95)
8-14 29.4 – 32.2 (85-90)
15-21 26.7 – 29.4 (80-85)
Beyond 21 days Provide heat only when necessary

Check the brooder temperature frequently to avoid chilling or overheating. In the absence of a
thermometer, the behavior of the chicks can be used as a guide in determining the adequacy of the heat being
provided by the brooders. When heat is too much, the chicks will stay away from the heat source; when it is
inadequate, the chicks will crowd around it. With the right temperature the chicks will be seen uniformly
dispersed throughout the brooding area
Heat within the brooding house can be conserved by providing curtains and floor mats made of paper or
boards.

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 2. Adequate ventilation
Sufficient ventilation should be provided to supply plenty of oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and extra
moisture. Proper ventilation is essential in brooding chicks.
3. Adequate brooding space
The chicks require smaller space. As they grow older, they need a wider space which is adjusted by
widening the brooder guard. (Table 1)
4. Proper feeding and provision of water
During the first few days of life, the feeding habit of the birds is not yet fully established yet. To stimulate
their feeding activity, feed the chicks for the first three to five days of age on the paper floor or use feeder trays.
Feed often and in small quantities to avoid feed spoilage and wastage. In additional to the feed, always provide
fresh clean drinking water at least twice a day. The waterers should be washed and sanitized daily.
5. Adequate lighting facilities
Proper lighting in brooder pens encourage the chicks to keep close to the sources of heat and help them
locate the feed and water. If the source of heat is an incandescent bulb, then lighting of the brooder pen is
accomplished at the same time. However, if other sources of heat are used, light from a 5 to 10-watt bulb would
be needed to enable the chicks to locate the feed and water. If natural light is sufficient during daytime, artificial
light may only be provided at night.
6. Sanitation and disease control
Sanitation is essential for success in brooding chicks. Brooding pens need to be kept clean and dry at all
times to minimize if not prevent contamination and growth of parasites and other disease- causing organisms
7. Protection from predators
The brooder must be constructed to provide sufficient protection from rats, dogs, cats, snakes and other
animals that could unduly disturb or kill young chicks. Enclose the brooder house with materials that are sturdy
enough to prevent the entry of these predators.
8. Good quality chicks
Good quality chicks look active and have dry and fluffy feathers, bright eyes, and well-healed navels. The
size of DOC’s, as long as they come from the same flock, has no bearing on their subsequent performance.
However, chicks of similar sizes are always preferred.

Preparation of the Brooder House

The brooding house must be ready – repaired, cleaned, and

disinfected prior to the arrival of chicks. The heater should be turned on 4
hours before the arrival of the chicks. Heating units with hover must be
adjusted such that the edge of the hover is 15cm above the back of the newly
arrived chicks.

As the chicks grow bigger the height of the heater must be

adjusted. For chicks older than 4 days, the hover may be set at 15-30cm above the back of the chicks provided
optimum brooding temperature is maintained.
Brooder guards are used to confine the chicks near the source of
heat. These should be circular to eliminate corners that can possibly trap
the chicks and make them liable to trampling, particularly when they are
agitated or scared of predators or other unusual figures in the brooding

17
 area. Aluminum sheets, “lawanits”, plywood, hard cardboards or similar materials could be used as brooder
guard. The area enclosed by the brooder guard can be expanded as deemed necessary until it is removed at the
end of the brooding period.

Handling of Chicks
Handling of newly arrived chicks is one of the critical factors that influence survival rate and growth
performance during the brooding period. The following are some suggested steps in handling broiler chicks.
1. Place the boxes containing the broiler chicks on the floor of the brooder. Spread out the boxes to allow
adequate air supply and keep the chicks from suffocation.
2. Open the chick boxes and separate the weak chicks from the active ones. Remove and properly dispose
dead chicks found in the boxes. Immediately release the chicks into the brooder compartment. Dispose
empty boxes properly.
3. Check the condition of the newly arrived chicks more frequently during the first 48 hours.
4. Provide the chicks with 5% sugar solution for drinking within 3 hours of arrival. Thereafter, give them fresh
feed and water. Vitamin mineral supplements with antibiotics maybe added to the drinking water during the
first 3-5 days to enhance chick’s vigor.
5. Brooder temperature can be reduced by 30C/ week until the chicks are 3 weeks old. During warm months,
the brooder heater may be provided intermittently during daytime, but it should be provided continuously at
night.
6. Provide additional units of larger feeders and waterers as the chicks grow. Waterers should be set about
1m away from the nearest feeder. Choose proper feeder design and follow proper feeding management to
minimize feed wastage.
7. Vaccinate the chicks against common poultry diseases (e.g., new castle disease [NCD], Infection
bronchitis [1B], and Infectious Bursal Disease [1BD].
8. Cull and properly dispose all weak, deformed and sickly chicks immediately. Burn or bury dead birds.
9. Consult a veterinarian if mortality and morbidity of the flock goes higher than the acceptable level.

Common Brooding Problems and Solutions

The chicks should be closely observed daily for any trouble. When making round in the brooder house, one
should look for the following:
 Are the chicks well-spread out over the floor space and at feeding equipment?
 Are they gasping and staying away from the source of heat? The brooder may be too hot. Reduce brooding
temperature and/or lift flappers and coverings of the brooder.
 Are the chicks grouped to the source of heat? May be too cold. Add more heat from the source.
 Are feeders and waterers too crowded? Provide more feeding and watering equipment.
 Bloody droppings or whitish diarrhea? Check for coccidiosis or other enteric diseases such as colibacillosis
or salmonellosis.
 Gasping or panting? High brooder temperature, poor ventilation, strong ammonia odor or disease.
 Ammonia odor strong? Check ventilation and litter or dropping boards.
 Lack of appetite? Check quality of feed. Also check for disease conditions.
 Pale shanks, pale head, and ruffled feathers? Disease such as chronic coccidiosis, blood parasites,
Gumburo disease, wing rot or malnutrition.
 Lack of flock uniformity? Check floor and feeder spaces, brooding temperature and feed quality. Poor stock.

18
  Sudden mortality? Diseases such as coccidiosis or respiratory diseases. Suffocation- Check ventilation.
Poor stock.
 Watery eyes/nasal discharge? Strong ammonia odor- Check ventilation. Respiratory diseases problem.
 Conjunctivitis (sore eyes). Strong ammonia odor-Check ventilation. Newcastle disease
 Tremors/Paralysis? Vitamin E deficiency. Mineral deficiencies. Disease problem- epidemic tremor,
Newcastle disease.

Beak Trimming
Debeaking or beak trimming is the most effective method of preventing cannibalism, feather picking or pick
out; it also helps in minimizing feed wastage. Debeaking is done by removing part of the upper and lower beaks. An
electric hot- blade debeaking machine is commonly used for speed and minimal bleeding. The latter is made possible
with the presence of a burning blade in the debeaking machine.
Birds are usually debeaked 5 to 10 days of age. If done properly, only a small percentage of the birds will
require re-debeaking or touching up before being moved to the laying house. Important points to observe in
debeaking are the following:

1. The debeaker blade should be heated to a glowing cherry red (8150C) to insure proper trimming and
cauterization of the beak.
2. Use a “baby chick” adaptor for debeaking birds below two weeks of age. Insert the closed back squarely
into the proper guide hole to trim 2mm from the nostril or at least ½ of the beak’s length.
3. The head should be held horizontally so that both upper and lower beaks are cut straight and square. Do not
tilt the chick’s head either up or down while debeaking.
4. Cauterize the cut portion of the beak for 2 ½ seconds to prevent bleeding. Also, correct cauterization will
prevent undesirable regrowth of the beak.
5. Avoid burning the bird’s tongue. This can be done by pressing the finger under the throat of the chick during
debeaking.
6. Do not sacrifice precision for speed. Debeak no more than 500 birds per hour.
7. Provide anti-stress medication within three to five days debeaking.

Transfer of Chicks to the Growing House

Meat type Chicken

At about the 4th week of age, broilers are transferred to the growing-finishing house where they can utilize
more space for growth. At this age, they are already capable of thermoregulation, thus provision of artificial heat is no
longer necessary. In many broiler operations where only one building is utilized for brooding and growing –finishing,
the space requirement is met by adjusting appropriate fixture incorporated in the design of the house. In any case,
broilers are kept in the growing- finishing until they are ready for market at 5 to 7 weeks of age.
Broilers grow at a very fast rate during the growing-finishing stage. To cope up to such rapid growth, the
appropriate feed and space should be provided.
Egg Type Chicken
In egg-type chicken, the growing stage comprises the period from the 6th week of the life to the onset of lay.
This period is quite sensitive in layer farm operations because the management system at this stage has marked
influence in the eventual laying efficiency of the flock. For the same reason, as that in broilers, egg-type chicks are

19
 transferred to the growing house. Without light and feed restrictions, some pullets will start to lay eggs as early as the
18th week (4½ months).
The onset of laying eggs can be delayed by restricting feeds and/or light, the two being significant factors in
the sexual maturation of chicken. Feed restriction may be done by reducing the amount of the ration, its protein
content or both, from as early as the 12th week up to the 20th week of age.
a. Transfer of Pullets to the Laying House
Pullets are transferred to the laying house at about the 19th week of age before they commence laying eggs.
Handling pullets when they have started to lay may cause death or untimely culling due to ruptured eggs inside the
body cavity.
Managing the laying flock is directed towards optimizing productivity traits namely high egg production, large
egg size, good interior and egg shell quality, high feed efficiency and low mortality and culling rates. In addition to
genetics and quality of pullets at housing time, management practices during the laying period greatly influence the
attainment of these production goals.
Moving Pullets to Laying House/Cages
Whether the pullets are moved to another house or made to stay in the same house, several routine jobs
must be done before they are ready for egg production.
1. Cull pullets that are ugly and do not show prospects of profitable production. Sickly birds must definitely be
culled out.
2. Re-vaccinate against diseases that must be controlled through a definite program
3. Deworm, debeak and do a blood test if these activities are part of the program in your flock management.
4. Change your feed gradually from the growing ration to the layer mash.

Factors Affecting Laying Behaviors of Hens

1. Proper environment
House temperature, humidity and ventilation affect the number of eggs a bird will lay.
2. Modern and adequate equipment
The type of equipment influences egg production. Properly automated equipment will aid in
economical production of eggs.
3. Endocrine activity
Light stimulates the activity of certain endocrine glands, and in turn, egg production is increased
(Table 6).
4. Balanced nutrition
The feed ration of laying pullets must contain the required amount of nutrients for the flock to keep
laying eggs and keep them healthy and vigorous. Furthermore, it must be noted that maximum egg
production should be achieved with the least possible feed cost

5. Livability
Less mortality or minimum mortality must be observed; that is, layers must be able to live up to the
end of their laying cycle.

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Table 6. Standard Body Weight Target and Light Stimulation
Age (weeks) Type of feed Body weight (grams) Light Stimulation (hours)
1 Chick booster 60-90
2 Chick booster 140-150
3 Chick starter 210-230
4 290-320
5 370-400
6 440-470
7 510-550
8 600-630
9 680-720
10 750-790
11 800-860
12 860-930 13
13 Chicken grower 920-980
14 980-1030
15 1030-1100
16 1100-1170
17 1180-1260
18 1230-1310
19 1270-1350
20 1300-1400 13.5
21 1330-1440 14
22 1360-1490 14.5
24 Chicken layer 1450-1580 15.5
26 1520-1640 16.5
28 1590-1720 17
30 1650-1780 17
40 1700-1840 17
50 1700-1840 17
60 1700-1840 17
70 1700-1840 17
80 1700-1840 17
Source: Love feeds Chicken Layer Feeding Program

6. Reproductive performance
This is not only measured by the large number of eggs produced but layers must also be able to
produce large size eggs and of good quality.

Egg Production
Standards of egg production are shown in Table 5. If the flock does not meet the standard at any given age,
check lighting program (day length, light intensity, etc.), quantity and quality of the feed, body weight, house
temperature, health condition, etc.. Appropriate corrective measures must be instituted immediately.
Egg laying may take place as early as 7:00 A.M. as late as 4:00 P.M. Majority of hens lay eggs between
10:00 A.M. and 2:00 P.M. with the peak taking place before noon.

21
Table 7. Hen-Day Production of Commercial Layers
Age Hen-Day Age Hen-Day Age Hen-Day
(weeks) % Lay (weeks) % Lay (weeks) % Lay

21 14-15 41 83-88 61 72-76

22 27-29 42 82-87 62 72-76
23 45-49 43 82-87 63 71-75
24 64-68 44 81-86 64 71-74

25 80-85 45 80-85 65 70-74

26 86-91 46 80-85 66 69-73
27 87-94 47 79-84 67 69-73
28 87-95 48 79-84 68 68-72
29 87-94 49 78-83 69 68-72
30 87-93 50 78-83 70 67-71
31 87-92 51 77-82 71 67-71
32 87-92 52 76-81 72 66-70

33 86-91 53 76-81 73 66-70

34 86-91 54 76-80 74 65-69
35 86-91 55 76-80 75 64-68
36 85-90 56 75-79 76 64-68
37 85-90 57 74-79 77 63-67
38 85-90 58 74-78 78 63-66
39 84-89 59 73-77 79 63-66
40 83-88 60 73-77 80 62-65
Source: Pfizer Handbook on Poultry Production

Egg Collection and Handling

Eggs should be collected at least 3-4 times a day to minimize egg losses from breakage in the laying house
or rapid deterioration under hot weather conditions. The good quality of eggs can be conserved by keeping them in a
room with a temperature of about 100C to 150C or lower and with a relative humidity of about 70%.
After collection, eggs are cleaned and sorted out according to sizes. For small form units, a manual egg
grader is sufficient for this purpose. However, in large layer operations, automatic egg grader machines are needed.
Eggs must be stored with the small end down on clean trays. To control growth of mold and fungi because
of high humidity, walls and floor of the egg room should be scrubbed frequently with a suitable disinfectant such as
Biocid 30. Always keep the egg room clean and free of odorous materials. Eggs can easily absorb odors from these
materials.

Table 8. The standards on egg sizes

Classification Weight per egg (g)
Peewee Below 41
Small 41-47
Medium 48-54
Large 55-61
Extra large 62-68
Jumbo Above 68
Source: Bureau of Product Standards (Pfizer Handbook on Poultry Production)

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Molting
Molting is the changing of the feathers of the birds. The first molting occurs after one year of laying eggs.
Hens show several types of molting such as fast, slow, early and late molters. One observation is that if annual molt
is earlier than one year, the bird is not a persistent layer. If there is only partial molt, there is still egg produced.
Forced molting shortens the period of no production. It is done by feed and light withdrawals.

Conventional Procedures of Forced Molting

1. Feed and water must be totally withheld on the first day.
2. No additional light is given.
3. Water is given in the afternoon of the second day but no feed.
4. Cool water on the third day but still no feed.
5. Little amount of unmilled rice “palay” on fourth day, 1 kg per 100 hens.
6. Fifth day, 5 kg palay/100 hens
7. Feeding of palay grains continued for two weeks; molting starts.
8. Egg production drops to zero starting on the fifth day.
9. Within the second week period feathers drop also
10. After two weeks of molting, a high protein diet is given at 21% CP.
11. After two weeks, return the chicken to normal laying mash at 18 % CP
12. For a period of 6 to 8 weeks, the chickens will be fully clothed and ready for the next egg production year.

Culling
Culling is the removal of undesirable and unproductive chicken from the flock. The presence of non- layer or
poor layers reduces the efficiency of a laying flock. These birds require the same time and attention as the good
layers but are inefficient in converting feeds into eggs. Immediate culling of these undesirable birds is necessary to
maintain efficiency of the flock.
Table 9 presents the important characteristics for distinguishing laying hens from non-layer. Important points in
distinguishing good layers from poor layers at the end of the laying cycle are summarized in Table 10.

Table 9. Culling Guide- Layers vs. Non-layers

Reference Points Layers Non-layers

Comb Bright red, expanded Dull or pale; Shrunken or small, scaly

Eyes Bright Dull
Vent Large, dilated, oblong, moist, Small, contracted, rounded, dry,
bleached (whitish) Yellow
Beak Faded at base Yellow at base
Pubic bone spread More than 2-finger spread Less than 2-finger spread
Abdomen and Spread Soft, pliable; more than 3 Full, hard; less than 3 fingers
fingers between pubic bones and between pubic bones and keel.
keel
Source: Pfizer Handbook on Poultry Production

23
Table 10 .Culling Guide- Good layers vs. Poor layers
Reference Points Good layers Poor layers

Eyes Bright Dull, sunken

Eyelids Thin, white edges Thick, yellow edges
Earlobes Bleached (whitish) Yellow

Beak Bleached (whitish) Yellow

Shanks Bleached (whitish) Yellow
Plumage Worn, soiled, close feathered New, glossy, clean, loose feathered
Source: Pfizer Handbook on Poultry Production

Reasons for Culling a Flock

1. It increases average egg production by removing non-producers and low producers.
2. It lowers cost of feed and labor
3. If the culled birds are weak and sickly, culling reduces the chance of spreading diseases and
contaminating the healthy birds
4. It provides more space for efficient layers
5. If provides additional income from sales of culls.

Equipment used in Culling

Culling birds in cages and small pens does not need any equipment. However, in large pens; you may need
a few essential devices to be able to do an efficient job of culling. Some of these devices are:
1. Catching hook.
2. Catching crate
3. Catching panel.
4. Flashlight.

Selection and Care of Hatching Eggs

1. Eggs should come from mated flock
2. The shell should be strong and perfectly sound, free from cracks and ridges. A thin shelled egg will not hatch
normally.
3. Very small as well as very large eggs are not good for hatching.
4. Eggs must be produced from parent stock, which have good breeding performance.
5. Eggs for incubation are usually gathered 3 or 4 times a day at 2 hour intervals
6. Hatching eggs should not be kept longer. Storing eggs longer than 7 days reduces their hatchability.
7. Keep eggs with large ends up or on their sides, never with the large ends down. It is not necessary to turn eggs
if kept less than a week.

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Table 11. Relationship of storage period to % hatchability and hatching time.
Storage (days) Hatchability of fertile eggs (%) Hatching time delay from normal
(hours)
1 88 0
4 87 0.7
7 79 1.8
10 68 3.2
13 56 4.6
16 44 6.3
19 30 8.0
22 26 9.7
25 0 0
Source: Coligado, E.C Lecture Notes (An.Sci. 140)

b. Incubation
Incubation - is the hatching of eggs naturally or artificially.

Methods of incubation
1. Natural Incubation
With some species, the natural
incubation of egg remains the most
efficient. In natural incubation, a hen sits
on her eggs until hatching. With chickens,
turkeys and ducks, however, man has
perfected artificial method which gives
result superior to those achieved by natural means.
One broiler breeder hen will produce about 150 offspring in a year weighing about 600 lbs at market time.
Without artificial incubation, it would not be possible to capitalize on this reproduction capacity. Artificial incubation
has geared the breeding hen from incubating eggs and enabled her to work full-time and yearlong producing
hatching eggs.

Advantages of Natural Incubation

1. They hatch and brood the chicks at the same time
1. It is economical when starting with 50 chicks or less
2. There is less mortality

Disadvantage of Natural Incubation

1. It is impossible to hatch many eggs at one time
1. One has to wait for the hen to be broody in order to be able to hatch eggs
2. You may not be able to start with the number of chicks that you desire

Natural Incubation Preliminaries

Before setting the eggs, examine the broody hen for lice. In raising the feathers on different portion of the
body, one can see if there is infestation. Active lice can be seen scurrying from the exposed skin. Body lice are active

25
and yellow in color. They are the most harmful as it causes body irritation and nervousness which may make the hen
quit hen job.
To remove the lice, dust chickens with louse powder. It is necessary to remove lice; otherwise, the hen may
leave the nest even before hatching. Inspect also if there are mites, as they usually attack at night and hide in
crevices and cracks at daytime. Mix tobacco midribs cut in 2-4 inches lengths to nesting materials to minimize
infestation of nests by mites or spray Sevin or Malathion.
Setting the eggs. Set the eggs preferably at nighttime. Place the eggs under the body of the hen and be
sure that all the eggs are covered by the body feathers.

Number of eggs to a hen. The number of eggs varies with the size of the hen.

Warm Weather Breed Cold Weather

12 Native (Small) 10
15 New Hampshire (Big) 12

Feeding the sitting hen. Laying mash is strictly not recommended

for sitters; otherwise, they may be stimulated to lay eggs instead of
hatching the eggs. Give plenty of water. Frequent “leave of absence” of
birds from the nest result in poor hatching. Sitting hen should not be
allowed to leave the nest from the 18th up to the time the hatching is over.

2. Artificial Incubation
Artificial incubation of eggs has been practiced since the days of early Chinese and Egyptian civilizations
dating back to 1,000 years B.C.
 Use of rotting manure
 Charcoal
 Kerosene
 Electricity

Today’s commercial cabinet type incubators had a capacity of up to 100,000 eggs. A commercial hatchery
has several of these incubators. All operations in these cabinets are mechanized, eggs are placed either flat or broad
end up in racks, while turning in automatic. Therefore, separate setters and hatchers are needed since the eggs
should lay flat while hatching. After 18 days of incubation, the eggs are candled and transferred to the hatchers.

Requirement for Successful Incubation

1. Temperature. This is the most critical factor in the proper operation of the incubator. Slight variations may
result in sharp reduction of hatchability. Temperature affects the time of hatch, chick size, quality and percentage of
crippled or weak chicks and the number of chicks.

Table 12. Temperature and relative humidity for hatching

Week Temperature (oF) Humidity (%)
1st 100 60
2nd 99.5 60
3rd 98 60

26
 2. Humidity. If air is too dry, you will notice rapid evaporation. Rapid evaporation will lower hatchability and
result in small chicks. One the other hand, if the humidity is too high, very little evaporation can take place. Slow
evaporation will result in low hatchability.
3. Position and turning of eggs. Turn eggs frequently at regular intervals during incubation. Turning will
prevent the embryo from adhering to the shell membrane. Start turning the eggs within about 12 hours after setting.
Stop on the 18th day.

Table 13. Relationship of turning to percent hatchability of hatching eggs.

Frequency of turning of Hatchability (%)
eggs (day)
2 68.2
4 71.8
6 74.6
8 74.8
10 74.7
Source: Coligado, E.C. Lecture Notes (An.Sci.140)

4. Hygiene. Strict sanitation in the incubator room must be observed regularly and properly. It is important
to note that the first few days are the most critical period in the life of the chicks.

Candling
Between the 7th and 9th day of incubation (first candling), it is possible to see if the eggs are fertile. In this
process called candling, a beam of light is allowed to go through the eggs, making the interior of the egg visible.
Second candling is done on the 18th or 19th day of incubation.

Table 14. Incubation periods of different poultry species

Common Name Incubation Period
(Days)
1.Chicken 21
2.Pekin duck 28
3.Muscovy duck 35-37
4.Mallard duck 28
5.Turkey 28
6.Quail 18
7.Pigeon 18
8.Geese 30-34
9.Swan 35
10.Ostrich 42
11.Peafowl 28
12.Pheasant 22-24
13.Guinea fowl 26-28

27
Evaluation

Essay. Answer each question in 3 to 5 sentences. (5 points each)

1. Explain why the temperature requirement of chicks decrease with age?

2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of artificial incubation.

Activity

1. Select a hen from your flock and evaluate whether it is a layer or a non-layer using the reference points (comb,
eyes, vent, beak, etc.). For example, if the comb tells that it is a layer, put a check (/) mark under the Layer
column. If the comb is that of a Non-layer, put a check (/) mark under the Non-layer column.

Reference Points Layer Non-layer

Comb
Eyes
Vent
Beak
Pubic bone spread
Abdomen and Spread

2. After doing the activity, indicate in the Remarks if the specimen that you had evaluated is a Layer or a Non-
layer.

Remarks:

3. If you are a poultry (egg) raiser, what is the significance of this activity?
4. Include at least 2 pictures while performing the activity.

Module 7 - HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:

3. Describe the guidelines in the prevention of infectious diseases in poultry

4. Distinguish healthy from sick birds
5. Recognize symptoms of common diseases affecting poultry.

A state of good health exists where the body processes functions in a normal manner, allowing animals to
give their highest performance. This performance may be in terms of live weight gain or egg production. Any
interference with the body processes can lead to a state, which we call ill health. This means that for some reason an

28
animal cannot give the highest performance. The state of ill health can be caused by parasites, bacteria, viruses,
fungi, poison, metabolic and other disorders.
Health may also be affected by heredity, but a farmer is mainly concerned with the prevention of
interference with the body processes.

Biosecurity refers to procedures implemented to protect animals from disease -causing pathogens to help
keep them healthy. One of the biggest aspects of raising chickens, or any type of livestock, is to make sure
that biosecurity protocols are followed closely

General Guidelines for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases in Poultry

1. Construct poultry buildings in such a way as to provide adequate ventilation, facilitate cleaning, disinfections,
and maintenance of sanitary conditions. They should preferably be fenced with chicken wire or other suitable
materials to provide ample protection from predators, scavengers, wild birds and animals that can serve as
vectors of diseases or be a nuisance to the general comfort of the flock.
2. Provide the birds with comfortable quarters, equipped with proper fixtures. Overcrowding, lack of feeding and
watering space or sub-standard brooding procedures can act as immediate causes of diseases aside from
being significant factors in disease predisposition and spread.
3. Provide poultry houses with adequate light. Light stimulates feeding and sexual maturation. In broiler, it is
generally accepted that continuous lighting is most practical. In layers, the recommended duration of light
hours varies according to the stage of production of the birds. Prolonged light hours in pullets will hasten
sexual maturity but the incidence of egg laying will commence before the oviduct and cloaca have developed
fully.
4. If possible, practice an all-in-all-out method of operation and allow a rest period of about 30 days between
batches. Periodic complete depopulation is an efficient way of ridding the farm of infectious organisms, as
many of them cannot survive for prolonged periods of time in the absence of susceptible hosts.
5. Clean and disinfect poultry buildings before new stocks are housed. A disinfectant with broad spectrum of
activity and high penetrating ability should be used to rid the buildings of the more fastidious types of
organisms that could otherwise survive between batches of birds.
6. Purchase stock from reputable source. Well-established hatcheries usually have better management and
health practices that help a lot in the production of better-quality, disease-free, or disease resistant chicks.
7. Start with day old chicks as they have less chance of being sick or being carriers of infection. Although some
diseases can be egg transmitted, good hatcheries usually adopt preventive measures to keep this from
happening. Moreover, the great majority of infected embryos do not hatch or hatch into noticeably weak chicks
that are condemned right at the hatchery or die soon after leaving the hatchery.
8. Quarantine new stocks for at least 2 weeks from arrival if other flocks are being kept from the farm. This is to
insure that if latent or incubating disease is present in the new stocks, such infection can be dealt with before it
spreads to the resident birds.
9. Do not mix birds of different species, breed, strain and/or age. Susceptibility to some infections can vary
according to these characteristics. Some birds can harbor disease without showing overt signs because of
species, breed, strain, and/or age resistance. Such birds however, can serve as carriers or reservoirs of
infection for the less resistant ones who can contract the same disease and die from it
10. Use a nutritionally balanced feed and provide clean drinking water at all times. Malnutrition can give rise to
specific diseases and/or predispose birds to other diseases. The energy, protein, minerals, and amino acid
requirements of birds vary according to their type, age, or production stage.

29
11. Follow a vaccination program for prevalent diseases and if possible, monitor the effectivity of the vaccination
procedures.
12. Anticipate procedures that predispose birds to infection and adopt remedial measures in advance.
Stresses such as inclement weather, extremes in temperatures, vaccination, shipment, feed or water
deprivation can undermine the resistance of birds to infection. Because some stresses cannot be avoided,
palliative measures must at least be instituted to lessen their adverse effect. A very practical measure to adopt is
antibiotic-vitamin-mineral supplementation to hasten the body’s adaptive efficiency and discourage bacterial
infection.
13. Control external and internal parasites. Besides being efficient vectors of diseases, parasites reduce the
general resistance of birds to infections. Control external parasites by using insecticides as sprays, dips, or
dust. Drain the farm of stagnant pools and damp areas to deprive insects of breeding places.
14. Limit traffic in the farm. Install vehicle dips at farm gates and refrain from taking visitors inside poultry houses to
avoid the introduction of diseases into the farm by outsiders. Provide foot dips at the entrance of poultry
houses to minimize the spread of infections
15. Remove animal excrements from their immediate surroundings and dispose them properly. Animal excrements
can be a rich source of infectious organisms and parasites and must be regarded as a health risk. Collect them
once every one or two weeks and pile them into heaps outside poultry houses to allow the heat of fermentation
to build up. The heat produced in this process will be of great help in killing most pathogenic organisms in the
feces.
16. Isolate or dispose obviously sick birds. Sick birds can spread infection by contaminating the feeds, water and
equipment with their excrements.
17. Dispose sick or dead birds by incineration or deep burial. Decaying carcasses invite insects and scavengers
that can serve as vectors of organisms that may be abundant in the carcasses.
18. Maintain good production and health records. Production records reflecting daily feed consumption, egg
production, mortalities, etc., can be a gauge of the general health status of a flock. Health records should
reflect all health problems encountered in the farm and the measures adopted to cope with them - such as
medication, vaccination, etc. Such information can be of invaluable help to a diagnostician in case of a disease
outbreak, or when updating the farm’s preventive health program for the succeeding batches.
19. Consult a veterinarian at the first sign of illness in the flock. A veterinarian should be in the best position to
advice on medication, security management to prevent the spread of infection, and other pertinent matters.
Note that time is a very important factor in the outcome of diseases. Almost all diseases are easier to cure at
the early stages of infection; likewise, spread of diseases is easier to arrest at the start of outbreaks.

What Every Flock man should know about Poultry Vaccines?

1. Vaccines do not provide a foolproof assurance of immunity against a disease.
2. Vaccines do not confer instant immunity.
3. The level of immunity provided by vaccination depends upon several factors, among which are; potency of the
vaccine, amount administered, route of vaccination and capability of vaccinated birds to respond to the
vaccination.
4. The duration of immunity from vaccination varies with the type of vaccine and the level of immunity conferred by
such vaccination.
5. Vaccination is a pre-exposure method of disease control.

30
Methods of Vaccination
1. Medicine or eye dropper. Put a drop of vaccine in a bird’s eye and wait for it to blink, or place a finger over one
nostril, put the drop in the other nostril, and wait until the drop is breathed in.
2. Feather follicle. Pull a few feathers from the bird’s thigh and rub the feather follicles in the area with a vaccine-
soaked cotton swab or brush.
3. Wing web stick. Dip a web stick into vaccine and use it to puncture the skin on the underside of a wing. Be
careful not to hit a blood vein. Always stick the same wing of all birds (either the left or the right wing), so that
you can check later on for a scab which shows the vaccine has been effective, or a “take”.
4. Drinking water. Some vaccines are mixed into the flock’s drinking water.
5. Intramuscular. Use a syringe to inject a vaccine into the breast.

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Table 16. Vaccination schedule for broiler chicks
Age of Chicken Type of Route of Remarks
Vaccination Administration
7-10 days NCD (B¹ Strain) Intraocular (eye drop) Chicks from unvaccinated parents may be vaccinated as
Intranasal (nose drop) early as 1-3 days of age
IB (live vaccine)
7-15 days IBD, mild or intermediate Via drinking water If chicks are vaccinated before 7 days old, re-vaccination at
strain (live vaccine) 21 days of age may be indicated for optimum protection
21-28 days NCD (La Sota strain) Via drinking water
IB (live vaccine)

Table 17. Vaccination program for replacement pullets during the brooding period (day old to 4 weeks old) and growing period (5-18 weeks
old)
Age of chicken Type of Vaccination Route of Administration
Day 1 Marek’s disease Subcutaneous injection
Day 10 NCD Intranasal route
Day 20 IBD Via drinking water
Day 26 NCD Intranasal drop/ intramuscular injection
Day 42 Fowl pox Prick method
(6 weeks)
Day 70 NCD Intramuscular injection
(10 weeks)
Day 119 Intramuscular injection
(17 weeks)

32
Table 18. General signs of health and disease in poultry
Normal Birds Sick Birds Normal Birds Sick Birds
Posture Feathers
Erect, with elevated head Head (held close to body). Tail and possibly wings Smooth, neat and clean. (Caged birds often show Feathers (fluffed out)
and tail. dropped. Neck (twisted with head held over back or excessive feather wear, particularly around Area of abdomen is
between the legs). n9eck) stained.
Head Respiration
Comb and wattles (bright, Comb and wattles (shrunken, pale or blue). Face Absence of noise. Breathing ( through the Gurgling, rattling.
clean and red). Face parts parts (shrunken). Eyes (dull and may be only partly nostrils). Movement of abdominal wall is barely Gasping may be
(filled out.) Eyes (bright and open). Nostrils (caked and crusted). Eyes are perceptible. When pen temperatures exceed 30ºC pronounced. There is
alert. Accommodation to watery. Sinus area below eye is swollen or flutters even healthy adult poultry will breathe through the obvious movement of
changes in light by the pupil with respiration. open mouth. Young chicks will demonstrate this at abdominal wall with
(rapid). Nostrils (clean, free temperatures above 37.4ºC. respiration.
of discharge)
Musculature Legs and Feet
Has a feeling of weight when Loss of weight and strength. Muscles at point of the Scaly covering (clean and waxy). Legs (filled out). Dehydrated with
handled. Has power in keel near the area of crop are shrunken, resulting in Joints (smooth and cool to be touch). prominent tendons.
movements when struggling. a thin breast. Disparity in size between the two Joints are enlarged and
thighs, also between the lower legs. warm to the touch.
Bottom of feet is
cracked, crusted or
discolored.
Appetite and Thirst Manure
Eat and drink frequently. Loss of appetite with excessive drinking. Gray or brown with white caps. Mass has definite Milky white, green,
form. Droppings passed from ceca may be frothy. yellow or red.
Droppings are soft,
watery or very sticky.
Abdomen Pigmentation
Firm to the touch. May feel May feel hard or very soft, with a stretched Characteristic of breed, strain and period Reduced depth in color.
hard with fat birds. appearance that distorts the vent. Fluid inside the production In adult hens, an
body cavity may be felt through the wall. excess of yellow
pigment may result from
disease reducing the
rate of lay.

33
Table 19. Observations pertinent to young poultry
Normal Birds Sick Birds
Navel Area
Navel is smooth and difficult to locate. Color and Thickened with an appearance and feel of a “button” or a knot of tissue. Black string of dry
appearance is the same as that of normal skin. tissue may be protruding. Fluid discharge may be present.
Vent
Clean and flat with the body surface Pasted over with feces or partly inverted.
Legs and Feet
Legs are held under the body. Toes are straight and Legs are straddled and toes curved.
evenly spread.
Wing Feather
Extend to the base of tail. Feather webs show no Extend beyond the base of the tail. Feather webs show clear “fault lines” across the vane.
distinct lines.

34
Common Diseases and Parasites of Poultry

Common Diseases:

Newcastle Disease (NCD) or Avian Pest

 An acute rapidly spreading respiratory disease
 Characterized by harsh breathing, coughing, sneezing, and often followed by nervous manifestation.
Cause:
 Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)
Transmission:
 Direct contact with infected broiler
 Contaminated farm equipment, feed or water
 Farm personnel and visitors with contaminated clothing and
footwear
 Free-living birds (e.g., sparrows) and imported exotic birds,
which are often carriers of NDV
Symptoms:
 Drop in feed intake
 Respiratory signs (gasping, coughing, sneezing, rales, nasal discharge
 Often followed by neurologic signs (e.g., incoordination, leg and/or wing paralysis, twisting of head and
neck)
 Marked variation in morbidity, mortality, signs, and lesions due to the degree of chicken susceptibility and
virus pathogenicity.
 Common post mortem lesion (proventricular hemorrhages)
 High mortality, acute onset with various respiratory and gastrointestinal lesions.
Prevention:
 Vaccination (live, attenuated vaccine)
 Thoroughly clean and disinfect farm equipment and premises.
 Keep backyard chickens, fighting cocks, and exotic birds out of the farm and its premises.
 Bird-proof poultry houses.
 Quarantine farm and isolate sick chickens from the healthy ones as soon as NCD outbreak is suspected.
 Mix supportive medication with broad spectrum antibiotic in drinking water to prevent or reduce severity of
secondary bacterial infections.
 Depopulate and thoroughly clean and disinfect premises, especially after a disease outbreak.

IBD (Gumboro Disease)

 Highly contagious disease primarily affecting broiler chickens
between 2 weeks and 6 weeks of age,
 Characterized by edema and swelling of the cloacal bursa
resulting in marked
immunosuppression.
Cause:
 Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV)

35
Tranmission:
 Direct contact with infected chickens
 Fecal-contaminated feed, water and equipment
 Poorly cleaned poultry house and premises
 Transported from farm to farm by wild birds, rodents, and insects.
Symptoms:
 Droopy appearance, ruffled feathers, marked depression, lack of appetite.
 Diarrhea, soiled vent, trembling due to dehydration
 Chickens tend to pick at their vent
Prevention:
 Vaccinate with mild or intermediate live vaccine.
 Strict sanitation. Thoroughly clean and disinfect poultry houses and equipment with iodophore-based
disinfectant.
 Practice all-in-all-out system of operation

Fowl Pox
 Viral infection
 Characterized by formation of scab-like lesions (skin of the legs and head and/or formation of yellowish
membranous plaques on the mucous membrane of the oral and
pharyngeal cavity.
Cause:
 A vipox virus
Transmission:
 Direct contact with infected broilers
 Mosquitoes and other blood-sucking flies through their bites
Symptoms:
 Dry/Skin form: vesicles and scab-like lesions on the unfeathered skin of
the head and legs
 Wet/Diphtheritic form: raised, yellow plaques on mucous membranes of
mouth and pharynx, which may induce inappetence and difficulty in
breathing
Prevention:
 Vaccinate broilers with pigeon or chicken pox virus strain.
 Mix broad-spectrum antibiotic in drinking water to prevent aggravating secondary bacterial infection if
disease outbreak occurs.

Infectious Bronchitis
 A highly contagious respiratory disease of chickens
 Characterized by rapid spread, respiratory signs
Cause:
 Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) - a corona virus
Transmission:

36
  Air-borne or aerosol transmission, direct contact with sick birds
 Contaminated feed, water, equipment, premises
Symptoms:
 Gasping, coughing, tracheal rales, and nasal
discharge
 Chicks appear depressed and huddle under the
heat source.
 Poor appetite
 A cloudy airsacs (airsacculitis) is a common
pathologic sign.
Prevention:
 Vaccinate broilers ( live attenuated virus vaccine)
 Practice sanitation and sound management
practices.

Infectious Coryza (IC) or Roup/Cold

 Acute respiratory disease of chickens generally limited to the upper respiratory tract.
 Considered to be of economic importance in many parts of the world.
Cause:
 Bacterium: Hemophilus paragallinarum (sero-types A, B, C)
Transmission:
 Direct contact with infected birds/recovered carrier birds
 Airborne
 Contaminated feeds, water, equipment, premises

Symptoms:
 Watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils, which later
becomes sticky, thick and odorous

 Swelling of the face and eyelids

 Sneezing, respiratory rales,
 Decreased feed intake
Prevention:
 Follow all-in-all-out operation.
 Provide good ventilation to reduce ammonia fume.
 Follow strict sanitation and sound management practices.
 Medicate with broad-spectrum antibiotics after stressful
conditions, e.g., vaccination and weighing.
 Avoid overcrowding
Colibacillosis (E. coli)
 A septicemia frequently occurring as secondary to respiratory and other infections.
Cause:
 Bacterium: Escherichia coli

37
Transmission:
 Inhalation of infected dust
 Fecal-contaminated feeds or water and equipment
 Unsanitary poultry houses and premises
Symptoms:
In-Chicks:
 Omphalitis (navel infection) - inflamed navel: distended abdomen due to yolk sac infection: abnormal color
and smell of yolk sac content: depressed chicks
 Enteritis - watery dropping, depression, inflamed intestinal tract
 Air sacculitis - thickened air sacs with yellow, cheesy exudate, pericarditis, perihepatitis, and peritonitis
Prevention:
 Avoid predisposing conditions (overcrowding, poor ventilation, high ammonia level, and poor brooding
management.
 Preventive medication (broad-spectrum antibiotics) in the drinking water during certain critical and stressful
periods in the chickens’ life.
 Strict sanitation in the farm and hatchery.
 Chlorinate drinking water if possible for E. coli.

Mycoplasma Gallisepticum (MG) infection or Chronic Respiratory Disease

 A lingering disease of the respiratory tract.
 Characterized by slow growth, poor feed conversion, and inferior carcass quality.
Cause:
 Mycoplasma gallisepticum
Transmission:
 Often triggered by stresses such as high ammonia level, poor ventilation, overcrowding, vaccination,
concurrent infection with NCD, IBV, or E. coli
 Parents to chicks thru the egg
 Direct contact with infected birds
 Air-borne transmission
 Contaminated feed, water, farm equipment
and personnel
Symptoms:
 Respiratory rales, coughing, sneezing,
oculonasal discharge
 Decreased feed efficiency and growth rate
 Mortality is low unless complicated by air
sacculitis due to E. coli
Prevention:
 Practice an all-in-all-out system of operation
 Clean and disinfect poultry houses thoroughly
 Avoid stresses such as ammonia fumes, poor ventilation, overcrowding, high temperature, and marginal
nutrition.
 Apply medication with antibiotics specific against mycoplasma (e.g., tiamulin, in the feeds or drinking water).

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Mycotoxicosis
 Poisoning with toxic substances of fungal origin.
Causes: Mycotoxins considered to be potentially harmful to poultry:
 Aflatoxin
 hepatotoxin produced by the molds Aspergillus flavus and A.
parasiticus
 Ochratoxin –
 A nephrotoxin produced mainly ochraceus but also by some
species of Aspergillus and Penicillium.
 Trichothecenes (T-2)
 A mycotoxin having an epithelionecrotic effect produced by
Fusarium spp. of mold
Common sources of mycotoxin
 moldy cereal grains
 formulated feeds
 poultry litter
At the feed mill level
 Use quality cereal grains
 Inspect and clean feed mill equipment and premises frequently.
 Incorporate antifungal agents (e.g., organic acids such as propionic acid and acetic acid) into the feed or
cereal grains such as corn to inhibit or retard mold growth and prevent subsequent mycotoxin formation.
At farm level
 Clean and disinfect thoroughly storage bins, hoppers and feeders between flocks.
 Avoid long period of feed storage.
 Store feeds in cool and dry conditions.

Coccidiosis
 Caused by protozoan parasites called coccidian, which enter, multiply, and destroy the cells lining the
intestinal tract.
 Cecal coccidiosis: Eimeria tenella
 Intestinal coccidiosis - E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E. maxima and other species
Transmission:
 Ingestion of sporulated oocyst in fecal-contaminated
feed, water and litter
 Mechanical transmission (contaminated footwear and
farm equipment)
 Mechanical carriers (rodents, beetles, and wild birds)
Symptoms:
 Vary greatly depending on the severity of the infection
and species of Eimeria.
 Depression, ruffled feathers, loss of appetite
 Blood-stained feces
 Decreased feed efficiency and growth rate

39
  Eimeria acervulina within the duodenum of the broiler
 High incidence of leg weakness
 Diarrhea
Prevention:
 Apply coccidiostat (feed or drinking water)
 Strict sanitation. Provide footbath with disinfectant at the entrance of poultry houses
 Change or remove damp litter, especially during brooding.
 Obtain chicks from vaccinated breeders.
 Clean and disinfect poultry houses and equipment thoroughly following disposal of broilers.
 Allow at least 2 weeks break before restocking the farm.
 Mix broad-spectrum antibiotics in drinking water to minimize secondary bacterial infection; vitamin
electrolyte preparation in drinking water may help avoid vitamin deficiencies and dehydration.
 Provide nutritionally balanced diet and good management.

SDS (Sudden Death Syndrome) or Flip-Over Disease

 Affects heavy, fast growing broiler chickens, mostly males between 2-6 weeks of age characterized by
sudden death from no apparent cause.
Cause:
 Unknown but it is suspected to be a result of
physiologic and nutritional interactions
(combination of low level or bioavailability of
biotin and stress associated with rapid growth
could precipitate SDS.
Symptoms:
 None; chickens suddenly convulse and die
within 1-2 minutes with no premonitory signs.
Prevention:
 Induce a period of initial slow growth through
physical feed restriction and/or use the low-nutrient density rations can reduce the incidence of the
condition.
 Provide adequate amount of biotin in the diet.

What is Avian Influenza (bird flu)?

 A contagious and fatal disease of animals caused by viruses that normally infect birds and less commonly,
pigs, horses, and whales.
 All birds are thought to be susceptible to infection by avian flu, though there are some species that are more
resistant to infection.
 Domestic poultry flocks, particularly chickens and turkeys, are the most susceptible to bird flu.
 Avian influenza viruses belong to type A; types B and C are viruses that infect humans.
 The subtype that is responsible for the current outbreak is H5N1 which originates from water fowl or wild
ducks.

40
  The first outbreak of H5N1 avian flu was reported in 1997 in Hong Kong which infected chickens and
humans.
 There were 18 people infected and six died, giving 33% fatality rate. Such outbreak was the first time that an
avian flu virus had been found to transmit directly from animals to human.

Transmission
 Migratory water fowls act as reservoir of avian influenza by carrying the virus in their gastrointestinal tract
where virus replication takes place.
 Infected birds shed the virus in saliva, nasal secretions and feces which can spread among susceptible
birds through direct or indirect contact with contaminated nasal and fecal materials from infected birds.
 Once introduced onto a flock, the virus is spread easily through the movement of infected birds in the farm
and contaminated equipments, among others.
 Avian flu can spread from one country to another through international trade in live poultry.
 Migratory birds also account for the spread of this disease as they carry the virus over long distances. They
are also the most resistant to infection.
 The incubation period takes from 3 hours to 14 days, depending upon the dose of the virus, route of
exposure and the species exposed.

Clinical Signs of Infection

 The clinical signs are variable and are influenced by several factors such as the virulence of the virus, the
species affected, age, and environment.
 Decreased activity and depression; decreased feed consumption and emaciation; respiratory signs such as
sneezing, coughing, rales, blood tinge oral and nasal discharge; edema of head and face with cyanosis of
unfeathered skin; and loss of body coordination. Sick birds show neurological signs and weakness and sit
with their heads touching the ground.
 When dissected, gross lesions are very variable due to probable bacterial involvement. Infected birds may
have pneumonia with edema, hemorrhages in epicardial fat and proventriculus.

Prevention and Control

 Avian influenza is a viral disease of major economic importance as far as agriculture and human health are
concerned.
 In the Philippines where there is no reported case of avian flu, strict bio-security is considered as the first
line of defense that could be done in order to prevent the entry of virus to the country.
 Reduce contact with wild birds.
 Restrict movement of live poultry within and between countries
 Practice sanitation. The virus is sensitive to heat and common disinfectants (even ordinary detergents).
Scrub the flooring and walls of the housing and fumigate twice before occupancy.
 As a control measure, the Department of Agriculture, through its Quarantine Inspectors/officers at all major
sea/air ports has issued a temporary ban on trans-shipment as well as importation of domestic and wild
birds and their products including poultry meat, day-old chicks, eggs and semen originating from countries
affected with highly pathogenic avian influenza

41
Essay. Explain in 3 to 5 sentences. (5 points)

1. How could you prevent the spread of an infectious disease in a farm?

Module 8 - MARKETING

Learning Objectives

At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:

1. Discuss the tips in the marketing of poultry products.

2. Recognize the importance of the strategies in marketing of poultry products.

Marketing is providing customer satisfaction. It is an activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating,
communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and society at
large. It also include all of the activities that help businesses reach their target market effectively (Egan, 2020).

Marketing Broilers
1. Quality
 Sell high-quality broilers. Quality is the result of careful and efficient production and marketing practices.
Ultimately, final consumers determine whether the quality of the farmers’ produce is acceptable or not.
This information is informed to the grower by the wholesale buyer by means of the regularity of
purchases, and even the offer of higher that average farm gate prices in the locality.
2. Timing
 Sell finished broilers at not more than 35 days, with the chicken having attained a body weight of 1.5 kg.
Delaying the sale of the chickens may increase body weight, but this may reduce profits since feed
efficiency falls, as older chickens require greater amounts of feed for additional unit of body weight
gained.
3. Market Outlets
 Initially, arrangements should be made in the marketing of the output with the regular and reputable
buyers of broiler chicken. The stability of the market base is very important in starting out any business
venture. This tests the capability and discipline of the grower to meet certain industry standards on a
continuous basis.

For the more adventurous and experienced growers who want to be independent, various market outlets
can be explored. Delivery arrangements could be contracted with local hotels, restaurants, fast food outlets and
supermarkets. Arrangement could also be made with well-known, established and respectable broiler buyers or
traders in the locality.
Finally, the local wet market can also be explored. It is important to be informed, however, whether the local
market has the capacity to regularly absorb all outputs scheduled for disposal, considering the scale of the
independent grower.

42
Price fluctuations
Prices of broilers are totally determined by the seasonal behavior of demand for and the supply of chicken
meat in the relevant market of the produce. Prices are not within the control of the producer. For this reason, the
grower has to be very keen on the seasonal behavior of demand, production and prices. It is very difficult, if not
impossible; to establish how much broiler chicken is being produced in each season, as the year progresses. It is,
however, to get a feel of how prices behave throughout the year.

Broiler Inventory Holding

Another guide for growers in the operations of the farm could be the historical broiler chicken inventory in
the country over the last six years. This shows estimate of the number of head of broiler chicken all the farmers in the
country held at a particular time during the year. Inventory holding at a certain period represents the number of head
that are being grown for slaughter, and also those that are about to be sold.

Strategies in Marketing Eggs

2. Survey market outlets before investing in egg production
3. Form associations with other producers in the area.
4. Sell graded or classified eggs
5. Sell clean eggs
6. Improve handling and packing

References:

Egan, R. 2020. Introduction to Marketing, Definition and Application. https://study.com/academy/lesson/introduction-

to-marketing-definition-and-applications.html#:~:text=Marketing %20is%20the% 20activity%2C %20set,reach
%20their%20target%20market%20effectively. Retrieved on July 14, 2020.

Evaluation

How can you efficiently market poultry eggs or meat in your locality? 5 points

Module 9 - RECORD KEEPING

Learning Objectives

Upon the end of this discussion, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of record keeping
2. Describe the types of record and the indicators of efficient egg farming operations.

A record keeping system involves organizing a set of records where a description, quantities and values on
the physical and financial transactions of the farm operations are registered for control and analysis. If these goals
are to be realized, it is appropriate to relate the control measurements, standards and procedures to the same goals.
This suggest that a control system for a farming operation must monitor production, marketing and financial
performance (IICA, 2020).

43
Importance
Keeping the records “up-to-date” and accurate is a must in the broiler business. It should be made part of
the regular activities in the farm. Records give ready and reliable information about the general performance of the
business.
With good records, one can compute the production cost, which may be used in pricing and in the
adjustment of operations. The whole financial status of the business can also be measured. Knowledge of feeding
efficiency, health conditions, and programs of operations is an important consideration for efficient management.
Farm records also provide the basic data in the planning of succeeding business operations. They also
facilitate the flow of information for credit purposes. The overall efficiency of business can only be quantified if
records are accurate.

Broiler Record
A simplified farm record has been developed especially for independent broiler raisers. This may serve as a
guide to all broiler producers and must be the minimum information needed in flock management.

Farm record must include the following:

Strain and source Mortality
Date and number of chicks received Medication
Average body weight of day-old chicks Vaccination
Feed consumption Feed delivery
Water consumption (if possible) Sales of the broilers and by-products such as empty
bags and manure

At the end of the growing cycle, feed conversion efficiency is calculated from the data on total feed
consumption over total weight of broilers harvested. All other variable costs are computed at the end of the growing
cycle.
Record keeping for contract growers is a part of the company’s requirements. Each company has its own
set of records, the basic parts, however, are similar.

Measuring Income from Broiler Enterprise

The cost items that can be derived from the broiler records include chicks, feeds, labor, supplements, and
vaccination and medications applied.
Methods of measuring income vary, depending upon the purposes and the scale of operations. For
producers who are interested only in cash transactions, net cash income may be used as the first measure. This is
attained by subtracting all cash expenses from the cash receipts, which include sales from the broilers, manure and
feedbags. Cost items that do not involve cash outlays should not be included in this measure. One alternative,
therefore, is to include all costs; cash and non-cash cost may include depreciation of all equipment used in the
operations on the farm and the value of family labor employed in the business. Non-cash receipts, on the other hand,
include the value of broilers used at home and for other purposes. Total net income derived by subtracting the total
cost from total receipts. This measure represents the return to operator’s labor, management, and to fixed
investment.

44
Efficiency Indicators:
a. Feed Conversion
These measures the quantity of feeds used to produce 1kg of broiler liveweight. It can be obtained by
dividing the total kilogram of feed consumed by the number of kilogram of live weight broiler produced.
Example:
3.5 kg feed consumed
--------------------------------------------- = 2.0
2.75 kg live weight broiler

This indicator is important in determining the relative efficiency of feed formulation and quality of the rations.

b. Feed Cost/Kilogram of Broiler Produced

This is determined by multiplying the feed conversion by the cost of feed per kilogram.
Example:
2.0 x P18.82/kg feed = P37.62 feed cost/kg broiler produced

Efficiency Indicators: Egg Farming Operations

f. Egg Production, Hen-Day Basis. This is the number of eggs produced expressed as a percentage of the actual
number of layer birds at that particular period. It is obtained by dividing the number of eggs produced at a
specific period by the number of live layers at that particular period, then multiplying the quotient by 100.
No. of Eggs Produced
Egg Production, Hen-Day Basis = ----------------------------------- X 100
Actual No. of Layer

Sample computation: EP, HD basis = 85 pcs eggs/105 layers x 100 = 80.95%

g. Egg Production, Hen-Housed Basis. This is the number of eggs produced expressed as a percentage of the
initial number of hens at the start of the laying period. It is obtained by dividing the number of eggs produced at
any given period by the initial number of hens at the start of the laying period, then multiplying the quotient by
100.
No. of Eggs Produced
Egg Production, Hen-housed Basis = ------------------------------------ X 100
Initial No. of Hens
at the Start of the
Laying Period

h. Feed Conversion Ratio. This is a measure of the efficiency of the laying flock to convert feeds into eggs. It is
obtained by dividing the total kilogram of feeds consumed by the dozen of eggs produced.

Total kg of Feeds Consumed

Feed Conversion Ratio = -------------------------------------------
Dozens of Eggs Produced

45
i. Feed Cost per Dozen Eggs Produced. This is the cost of the feeds used to produce a dozen eggs. It is obtained
by multiplying the feed conversion ratio by the cost of feeds per kilogram.

Feed Cost per Dozen Eggs Produced = Feed Conversion Ratio X Cost of Feeds per kg

j. Cost per Dozen Egg Produced. This determines the profitable selling price of eggs. It is obtained by dividing the
total cost of production by the dozen of eggs produced.

Total Cost of Production

Cost of Eggs Produced = ----------------------------------------
Dozens of Eggs Produced

References:

IICA. 2020. Farm Record Keeping. https://books.google.com.ph/books? record+keeping+introduction. Retrieved on

July 14, 2020.

Evaluation: 10 points

1. Determine the egg production (%) if the number of layers is 5500 heads and the number of eggs collected in
a day is 3,588 pieces eggs. What management practice would you employ in order to increase/improve the
egg production performance of your flock?

Note: During submission of individual outputs from this module, please indicate;
a. Module number and Lesson number
b. Whether it is it an Evaluation or Activity

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