1.

3 Identification of ions and gases (Qualitative Analysis)

(a) describe the use of aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia to identify
the following aqueous cations: aluminium, ammonium, calcium, copper(II),
iron(II), iron(III), lead(II) and zinc (formulae of complex ions are not required)

(b) describe tests to identify the following anions: carbonate (by the addition of
dilute acid and subsequent use of limewater); chloride (by reaction of an
aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate); iodide (by reaction
of an aqueous solution with nitric acid and aqueous silver nitrate); nitrate (by
reduction with aluminium in aqueous sodium hydroxide to ammonia and
subsequent use of litmus paper) and sulfate (by reaction of an aqueous solution
with nitric acid and aqueous barium nitrate)

(c) describe tests to identify the following gases: ammonia (using damp red litmus
paper); carbon dioxide (using limewater); chlorine (using damp litmus paper);
hydrogen (using a burning splint);oxygen (using a glowing splint) and sulfur
dioxide (using acidified potassium manganate(VII))

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 1

 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (QA)

What is ‘qualitative analysis (QA)’?

It is used to identify an unknown substance through a series of chemical test analysis.
Generally the tests include identification of gases, cations, anions, reducing agents and
oxidizing agents.

1. Test for Gases

Moist
Gas Colour Odour Litmus Confirmation Test
Test

Blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride paper turned

pink.
Water
CoCl2 + 6H2O  CoCl2.6H2O
vapour Colourless Odourless Neutral
OR
(H2O)
White anhydrous copper (II) sulfate turned blue.
CuSO4 + 5H2O  CuSO4.5H2O

Glowing splint glows brighter/ rekindles /

O2 Colourless Odourless Neutral relights.
[Oxygen supports combustion]

Burning / lighted splint extinguishes with a ‘pop’

H2 Colourless Odourless Neutral sound.
2H2 + O2  2H2O

A white precipitate is obtained when the gas is

passed through limewater.
Blue to
CO2 Colourless Odourless red
CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + H2O
(acidic)
[Carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide, so it reacts
with alkalis]

Filter paper soaked with acidified potassium

manganate (VII) solution turns from purple to
Blue to colourless.
SO2 Colourless Choking red
(acidic) SO2 is oxidised to SO42–
MnO4– is reduced to Mn2+
[SO2 is a R.A. so it will react with an O.A.]

Moist red litmus paper turns blue. (ammonia is alkaline)

NH3 Colourless Pungent
NH3 + H2O  NH4+ + OH–

Moist blue litmus paper turns red before being bleached.

Moist red litmus paper being bleached.
Greenish –
Cl2 Choking
yellow [Chlorine forms an acidic solution when in contact with water,
and it has bleaching properties.]
Cl2 (g) + H2O (l)  HCl (aq) + HClO (aq)

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2. Test for Cations
The main reagents used to test for cations are aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous
ammonia. All cations (except Na+, K+ and NH4+) give precipitates with these alkalis.
Salt Sodium hydroxide, NaOH (aq) Aqueous ammonia, NH4OH (aq)
solution A few drops Excess A few drops Excess
No precipitate is On warming, a
colourless pungent
formed.
gas that turns moist
red litmus paper
NH4+ blue is evolved.
colourless (NH3)
NH4+ (aq) + OH–
(aq)  NH3 (g) +
H2O (l)
White precipitate White precipitate No/very slight No/very slight
Ca2+ formed insoluble in excess precipitate formed precipitate formed
Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NaOH
colourless
(aq)  Ca(OH)2 (s)
White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate
Zn2+ formed soluble in excess formed soluble in excess
Zn2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NaOH to form Zn2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NH3 to form
colourless
colourless solution colourless solution
(aq)  Zn(OH)2 (s) (aq)  Zn(OH)2 (s)
White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate
Al3+
formed soluble in excess formed insoluble in excess
Colourless Al3+ (aq) + 3OH– aq. NaOH to form Al3+ (aq) + 3OH– aq. NH3
colourless solution
(aq)  Al(OH)3 (s) (aq)  Al(OH)3 (s)/

White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate

Pb2+ formed soluble in excess formed insoluble in excess
Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NaOH to form Pb2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NH3
Colourless colourless solution
(aq)  Pb(OH)2 (s) (aq)  Pb(OH)2 (s)

Light blue Light blue Light blue Light blue

Cu2+ precipitate formed precipitate precipitate formed precipitate soluble
Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH– insoluble in excess Cu2+ (aq) + 2OH– in excess aq. NH3
blue
(aq)  Cu(OH)2 (s) aq. NaOH (aq)  Cu(OH)2 (s) to form deep blue
solution
Fe2+ green precipitate green ppt insoluble green precipitate green precipitate
formed in excess aq. NaOH formed insoluble in excess
Light Fe2+ (aq) + 2OH– that turns reddish Fe2+ (aq) + 2OH– aq. NH3 that turns
green brown on standing. reddish brown on
(aq)  Fe(OH)2 (s) (aq)  Fe(OH)2 (s)
standing.
Reddish brown Reddish brown Reddish brown Reddish brown
Fe3+ precipitate formed precipitate precipitate formed precipitate
Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH– insoluble in excess Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH– insoluble in excess
Yellow
aq. NaOH aq. NH3
(aq)  Fe(OH)3 (s) (aq)  Fe(OH)3 (s)

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 3

 FYI
For those precipitates that dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or
aqueous ammonia, it is due to the formation of complex ions that are soluble
in water.

For a solution Ionic equation

containing
In excess NaOH (aq),
Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2OH– (aq)  Zn(OH)42– (aq)
excess zincate ions
Zn2+ ions In excess NH3 (aq),
Zn(OH)2 (s) + 4NH3 (aq)  Zn(NH3)42+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq)
excess tetra-amine zincate ions
In excess NaOH (aq),
Al 3+
ions Al(OH)3 (s) + OH– (aq)  Al(OH)4– (aq)
excess aluminate ions
In excess NaOH (aq),
Pb(OH)2 (s) + 2OH– (aq)  Pb(OH)42– (aq)
Pb2+ ions
excess pluminate ions

In excess NH3 (aq),

Cu 2+
ions Cu(OH)2 (s) + 4NH3 (aq)  Cu(NH3)42+ (aq) + 2OH– (aq)
excess tetra-amine copper ions

Conclusion: A cation can be identified by taking note of

(a) the colour of the precipitate produced,
(b) whether the precipitate is soluble or insoluble in excess aqueous NaOH/NH3,
(c) if no ppt is formed, whether ammonia gas is liberated on addition of sodium hydroxide
solution.

Question: Why must the solution be warmed to release ammonia gas?

Ammonia gas is very soluble in water, therefore the solution must be warmed to reduce its
solubility.

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Question: How do we differentiate between solutions containing lead(II) ions and aluminium
ions?
Solution: By the addition of a small amount of aqueous solutions containing sulfate
ions/chloride ions/ iodide ions to both solutions.
SO42-
Cl– I–
(e.g. aq. H2SO4, aq. Na2SO4
(e.g. aq. HCl, aq. NaCl etc) (e.g. aq. NaI, aq. KI etc)
etc)

A white precipitate formed. A white precipitate formed. A bright yellow precipitate

(Due to the formation of (Due to the formation of formed. (Due to the
Pb2+
lead (II) sulfate) lead (II) chloride) formation of lead (II)
(aq)
iodide)
Pb2+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)  Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq)  Pb2+(aq) + 2l–(aq)  Pbl2(s)
PbSO4 (s) PbCl2 (s)

Al3+
No visible change since the Al2(SO4)3, AlCl3 and AlI3 formed are soluble and colourless
(aq)

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 5

 3. Test for Anions

anion Test Observation

Effervescence observed.
Add dilute acid (preferably HNO3(aq) to
A colourless and odourless gas, which
prevent formation of an insoluble product
Carbonate, produces a white precipitate when bubbled
and causing a coating problem on solid
CO32– into limewater, is evolved.
carbonates.)
(in solid / The gas evolved is carbon dioxide gas.
solution) 2H+ (aq) + CO32– (aq)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) +
H2O (l)

Chloride, Cl– Add dilute nitric acid, followed by aqueous A white precipitate is formed.
(in solution) silver nitrate. Ag+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)  AgCl (s)

Iodide, I– Add dilute nitric acid, followed by aqueous A pale yellow precipitate is formed.
(in solution) silver nitrate. Ag+ (aq) + I– (aq)  AgI (s)

A colourless and pungent gas which turns

Add equal volume of aqueous sodium moist red litmus paper blue is evolved.
Nitrate, NO3–
hydroxide and a few pieces of aluminium The gas evolved is ammonia gas.
(in solution)
foil, and then warm carefully. NO3- is reduced to NH3.
Al is oxidised to Al3+.

Sulfate,
Add dilute nitric acid, followed by aqueous A white precipitate is formed.
SO42–
barium nitrate. Ba2+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)  BaSO4 (s)
(in solution)

NOTE
1) The carbonate ion is the only anion that can be tested in solid or aqueous states. The
rest of the anions must be tested in the aqueous state.
2) The purpose of adding nitric acid during testing for Cl–/I–/SO42– is to get rid of the
possibility of the presence of carbonate ions (because silver and barium carbonates are
also insoluble).

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4. Deductions from Test Instructions
Very often, the test reagents used give clues to the possible outcomes of the test and the
identities and chemical properties of the unknown tested.

Reagent To test for What to look out for

1. Dilute sodium hydroxide Cations Precipitate; ammonia gas from
ammonium ions
2. Dilute aqueous ammonia Cations Precipitate
3. Dilute nitric acid / dilute sulfuric Metals Colourless, odourless gas that
acid / dilute hydrochloric acid extinguishes lighted splint with “pop”
sound (Hydrogen gas)
Carbonates Colourless, odourless gas that forms a
white precipitate with limewater
(Carbon dioxide gas)
4. Aqueous silver nitrate (with nitric Chlorides White precipitate of silver chloride
acid) Iodides Pale yellow precipitate of silver iodide
5. Aqueous barium nitrate (with Sulfates White precipitate of barium sulfate
nitric acid) / aqueous barium
chloride (with hydrochloric acid)
6. Aluminium foil Nitrates Colourless, pungent gas that turns
(with sodium hydroxide) moist red litmus paper blue
(Ammonia gas)
7. Aqueous sodium carbonate Acids Colourless, odourless gas that forms a
white precipitate with limewater
(Carbon dioxide gas)
Cations Precipitate
8. Aqueous potassium iodide Oxidising Brown solution with black solid
agents
Lead (II) Bright yellow precipitate of lead (II)
iodide formed
Silver ions Pale yellow precipitate of silver iodide
formed
9. Aqueous acidified potassium Reducing Purple aqueous acidified potassium
manganate (VII) agents manganate (VII) turns colourless

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5. Summary for colours of substances
General trends for colours
Metals
 Most metals are grey/silvery except for copper (reddish brown/pink) and gold (gold).

Group I, II and III compounds

 Most group I, II and III compounds are white solids that form colourless solutions when
dissolved in water.
 Exceptions occur when anions are responsible for the colour, eg KMnO4 (purple) /
K2Cr2O7 (orange)

Group VII halogens

In aq solution *In organic solvent(FYI) In different states
Chlorine greenish yellow greenish yellow greenish yellow gas
Bromine reddish brown reddish brown reddish brown liquid
Iodine Brown purple black solid, purple vapour

Colours of halides
Silver halide Colour Lead (II) halide Colour
AgCl white PbCl2 white
AgBr cream PbBr2 white
AgI pale yellow PbI2 bright yellow

Colours of hydroxides, oxides, carbonates, and others

Ions Solutions Hydroxides Oxides Carbonates Others
anhydrous CuSO4
Cu2+ blue light blue black green
(white)
Fe2+ pale green green black green
reddish
Fe3+ yellow reddish brown *brown
brown
yellow when hot,
Zn2+ colourless white white
white when cold
orange when
Pb2+ colourless white hot, yellow when white
cold
Ag+ colourless *brown *black *yellow
Co2+ pink
* means FYI only, no need to remember those colours

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Other common coloured substances
Substance Colour
Manganese compounds MnO2 (black), Mn2+ compounds (colourless), KMnO4 (purple)
Chromium compounds K2Cr2O7 (orange), Cr3+ compounds (green)
C black
CoCl2 Hydrated (pink), anhydrous (blue)
Fe3O4 black

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 9

6. Some points to note (for practical):

(A) Quantity of reagents

 For aqueous reactants, 1 to 2 cm depth of solution is recommended unless
otherwise stated.
 For solid reactants, students are usually instructed in question paper
regarding the amount to be used, for example, one spatula full or 1/3 of the
sample provided.

(B) Adding testing reagent

 Reagent should be added slowly so that all the changes would be observed. This
is to prevent a precipitate being dissolved immediately when a slight excess of
reagent is added.
 Students are advised to look out for any change first before shaking the mixture.

(C) Colour observations

 Colour change of ppt, solution and gases are to be observed carefully and
recorded accurately. Very often, when a coloured mixture is obtained, students
are expected to separate the ppt from the solution on their own to give accurate
observations.
 Students may filter the mixture or leave it to stand. Filtration often leads to more
accurate observations because ppt might still be stained by a coloured solution
upon standing.

(D) Test for gases

Testing and identifying gas evolved has always been challenging for
students.
 Very often, the possible identity of the gas could be deduced from the test
procedure. For example, if a dilute acid is added to a solid and they react
to produce rapid effervescence, the gas might be carbon dioxide or
hydrogen. However, if there is no effervescence observed and the mixture
is to be heated gently after an acid is added, then the gas might be sulfur
dioxide.
 Once the gas is identified, it is important to record its colour, odour,
litmus test and confirmatory test. Remember to name the gas.
 Gases produced by the testing reagent alone are not relevant
observations and should not be recorded. For example, adding aqueous

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 10

 ammonia always give off ammonia gas by itself. Students should ignore
its presence in such case.
 Do not attempt to test for carbon dioxide immediately after a splinter has
been removed from a test tube because the gas could have been
produced by the splinter instead of the reaction.
 Oxygen gas might also produce a ‘pop’ sound with a glowing splint upon
relighting it. Do not mistaken it as hydrogen gas.
 The terms ‘chalky’, ‘cloudy’, and ‘milky’ are considered inappropriate
replacement of ‘white ppt’ in the test for carbon dioxide.

(E) Solubility of a precipitate

The solubility of a precipitate is crucial to the deduction about the unknown.
However, whether the precipitate seems to dissolve or not depends very much on
the proportion of the reagents students choose to use.
 Students are advised to start off with a small volume (1cm depth) of the
unknown solution to form the ppt. Then, add a generous amount of acid or
alkali to fill up about ¾ of the test- tube to see if the ppt. can be dissolved or
not.
 Thorough mixing is important before drawing any conclusions. It could be
done by pouring the content into another test-tube.
 In the case when a ppt. dissolves in an excess of a reagent, it must be
recorded as ‘the ppt. dissolved to form a colourless solution or any coloured
solution.’

(F) Other observations

 Use ‘no visible change’ appropriately if no observable change is noted.
 Use ‘heat evolved’ if mixture becomes warm.
 Record appearance of residue and filtrate separately after filtration.

(G) Common errors

 Use of wrong terminology like ‘white solution’ or ‘white mixture’.
 Poor mixing technique. A multi-coloured mixture observed often indicates
that the student did not mix well before observation is made.
 Mistook bubbles formed during boiling as ‘effervescence’.

2022 Secondary 3 Chemistry (6092) 11