PHYSICS

FORMULAE SHEET
CLASS 11 & 12

Biology Simplified Tamil

 Chapter 1 : Physical World and Measurement

❖ FORMULAE : 106 mega M

10 3 kilo k
1. Measure of physical quantity: Q = nu 102 hecta H
2. Relation between numerical value and 10 deca da
10 -1 deci d
size of unit: n1u1 = n2u2
10-2 centi c
3. Average value or mean value: 10 -3 milli m
𝑎1 +𝑎2 +𝑎3 +⋯+𝑎𝑛 1 10 -6 micro 𝝁
𝑎̅𝑚 = 𝑛
= 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 10-9 nano n
10 -12 pico p
4. Absolute error: -15
10 femto f
|𝛥𝑎| = |Average value – Measured value | 10-18 atto a
➢ A few quick conversions:
= |am – an|
i. Pressure:
5. Mean absolute error: 1 N/m2 = 10 dyne / cm2 or
|𝛥𝑎 |+|𝛥𝑎2 |+⋯+|𝛥𝑎𝑛 | 1 𝑛
1 dyne/cm2 = 0.1 N/m2.
̅̅̅̅
𝛥𝑎 = 1 = ∑𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 ii. Density:
𝑛 𝑛
̅̅̅̅ |
|𝛥𝑎 1kg/m3 = 10-3 g/cm3 or
6. Relative (fractional) error 𝜹𝒂 = 1 g/cm3 = 103 kg/m3.
𝑎𝑚

̅̅̅̅ |
|𝛥𝑎
iii. Coefficient of viscosity:
7. Percentage error = 𝑎𝑚
x 100% SI units is decapoise (Ns/m2) and CGS unit is
poise.
8. Combination of percentage errors:
1 poise = 10-1 decapoise or
a. If x = 𝑎 ± 𝑏 then, the percentage error in 1 decapoise = 10 poise.
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑎+𝛥𝑏 iv. Megnetic induction:
x is, 𝑥
x 100 = ( 𝑎±𝑏
) x 100%
SI units is tesla (Wb/m2) and CGS unit is
𝑎
b. If x = a x b or x = 𝑏 then, the percentage gauss.
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑎 𝛥𝑏 1 gauss = 10-4 tesla or
error in x is, x 100 = ( 𝑎 + ) x 100%
𝑥 𝑏 1 tesla = 104 gauss.
c. If x = an then, the percentage error in x is, v. Magnetic flux:
SI unit is weber and CGS unit is maxwell.
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑎
𝑥
x 100 = n( 𝑎 ) x 100% 1 Wb = 108 maxwell or
1 maxwell = 10-8 Wb.
➢ To express large or small ➢ Practical units:
magnitudes following prefixes are i. Length:
used: 1 A.U. = 1.5 x 1011 m
1 ly = 9.46 x 1015 m
Power of 10 Prefix Symbol 1 par sec = 3.08 x 1016 m
1018 exa E ii. Mass:
1015 peta P 1 metric ton = 103 kg
1012 tera T 1 quintal = 102 kg
109 giga G 1 amu = 1.66 x 10-27 k

1
 Chapter 2 : Scalars and Vectors

❖ FORMULAE : i. 𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
⃗⃗ = AB cosθ

ii. 𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1
1. Unit vector:
𝐴⃗
iii. 𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 0
𝐴̂ = |𝐴⃗|
10. Vector (cross) product of two vectors:
2. Magnitude of resolution of a vector: ⃗⃗ = AB sin θ 𝑛̂
i. 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
i. In two rectangular components,
ii. 𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ x 𝑘̂ = 0
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2
iii. 𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ x 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ x 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂
ii. In three rectangular components, 9. Vector (cross) product of two vectors:
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2 ⃗⃗ = AB sin θ 𝑛̂
i. 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
iii. Direction cosine of a vector:
ii. 𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ x 𝑘̂ = 0
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
a. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = b. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = iii. 𝑖̂ x 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂, 𝑗̂ x 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ x 𝑖̂ =𝑗̂
𝐴 𝐴
𝐴𝑧
c. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 = 𝐴
10. Unit vector perpendicular to the cross
product:
3. Resultant of addition of two vectors: 𝐴⃗ 𝑥 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝑛̂ =
𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
|𝑅⃗⃗ | = √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 + 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
11. Direction cosine of a vector:
4. Direction of resultant vector: 𝐴𝑥
i. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐴
𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
α = tan-1 [ ]
𝐴+𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴𝑦
ii. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 𝐴
5. Commutative law of vector addition:
𝐴𝑧
iii. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 =
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ 𝐴

6. Associative law of vector addition:

⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
𝐴⃗ + (𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) + 𝐶⃗

7. Distributive law of multiplication over

addition:
i. 𝐴⃗ . (𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ . 𝐶⃗

⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
ii. 𝐴⃗ x (𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ x 𝐶⃗

8. Distributive law of multiplication over

subtraction:
⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ . 𝐵
i. 𝐴⃗ . (𝐵 ⃗⃗ − 𝐴⃗ . 𝐶⃗

⃗⃗ − 𝐶⃗) = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
ii. 𝐴⃗ x (𝐵 ⃗⃗ − 𝐴⃗ x 𝐶⃗

9. Scalar (dot) product of two vectors:

2
 Chapter 3 : Motion in One Dimension

❖ FORMULAE : f. If a body is dropped from a height h, then

after time t, height of body from the ground
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1. Speed = 1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 is, ℎ′ = h - gt2
2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
2. Average speed: vav = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ii. For a body thrown vertically upwards
𝛥𝑠 𝑑𝑠 from ground:
3. Instantaneous speed: vins = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑑𝑡 1
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 a. u = gt b. h = ut − 2 gt2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
4. Velocity: 𝑣⃗ = 𝑔
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 c. u2 = 2gh d. sn = u − 2 (2n – 1)
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
5. Average velocity: 𝑣⃗av = 𝑢 2ℎ
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
e. tA = = √
𝑔 𝑔
6. Instantaneous velocity:
𝛥𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ f. Maximum height reached by the body is
𝑣⃗ins = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝛥𝑡→0 𝛥𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑢2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
h=( 𝑔), i.e., h ∝ u2
2
7. Acceleration: 𝑎⃗ =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
12. Relative velocity:
8. Average acceleration:
i. 𝑣⃗AB = 𝑣⃗A - 𝑣⃗B (when two bodies move in
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ⃗⃗
𝛥𝑣
𝑎⃗av = = same direction)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝛥𝑡

9. Instantaneous acceleration: ii. 𝑣⃗AB = 𝑣⃗A + 𝑣⃗B (when two bodies move in
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥⃗
𝑎⃗ins = = opposite directions)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

10. Kinematical Equations for accelerated

motion:
1
i. v = u + at ii. s = ut + 2 at2
𝑣+𝑢
iii. v2 = u2 + 2as iv. s = ( 2
)t

11. Kinematic Equations for freely falling

object:
i. For a body falling from a height h, under
gravity:
1
a. v = gt b. h = 2 gt2
𝑔
c. v2 = 2 gh d. sn = (2n – 1)
2

𝑣 √2𝑔ℎ 2ℎ
e. tD = 𝑔 = 𝑔
= √𝑔

3
 Chapter 4 : Laws of motion

❖ FORMULAE : ii. Horizontal range: R = u√ 𝑔

2ℎ

1. Motion in a plane with uniform velocity: 6. Circular Motion:

i. Displacement, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 𝑙
i. Angular displacement: θ = 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗−𝑟
𝑟 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1
ii. Velocity, 𝑣⃗ = ⃗⃗
𝛿𝜃 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝜃
𝑡2 −𝑡1
ii. Angular Velocity: 𝜔
⃗⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
iii. Equation of motion of an object, 𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑟⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟0 + 𝑣⃗𝑡 iii. Angular Acceleration:
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔 2𝜋(𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
2. Motion in a plane with uniform 𝛼⃗ = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑡
acceleration: 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟
iv. Time Period: T = 𝜔
= 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗−𝑣
𝑣 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
i. 𝑎⃗ = 1
ii. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣1 + 𝑎⃗ (t2 – t1)
𝑣2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1 𝜔
=
𝑣
𝑡2 −𝑡1 v. Frequency: n = =
𝑇 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣2
1 vi. Centripetal acceleration: ac = 𝑟
= vω =
iii. 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗0 + 𝑢
⃗⃗t + 2 𝑎⃗ t2
rω2
3. Relative velocity:
vii. Centripetal / Centrifugal force:
i. |𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 | = √𝑣𝐴2 + 𝑣𝐵2 − 2𝑣𝐴 𝑣𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Fcp = Fef = 𝑟
= mrω2 = mvω
ii. tan α = 𝑣
𝐴 −𝑣𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 7. Motion in a vertical circle:
where, 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = velocity of B with respect to A i. Velocity at different points in vertical
θ = angle between 𝑣⃗𝐴 and 𝑣⃗𝐵 circular motion:
α = angle between 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 and 𝑣⃗𝐴 a. At lowest point, vL =√5𝑟𝑔
4. For oblique projectile:
b. At highest point, vH =√𝑟𝑔
i. Velocity of projectile
a. ux = u cos θ (along horizontal) c. At midway point, vM = √3𝑟𝑔
b. uy = u sin θ (along vertical) ii. Tension at:
ii. Horizontal distance covered by projectile: a. Any point P,
𝑚𝑣 2
x = (u cos θ) t 𝑇𝑃 = 𝑟
+ 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
iii. Vertical distance of projectile: b. Lowest point L,
1
y = (u sin θ) t − gt2 𝑚𝑣𝐿2
2 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑟
+ 𝑚𝑔
iv. Equation of trajectory: c. Highest point H,
𝑔𝑥 2
y = x (tan θ) − 𝑇𝐻 =
2
𝑚𝑣𝐻
− 𝑚𝑔
2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
𝑟
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
v. Maximum height: H = 2𝑔
d. Midway point M,
2
2𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑚𝑣𝑀
vi. Time of flight: T = 𝑇𝑀 = 𝑟
𝑔
5
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 iii. Total energy at any point: E = mgr
vii. Horizontal range: R = 𝑔
2

5. For horizontal projectile:

2ℎ
i. Time of flight: T = √
𝑔

4
 Chapter 5 : Motion in two Dimensions

❖ FORMULAE : 9. Coefficient of kinetic friction:

𝐹𝑘
1. Force: F = 𝑑𝑡 = ma
𝑑𝑝 𝜇𝑘 =
𝑁

10. Angle of friction: θ = tan-1 (𝜇)

2. Linear momentum: p = mv
11. Angle of repose: α = tan-1 𝜇
3. Impulse of force: I = Fav x t = Δp
12. Acceleration of a body on rough
4. Law of conservation of linear
inclined plane: a = g(sinθ - 𝜇 cosθ).
momentum:
13. Body is moved up a rough inclined
𝑣1 + m2 𝑣
m1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = constant
−𝑚𝑏 𝑣𝑏 plane: a = g(sinθ + 𝜇 cosθ)
5. Recoil velocity of a gun: vg =
𝑚𝑔
14. Minimum force required to push a
6. Acceleration of the rocket:
body down the rough inclined plane:
i. Thrust on the rocket:
f = (F – mg sinθ) = mg(𝜇 cosθ – sinθ)
𝑑𝑚
F = –u – mg
𝑑𝑡 15. Minimum force required to move a
ii. Acceleration of the rocket: body up the rough inclined plane:
𝑢 𝑑𝑚
a= –g f = (F + mg sinθ) = mg(sinθ + 𝜇 cosθ)
𝑚 𝑑𝑡

iii. Instantaneous velocity of the rocket: 16. Motion of a vehicle on a curve road:
𝑚 The maximum velocity v, with which a
v = u loge ( 𝑚0 ) – gt
vehicle can go without skidding, is
iv. Burnt out speed of the rocket:
𝑚 v = √𝜇𝑟𝑔
vb = 2.303 u log10 ( 𝑚0 )
17. Motion of a vehicle on a curved banked
7. For three concurrent forces in
road:
equilibrium:
𝑣2
𝐹1 𝐹 𝐹 i. Inclination of the curve road: tan θ =
𝑟𝑔
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 = sin3𝛾
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
ii. The maximum velocity with which a
Where,
vehicle can go without toppling:
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
α = Angle between 𝐹 𝐹3
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 v = √𝑟𝑔 ℎ
β = Angle between 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
γ = Angle between 𝐹 𝐹2
8. Coefficient of static friction:
𝐹
𝜇𝑠 = 𝑁

5
 Chapter 6 : Work, Energy and Power

❖ FORMULAE : 11. Final velocities after one-dimensional

inelastic collision:
1. Work done:
(𝑚1 −𝑒𝑚2 )𝑢1 +(1+𝑒)𝑚2 𝑢2
v1 =
i. W = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑠⃗ = Fs cos θ (𝑚1 +𝑚2 )

(𝑚2 −𝑒𝑚1 )𝑢2 +(1+𝑒)𝑚1 𝑢1

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝐹
ii. W = (𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 + ⋯ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑛 ) ⋅ (𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗)
1
v2 = (𝑚1 +𝑚2 )

2. Work done by a variable force:

𝑠
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑠 )
W = ∫ (𝐹⃗ ⋅ 𝑑
𝑠1

3. Kinetic energy:
1
K.E = 2 mv2

4. Relation between kinetic energy and

momentum:
1 𝑝2
K.E = 2 pv = 2𝑚

5. Potential energy:
P.E = mgh = −∫ F dx
6. Potential energy of a spring:
1 𝐹2
P.E = kx2 =
2 2𝑘

7. Work-energy theorem:
1
W = Δ K.E = 2 m[v2 – u2]

8. Power:
𝑊 𝐹⃗⋅𝑠⃗
P= 𝑡
= 𝑡
= 𝐹⃗ . 𝑣⃗ = Fv cosθ

9. Final velocity after one-dimensional

elastic collision:
𝑚 −𝑚 2𝑚2
v1 = (𝑚1 +𝑚2) 𝑢1 + (𝑚 ) 𝑢2
1 2 1 +𝑚2

𝑚2 −𝑚1 2𝑚1
v2 = ( ) 𝑢2 + ( ) 𝑢1
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2

10. Coefficient of restitution:

𝑣 −𝑣
e = 𝑢2−𝑢1
1 2

6
 Chapter 7 : System of particles and Rotational motion

❖ FORMULAE : 10. Kinetic energy of rotation:

1 1 𝐾2
E = 2 Iω2 = mv2( 2 )
1. Centre of mass: 2 𝑅

Position vector 𝑅⃗⃗ of centre of mass w.r.t. 11. Kinetic energy of rolling motion:
1 𝐾2
origin, = 2 mv2(1 + )
𝑅2
𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑖 12. Motion of a body on a rough inclined
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖
plane:
2. Moment of inertia: I = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
2𝑔ℎ
3. Radius of gyration (K): I = MK2 i. Velocity, v = √ 𝐾2
(1+ 2 )
𝑅
4. Angular momentum:
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
i. L = mvr ii. L = mr2ω ii. Acceleration , a = 𝐾2
(1+ 2 )
𝑅
iii. L = Iω
iii. Time taken to reach the bottom,
5. Moment of force or torque:
𝐾2
2𝑠(1+ 2 )
i. 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ x 𝐹⃗ = rF sinθ t=√ 𝑅
𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
ii. 𝜏 = Iα
13. Principle of Perpendicular axes:
6. Conservation of angular momentum:
IZ = IX + IY
Iω = constant
14. Principle of Parallel axes: IO = IC + Mh2
Therefore, I1ω1 = I2ω2
7. In translational equilibrium:
𝛴𝐹=0
8. In rotational equilibrium: 𝛴𝜏 = 0
9. Equation of rotational motion:
i. When α is constant
a. ω = ω0 + αt
1
b. θ = ω0t + 2 αt2

c. ω2 = 𝜔02 + 2αθ
ii. When α is not constant:
𝑑𝜃
a. 𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔 (𝜔2 −𝜔1 ) 2𝜋(𝑛2 −𝑛1 )
b. 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡
= (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
= (𝑡2 −𝑡1 )

7
 Chapter 8 : Gravitation

❖ FORMULAE : 7. Escape velocity:

i. Body stationary on the earth’s surface:
1. Kepler’s formula for planetary motion:
2𝐺𝑀
i. Areal velocity, vA = 2 rv =
1 𝐿
= constant a. ve = √ 𝑅
= √2𝑔𝑅
2𝑚
ii. Ratio of time periods of two planets, 8
3/2
b. ve = R √3 𝜋𝐺𝜌
𝑇1 𝑟
= (𝑟1 )
𝑇2 2 ii. Body revolving around the earth’s surface
Where, r = average distance between at certain height:
planet and the Sun 2𝐺𝑀
2. Gravitational force between two mass ve = √ 𝑟
= √2𝑔𝑟
particles: iii. ve = √2 v0
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
i. F = 8. Orbital velocity:
𝑟2
ii. Superposition principle of Gravitation: i. Satellite is orbiting close to the surface of
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹21 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹31 … + 𝐹 𝑛𝑙
𝐺𝑀
earth: v0 = √ 𝑅 = √𝑔𝑟
3. Gravitational constant:
𝐹𝑟 2 ii. Satellite is orbiting at certain height
G=𝑚
1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑀
4. Acceleration due to gravity: above the earth’s surface: v0 = √ 𝑟
= √𝑔ℎ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
i. On the surface of the earth: g = where, gh = acceleration due to gravity at
𝑅2
4 height h.
ii. In terms of density: g = 3 πρGR
𝜋𝜌𝐺
iii. At height h above earth’s surface: iii. v0 = 2R√ … (ρ = density of earth)
3
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
gh = = 9. Time period of a satellite:
(𝑅+ℎ)2 𝑟2
Where, r = distance from the centre of the i. When satellite is orbiting close to the
earth. i.e., r = R + h. 𝑅
surface of earth: T = 2𝜋√
𝑑 𝑔
iv. At depth inside the earth: gd = 𝑔 (1 − 𝑅)
ii. When satellite revolving at certain height
𝑔ℎ 𝑅 2 2ℎ
v. =( ) = (1 − ) when h << R above the earth’s surface:
𝑔 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅
𝑟 𝑟3
vi. For latitude λ when earth is rotating with a. T = 2𝜋√ = 2π√
𝑔ℎ 𝐺𝑀
angular velocity ω:
4𝜋 2 3
𝑔′ = g – ω2R cos2 λ b. T2 = 𝐺𝑀
r i.e., T2 ∝ r3
5. Gravitational Potential: 10. Energy of a satellite:
𝐺𝑀
i. On surface of the earth: V = − i. For a satellite revolving at certain height
𝑅
ii. At certain height above the surface of the above the earth’s surface:
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
earth: V = − a. K.E. = 2𝑟
b. P.E. = 𝑟
𝑟
−𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
6. Gravitational potential energy of a body: c. T.E. = 2𝑟
d. B.E. = 2𝑟
i. For body stationary on the earth: ii. For a satellite stationary at certain height:
− 𝐺𝑀𝑚 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
U= = −mgR a. K.E. = 0 b. P.E. =
𝑅 𝑟
ii. For body revolving around the earth: −𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
c. T.E. = 𝑟
d. B.E. = 𝑟
− 𝐺𝑀𝑚
U=
𝑟

8
 Chapter 9 : Mechanical Properties of Solids : Elasticity

❖ FORMULAE : 7. Bulk modulus:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑃
K = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −𝑉
1. Breaking force: B.F. = Breaking stress x 𝑑𝑉
1 1
Area 8. Compressibility: 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝐾

2. Stress: 9. Modulus of rigidity:

𝐹 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹
i. Longitudinal stress = 𝐴 η= = (If 𝜙 is small)
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝜙
𝑀𝑔
= … (for circular cross-section) 10. Poisson’s ratio:
𝜋𝑟 2
𝐹 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
ii. Volume (bulk) stress = 𝐴 = ΔP σ= 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

iii. Tangential (shearing) stress 11. Elastic energy:

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 i. Elastic potential energy:
= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
1
iv. Force on rigid support due to change in U=2xFxl
1
temperature: = x stress x strain x volume
2
F = YA α Δθ ii. Elastic potential energy per unit volume:
3. Strain: 1
u = 2 x stress x strain
𝑙
i. Longitudinal strain = 𝐿 1 (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)2
= x
𝑥 2 𝑌
ii. Shearing strain = ℎ = tan φ 1
= x Y x (strain)2
𝛥𝑉 2
iii. Volume strain = 𝑉 12. Work done in stretching a wire:
4. Hooke’s law: 1
W=2xFxl
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Elastic constant, E =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 13. Sag of the rod:
𝐹𝐿
5. Young’s modulus: Y = 𝐴𝑙 𝑊𝑙3
𝛿 = 4𝑌𝑏𝑑3
For circular cross-section:
𝑀𝑔𝐿
Y = 𝜋𝑟 2𝑙

6. Elongation in the wire due to load:

𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑌

Force on rigid support due to temperature

change.
F = YA ∝ θ

9
 Chapter 10 : Mechanical Properties of Fluids : Viscosity

❖ FORMULAE : 17. Poiseuille’s formula or rate of flow of

liquid through a horizontal tube:
𝐹
1. Pressure: P = 𝐴 𝜋𝑃𝑟 4 𝑃
V= 8𝜂𝑙
=𝑅
2. Pressure exerted by a liquid
Where, R is called liquid resistance.
(incompressible) column: P = hρg
18. When two capillary tubes are joined in
3. Absolute pressure: P = P0 + hρg
series, the equivalent liquid resistance RS:
4. Pressure-difference in liquid column:
8𝜂𝑙1 8𝜂𝑙2
P2 – P1 = hρg RS = R1 + R2 = 𝜋𝑟14
+ 𝜋𝑟24

5. Archimedes’ principle: 19. When two capillary tubes are joined in

Observed weight of the body in liquid = parallel through which the liquid is flowing,
True weight of body – weight of liquid then equivalent liquid resistance is:
displaced by the body 1 1 −1 𝑅1 𝑅2
RP = ( + ) =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑑𝑣
6. Velocity gradient: vg = 𝑑𝑥
20. Speed of fluid at wide neck:
𝑑𝑣
7. Viscous force: F = η A 𝑑𝑥 2𝜌𝑚 ℎ𝑔 𝑎2
−1∕2
v=√ 𝜌
(𝑎12 − 1)
𝐹𝑑𝑥 2
8. Coefficient of viscosity: η =
𝐴𝑑𝑣
21. For a closed tank, speed of efflux:
9. Stoke’s formula: F = 6πηrv
(𝑃−𝑃𝑎 )
𝑁𝑅 ×𝜂 v1 = √2𝑔ℎ + 𝜌
10. Critical velocity: vc =
𝜌𝐷

2 𝑟2 where,
11. Terminal velocity: v0 = (ρ -σ)g
9 𝜂
h = Height of the hole of the wall below the
𝜌𝑣𝑐𝐷
12. Reynold’s number: NR = 𝜂 surface of water.
13. Bernoulli’s formula: 22. For an open tank:
𝑃1 1 𝑃2 1
𝜌
+ gh1 + 2 𝑣12 = 𝜌
+ gh2 + 2 𝑣22 = constant i. Speed of efflux: v1 = √2𝑔ℎ

14. Equation of continuity: a1v1 = a2v2 ii. Time taken by water to reach the

15. Volume of liquid flowering per unit bottom:

time: V/t = av 2(𝐻−ℎ)

t=√ 𝑔
16. Mass of liquid flowering per unit time:
where, H = Height of water in the tank.
Mass / t = avρ
ii. Range of outflowing water:

R = 2 √ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)

10
 Chapter 11 : Mechanical properties of fluids: Surface Tension
𝑟
❖ FORMULAE : R=
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝐹 ii. Rise or fall of liquid in capillary tube

1. Surface Tension: (T) = 𝑙 2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟
a. h = 𝑟𝜌𝑔
−3
2. Force of surface tension: F = T x l
2𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
3. Force required in different cases: b. h = 𝑟𝜌𝑔
(if weight of liquid in
i. Stick: 2 l T meniscus is neglected)
ii. Ring: 2 x 2πrT
iii. Ring of inner radius ‘r’ and outer radius
‘R’: 2π (r + R) x T
iv. Disk of diameter D: πDT
v. Frame of length ‘l’ and breadth ‘b’:
T x 2 x 2 (l + b)
𝑑𝑊
4. Surface energy: 𝑑𝐴

5. Work done in blowing a liquid drop =

4πr2T.
6. Work done in increasing radius of air
bubble from R1 to R2:
W = 4πT (𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )
7. Work done in forming soap bubble of
radius R: W = 8πR2T
8. Work done in increasing radius of soap
bubble from R1 to R2:
W = 8πT(𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )
9. Excess pressure inside an air bubble:
2𝑇
ΔP = 𝑅

10. Excess Pressure inside a soap bubble:

4𝑇
ΔP = 𝑅

11. Capillarity:
i. Radius of curvature of a meniscus

11
 Chapter 12 : Thermal properties of Matter: Heat

❖ FORMULAE : 𝛾r = 𝛾a + 𝛾v (At low temperature)

6. Relation between α, β and 𝛾:
1. Relation between Celsius scale (C),
𝛽 𝛾
α = = = constant
Fahrenheit scale (F), and Kelvin scale (K): 2 3
𝑑𝑄
5 7. Specific heat: c = 𝑚 𝑑𝜃
i. C = 9 (F – 32)
𝐹−32 𝐾−273 8. Latent heat:
ii. 9
= 5 𝑄
i. L = 𝑚
iii. K = C + 273
𝐿𝑖 +𝐿𝑒
2. Linear expansion: ii. L = Li + Le cal = joule
𝐽

i. Final length of a rod, 𝑃(𝑉2 −𝑉1 )

iii. Le = 𝑚𝐽
joule
L = L0 (1 + α ΔT)
𝛥𝜃
9. Temperature gradient: Tg =
ii. Coefficient of linear expansion: 𝛥𝑥

𝛥𝐿 𝐿2 −𝐿1 10. Coefficient of thermal conductivity:

α=𝐿 =
0 𝛥𝑇 𝐿1 𝛥𝑇 𝑄 𝛥𝑥
K = 𝐴𝑡
𝛥𝜃
3. Superficial expansion:
𝛥𝑥
i. Final area of the body, 11. Thermal resistance: R = 𝐾𝐴
𝑄 𝛥𝜃 𝛥𝜃
A = A0 (1 + β ΔT) 12. Rate of flow of heat: 𝑡 = KA 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑅
ii. Coefficient of superficial expansion: 13. The equivalent thermal resistance of
𝛥𝐴 𝐴2 −𝐴1
β= = series combination of n conductors:
𝐴0 𝛥𝑇 𝐴1 𝛥𝑇

4. Cubical (volume) expansion: i. RS = R1 + R2 + R3 + …. + Rn

𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
i. Final volume, = 𝐾 1𝐴 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛
𝐾 𝐴
1 1 𝐾 𝐴 𝐾 𝐴2 2 3 3 𝑛 𝑛

V = V0 (1 + 𝛾 ΔT) ii. For A1 = A2 = A3 = … = An = A

ii. Coefficient of volume expansion: 𝑄 𝐴𝛥𝜃
= 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝛥𝑉 𝑉2 −𝑉1 𝑡 ( 1 + 2 + 3 +…+ 𝑛)
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝐾𝑛
𝛾= =
𝑉0 𝛥𝑇 𝑉1 𝛥𝑇
14. The equivalent thermal resistance of
iii. Coefficient of real expansion:
parallel combination of n conductors:
𝛥𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑟 −𝑉0
𝛾r = = 1 1 1 1 1
𝑉𝛥𝑇 𝑉0 𝑇
i. 𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + … + 𝑅
𝑃 1 2 3 𝑛
iv. Coefficient of apparent expansion of
𝐾1 𝐴1 𝐾2 𝐴2 𝐾3 𝐴3 𝐾𝑛 𝐴𝑛
= + + +…+
liquid: 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 𝑙𝑛

𝛥𝑉 𝑉𝑎 −𝑉0 ii. For l1 = l2 = l3 = … = ln = l

𝛾a = 𝑉𝛥𝑇𝑎 = 𝑉0 𝑇
𝑄 (𝐾1 𝐴1 + 𝐾2 𝐴2 + 𝐾3 𝐴3+⋯+ 𝐾𝑛 𝐴𝑛 )𝛥𝜃
5. Relation between 𝛾a and 𝛾r: 𝑡
= 𝑙

12
 Chapter 12 : Thermal properties of Matter: Heat

15. Coefficients of Radiation: b. P = eAσ(T4 − 𝑇04 ) ...(For an ordinary

𝑄𝑎
i. Coefficient of absorption, a = body)
𝑄
𝑄𝑟 23. Newton’s law of cooling:
ii. Coefficient of reflection, r = 𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝑄𝑡
i. Rate of loss of heat: 𝑑𝑡
= K (𝜃 ′ − 𝜃0 )
iii. Coefficient of transmission, t = 𝑄 𝑑𝜃 𝜃1 −𝜃2
ii. Rate of cooling: = = K (𝜃 ′ − 𝜃0 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑡1
16. Principle of conservation of energy:
Qa + Qr + Qt = Q
17. Relation between a, r, and t:
a+r+t=1
18. Emissive power:
𝑑𝑄
E=
𝐴𝑑𝑡

19. Coefficient of emission (Emissivity):

𝐸
e=𝐸
𝑏

20. Absorptivity:
𝐴
a=𝐴
𝑏

21. Wien’s displacement law:

i. λm1 T1 = λm2 T2 = constant
ii. Wien’s constant (b) = λm T
22. Stefan – Boltzmann law:
i. Rate of emission of radiant heat or
radiant power when the body is at
absolute temperature:
𝑑𝑄
a. P = = σAT4 …(For a black body)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
b. P = 𝑑𝑡
= σeAT4 …(For an ordinary body)

ii. Rate of loss of heat radiation when the

body is kept in the surrounding of
temperature T0:
a. P = Aσ(T4 − 𝑇04 ) ….(For a black body)

13
 Chapter 13 : Thermodynamics
𝑅
❖ FORMULAE : C=
1−𝑁
+ CV

8. First law of thermodynamics:

1. Heat energy: Q = mcΔθ
2. Specific heats: ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
9. Increase in internal energy:
i. Specific heat at constant pressure:
(𝛥𝑄)𝑃 i. Melting process, ΔU = mL
a. Principle specific heat: cP = 𝑚𝛥𝑇
ii. Boiling process, ΔU = mL – P(Vvap – Vliq)
b. Molar specific heat:
10. External work done by heat engine:
𝑀(𝛥𝑄)𝑃 1 (𝛥𝑄)𝑃
CP = McP = 𝑚𝛥𝑇
= W = Q1 – Q2
𝑛 𝛥𝑇

ii. Specific heat at constant volume: 11. Thermal efficiency of heat engine:
(𝛥𝑄)𝑣 𝑄 𝑊
a. Principle specific heat: cV = 𝑚𝛥𝑇 i. 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑄2 ii. 𝜂 = 𝑄
1 1

b. Molar specific heat: 𝑇2

iii. 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑇
1
𝑀(𝛥𝑄)𝑣 1 (𝛥𝑄)𝑣
Cv = Mcv = = 𝑄 𝑄
𝑚𝛥𝑇 𝑛 𝛥𝑇 12. Carnot engine: 𝑇1 = 𝑇2
1 2
3. Relation between specific heats:
13. Work done on the system in
𝑅
i. CP – Cv = R ii. cP – cv = 𝑀
refrigerator:
𝐶𝑃 𝑐𝑃
iii. γ = = W = Q1 = Q2
𝐶𝑣 𝑐𝑣

4. Work done by a gas in changing volume 14. Coefficient of performance of

at constant pressure: refrigerator:
𝑣 𝑄2 𝑇2
W = ∫𝑣 2 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = P(V2 – V1) i. 𝛽 =
𝑄1 −𝑄2
ii. 𝛽 =
𝑇1 −𝑇2
1

5. Work done during an isothermal change 𝑄2 1− 𝜂

iii. 𝛽 = 𝑊
iv. 𝛽 = 𝜂
for 1 mole of a gas:
𝑉 𝑉
i. Wiso = RT loge (𝑉2 ) = 2.303 x RT log ( 2 )
1 𝑉 1

𝑃1 𝑃1
ii. Wiso = RT loge (𝑃 ) = 2.303 x RT log (𝑃 )
2 2

6. Work done in an adiabatic process:

𝑅(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝑅(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
Wadi = 1−𝛾
= 𝛾−1

7. Molar specific heat in polytropic

process:

14
 Chapter 14 : Kinetic Theory of Gases
1 𝑚𝑁 2 1
❖ FORMULAE : 6. Pressure: P =
3 𝑉
c = ρc2
3

1. Ideal gas equation: 7. Energy of gaseous molecules:

3
i. PV = RT (for one mole) i. Average K.E. of gas molecules = 2 PV
3
ii. PV = nRT (for n moles) = 2 nRT
iii. PV = NkBT (for N molecules) 3
ii. Average K.E. per unit mole = 2 RT
2. Van der Waal’s equation
3 𝑅𝑇
𝑎
iii. Average K.E. per unit mass =
2 𝑀
i. (𝑃 + 𝑉 2 ) (V – b) = RT (for one mole)
3 𝑅𝑇 3
iv. Average K.E. per molecule = = kBT
𝑛2 𝑎 2 𝑁𝐴 2
ii. (𝑃 + ) (V – nb) = nRT (for n moles)
𝑉2 3
v. Average K.E. per unit volume = 2 P
3. Universal gas constant
𝑃𝑉 8. Degrees of freedom: f = 3A – B
i. Gas constant, R = 𝑛𝑇
9. Average translational K.E of each
𝑅
ii. Specific Gas constant, r = 1
𝑚 degrees of freedom = 2 kBT
4. Gas laws:
10. Energy of system with f degrees of
i. Boyle’s law:
freedom:
𝑃1 𝑃1
a. P1V1 = P2V2 b. 𝜌 = 𝑓
1 𝜌 2 i. For N molecules: 2 NkBT
ii. Charles’ law: 𝑓
ii. For n moles: nRT
𝑉 𝑉2 2
a. 𝑇1 =
𝑇2
b. ρ1 T1 = ρ2 T2
1 11. Adiabatic constant:
𝑃1 𝑃2
iii. Gay Lussac’s law: 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝐶𝑝 2
1 2 i. 𝛾 = 𝐶 ii. 𝛾 = 1 + 𝑓
𝑣
5. Velocity of gaseous molecules:
12. Mean free path:
𝑐1 +𝑐2 +𝑐3 +⋯+𝑐𝑛
i. Average speed, 𝑐̅ = 𝜆 +𝜆 +⋯+𝜆𝑛 1
𝑛 i. 𝜆̅ = 1 2𝑛 ii. 𝜆̅ =
√2𝜋 𝑑2 𝑛𝑣
𝑐12 +𝑐22 +⋯+𝑐𝑛2
ii. R.M.S speed, c = √ iii. 𝜆̅ =
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑛 √2𝜋 𝑑 2 𝑃

3𝑅𝑇
iii. R.M.S speed, c = √ 𝑀

iv. From Maxwell speed distribution law:

3𝑘𝐵 𝑇 8𝑘𝐵 𝑇
a. crms = √ 𝑚
b. cavg = √ 𝜋𝑚

2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
c. cmp = √ 𝑚

15
 Chapter 15 : Oscillations

❖ FORMULAE : 10. Time period of spring pendulum:

𝑚
1. Restoring force: T = 2π√ 𝑘
4𝜋 2 𝑚
F = – kx = – mω2x = − x 11. Force on damped oscillator:
𝑇2

2. Differential equation of a linear S.H.M.: F = – kx – bv

𝑑2𝑥 12. Displacement in damped S.H.M.:

𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
−𝑏𝑡

3. Displacement in S.H.M.: x = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑚 sin (𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜙)

i. x = A sin (ωt + α) (general equation) 13. Displacement in forced oscillation:

ii. x = A sin ωt (from mean position) x = A cos(ωdt + φ)

iii. x = A cos ωt (from extreme position) 14. Amplitude of damped S.H.M.:

−𝑏𝑡
( )
4. Velocity in S.H.M.: v = ω√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 A = A0 𝑒 2𝑚

5. Acceleration of S.H.M.: a = – ω2x 15. Energy of damped S.H.M.:

−𝑏𝑡
6. Period of S.H.M.: E = E0 𝑒 ( 𝑚 )
2𝜋 𝑚 𝑥 1
T= 𝜔
= 2π√ 𝑘 = 2π√𝑎 Where E0 = 2 KA2

7. Frequency in S.H.M.:
1 𝜔 1 𝑘 1 𝑎
n=𝑇= = √ = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑥

8. Energy in S.H.M.:
i. Potential energy,
1 1
P.E. = 2 kx2 = mω2x2
2

ii. Kinetic energy,

1
K.E. = k (A2 – x2)
2

iii. Total energy,

1 1
T.E. = kA2 = 2 mω2A2
2
1
= 2 (4π2 n2 mA2) = constant

9. Time period of Simple Pendulum:

𝑙
T = 2π√𝑔

16
 Chapter 16 : Wave Mechanics

❖ FORMULAE : 𝑣 𝑀
iii. 𝑣1 = √ 2 where M1 and M2 are
2𝑀 1
1
1. Frequency: n(or v) = 𝑇 molecular masses of gases.

2. Velocity: v = nλ 12. Equation of SH progressive wave for

1 positive X-direction:
3. Wave number 𝑣̅ =
𝜆
𝑡 𝑥
𝜕𝑦 i. y = A sin 2π (𝑇 − 𝜆)
4. Particle velocity: vp = 𝜕𝑡
𝑥
5. Propagation constant: ii. y = A sin 2π (𝑛𝑡 − 𝜆)
𝛿 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑛 𝜔 2𝜋𝑥
k= = = = = 2𝜋𝑣̅ iii. y = A sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
𝑥 𝜆 𝑛𝜆 𝑣 𝜆
2𝜋
6. Relation between v, λ, and T: iv. y = A sin (vt – x)
𝜆
𝜆
v = nλ = 13. Equation of SH progressive wave along
𝑇

7. Wave velocity in a string: negative X-direction:

𝑡 𝑥
v = √𝑚
𝑇 y = A sin 2π (𝑇 + 𝜆)

14. i. Phase difference

8. Newton’s formula for velocity of sound:
2𝜋
= 𝜆
x (Path difference)
𝑃
V = √𝜌
2𝜋
𝛿= 𝜆
𝛥𝑥
9. Laplace correction to Newton’s
ii. Phase difference
equation: 2𝜋
= 𝑇
x (Time difference)
𝛾𝑃
v = √ 𝜌 = constant 2𝜋
𝛿= 𝑇
𝛥𝑡
10. Temperature effect on velocity of 15. Resultant amplitude:
sound:
A = √𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑇
v = √𝑇1 16. Equation of stationary wave:
2
2𝜋𝑥
11. Comparison of velocity of sound in two y(x, t) = 2A cos( ) sin (2πnt)
𝜆

media: 17. Fundamental frequency:

𝑣 𝑇 𝑡+273 i. Frequency of pth harmonic:
i. 𝑣 = √𝑇 = √ 273
0 0
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇
n = 2𝑙 √𝑚 = √𝐴𝜌 = 2𝑙 √𝜋𝑟 2𝜌 = 2𝑟𝑙 √𝜋𝜌
𝑣1 𝜌2 2𝑙
ii. 𝑣 = √𝜌
2 1

17
 Chapter 16 : Wave Mechanics
𝑣
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 n = (p)
= 𝑙𝐷 √
𝜋𝜌
= 2 √𝑀𝑙 2𝐿
1
20. Period of beats: 𝑡 = 𝑛
1 𝑇 1 −𝑛2
ii. n = √ (for p = 1)
2𝑙 𝑚 21. Beat frequency:
iii. Ratio of two fundamental frequencies in 1
i. n = 𝑇 = n1 – n2
two different strings of different l, D, T and
n1 – n2, If n1 > n2
ρ
n2 – n1, If n2 > n1
𝑛1 𝑙2 𝐷2 𝑇1 𝜌2
𝑛2
=𝑙 x √𝑇 x √𝜌 22. Doppler effect:
1 𝐷1 2 1

18. Laws of vibration: i. Source approaching a stationary listener,

Apparent frequency
i. n1l1 = n2l2 = constant 𝑛 𝑣
𝑛′ = 𝑣 = (𝑣−𝑣 ) 𝑛
(T and m are constant) (1− 𝑠 ) 𝑠
𝑣
ii. n √𝑚 = constant ii. Source receding from a stationary
(T and l are constant) listener, Apparent frequency
𝑛 𝑣
iii. n √𝜌 = constant 𝑛′ = 𝑣 = (𝑣+𝑣 ) 𝑛
(1+ 𝑠 ) 𝑠
𝑣
(T, l, and r are constant)
𝑛 iii. Listener approaching a stationary source
iv. = constant 𝑣𝐿
√𝑇
Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 (1 + 𝑣
)
(l, m are constant)
iv. Listener receding from a stationary
19. Vibrations of air column:
source
i. Tube closed at one end: 𝑣𝐿
Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 (1 − 𝑣
)
a. Fundamental mode,
𝑣 v. Both source and listener approaching
n= , where L = l + e each other
4𝐿
b. 1st overtone = 3rd harmonic 𝑣+𝑣𝐿
Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( )
3𝑣 𝑣−𝑣𝑠
n1 = 3n = (4𝐿 )
vi. Both source and listener receding from
c. Frequency of pth overtone, each other
𝑣
n = (2p – 1) 4𝐿 𝑣−𝑣
Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( 𝑣+𝑣𝐿)
𝑠
ii. Tube open at both ends:
vii. Source approaching and listener
a. Fundamental mode, receding
𝑣 𝑣−𝑣𝐿
n= , where L = l + 2e Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( )
2𝐿 𝑣−𝑣𝑠

b. 1st overtone = 2nd harmonic, viii. Listener approaching and source

𝑣
receding
n1 = 2n = 2 ( ) 𝑣+𝑣
2𝐿 Apparent frequency, 𝑛′ = 𝑛 ( 𝑣+𝑣𝐿)
𝑠
c. Frequency of pth overtone:

18
 Chapter 1 : Electrostatics
❖ FORMULAE 14. Relation between electric intensity and
potential difference:
1. Charge: q = It 𝑑𝑉
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 i. When the field is not uniform, E = − 𝑑𝑥
2. Electrostatic force: F =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑉
ii. When field is uniform, E =
3. Forces between multiple charges: 𝑑
15. Potential due to a system of charges:
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + ⋯ 𝐹⃗𝑛−1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑛
𝑛
1 𝑞𝑖
4. Resultant of two electric forces: V = 4𝜋𝜀 ∑
0 𝑖=1 𝑟𝑖
i. 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos 𝜃 16. Potential due to an electric dipole:
𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 1 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
ii. tan θ = 𝐹 +𝐹
2
V = 4𝜋𝜀
1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)

𝐹 ⃗
5. Electric field intensity: 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑞 17. Potential energy:
0
i. For a point charge,
6. Electric field due to a point charge:
1 𝑞𝑞0
1 𝑞 U = 4𝜋𝜀
E= 0𝐾 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
ii. For system of two charges,
7. Electric dipole moment: p = q(2l)
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
8. Electric field due to a dipole: U = 4𝜋𝜀
0𝐾 𝑟12

i. For end-on (axial) position: iii. For electric dipole in uniform field.
E = 4𝜋𝜀
1 2𝑝𝑟
2 −𝑙 2 )2
U = − 𝑝⃗ ⋅ 𝐸⃗⃗
0 𝐾 (𝑟

ii. For broad side-one (equatorial) position: 18. Gauss’ theorem:

1 𝑝 i. 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸 ⅆ𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ⅆ𝑠
E = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2 +𝑙2 )3/2
0𝐾 𝑞
ii. ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑠 = 𝜙 =
iii. For any general point: 𝜀0

1 𝑝 19. Electric field due to:

E = 4𝜋𝜀 3 √3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 1
0𝐾 𝑟 𝜆
i. infinitely charges wire, E =
9. Angle between resultant electric field 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
intensity and electric field intensity at a 𝜎
point due to axial component: ii. infinitely charged plane sheet, E = 𝜀
0
1 iii. Charged spherical shell,
𝛽= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)
𝑞
10. Torque: 𝜏 = pE sinθ a. For a point outside the shell E =
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0

11. Work done: W = pE(cos θ1 – cos θ2) b. For a point on the surface of the shell,
𝜎
12. Potential due to a point charge: E=𝜀
0
1 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 .𝑟 c. For a point inside the shell E = 0
0𝐾
𝑑𝑈 1
13. Potential difference: 20. Energy’ density: = K𝜀0 𝐸 2
𝑑𝑉 2
𝑊𝐴𝐵
ΔV = VB – VA = 𝑞0

1
 Chapter 2 : Capacitors
❖ FORMULAE
𝑞
1. Capacitance: 𝐶 =
𝑉

2. Parallel plate capacitor:

i. Without dielectric

𝜀0 𝐴
C= 𝑑

ii. With dielectric

𝜀0 𝐴
C= 1
𝑑−𝑡(1− )
𝐾

𝑟 𝑟
3. Spherical capacitor: C = 4𝜋𝐾𝜀0 (𝑟 1−𝑟2 )
2 1

2𝜋𝐾𝜀0 𝑙
4. Cylindrical capacitors: C = 𝑟
2.303𝑙𝑜𝑔( 2 )
𝑟1

1 1 1 1
5. Capacitors in series: = + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

6. Capacitors in parallel: CP = C1 + C2 + C3

7. Wheatstone’s bridge of capacitors:

𝐶1 𝐶
𝐶2
= 𝐶3
4

8. Energy stored in capacitor:

1 1 1 𝑞2
U = 2 CV2 = qV =
2 2 𝐶

9. Total energy stored per unit volume of

the capacitor:

𝑈 1
u = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2

2
 Chapter 3 : Current Electricity
❖ FORMULAE 𝛼=
𝑅𝑇 −𝑅0
=
𝜌𝑇 −𝜌0
𝑅0 𝑇 𝜌0 𝑇
1. Electric current through a conductor:
13. Equivalent resistance in series
𝑞
𝐼= 𝑡
combination:

2. Electric current through a metallic Rs = R1 + R2 + R3.

𝑛𝑒
conductor: 𝐼 = 𝑡 14. Equivalent resistance in parallel
combination:
3. Electrical resistance of a conductor:
1 1 1 1
𝑉 =𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅= 𝐼
𝑅𝑃 1 2 3

15. Internal resistance of a cell:

4. Electrical resistivity of material of
𝐴 𝐸
conductor: 𝜌 = 𝑅 𝑙 𝑟 = (𝑉 − 1) 𝑅

5. Electrical conductivity of material of 16. Terminal potential difference of a cell:

1 𝑙
conductor: 𝜎 = = 𝐸𝑅
𝜌 𝐴𝑅 V = IR = 𝑅+𝑟
6. Current Density:
17. An e.m.f. of a cell:
𝐼 𝐸
𝐽=𝐴= E = V + Ir
𝜌

7. Relaxation time: 18. Equivalent e.m.f in series combination:

𝑚 𝑚𝑙
𝜏 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜌 = ES = nE
𝑛𝑒 2 𝑅𝐴
19. Total current through the series
8. Drift velocity of electron:
combination of n cells:
𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
𝜏 𝑛𝐸
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅+𝑛𝑟
9. Mobility of electrons:
20. Equivalent e.m.f in parallel
𝑣𝑑
𝜇= combination:
𝐸

10. Relation between drift velocity and EP = E

electronic current: 21. Total current through the parallel
𝐼 combination of n cells:
vd = 𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝑛𝐸
11. Relation between mobility and electric 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑛𝑅+𝑟
current: 22. Electrical energy:
𝐼
𝜇 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐸 W = Vq = VIt

12. Temperature-coefficient of resistance: 23. Electric power:

3
 Chapter 3 : Current Electricity
𝑉2 𝑊 𝐸1 𝑙
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = = 𝐸2
= 𝑙1
𝑅 𝑇 2

24. Kirchhoff’s first law: 34. Comparison of e.m.f.’s of two cells

(Sum and difference method):
∑𝐼 = 0
𝐸1 𝑙 +𝑙
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 𝐸2
= 𝑙1 −𝑙2
1 2

25. Kirchhoff’s second law: 35. Internal resistance of cell using

potentiometer:
∑𝛥𝑉 = 0
𝑙 −𝑙2
I1R1 + I2R2 + I3R3 = E1 + E2 + E3 𝑟=(1 )𝑅
𝑙2

26. Balancing condition of Wheatstone

bridge:
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑆

27. Unknown resistance in metre bridge:

100−𝑙
𝑆=( )𝑅
𝑙

28. Comparison of two unknown

resistances:
𝑅1 𝑙 (100−𝑙 )
𝑅2
= 𝑙2 x (100−𝑙1)
1 2

29. Unknown temperature in metre

bridge:
𝑅−𝑅0
T oC = 𝑅 x 100
100 −𝑅0

30. Principle of potentiometer:

V = xL
31. Balancing condition of potentiometer:
V = E ⇒ E = xl
32. Potential difference using
potentiometer:
𝐸
V= 𝑙
𝐿

33. Comparison of e.m.f.’s of two cells

(Individual cell method):

4
 Chapter 4 : Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
❖ FORMULAE 9. Magnetic field of current-carrying
circular loop:
1. Magnetic flux: 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
i. For a point on the axis of current loop,
2. Force on a charge (q) in uniform
magnetic field: 𝜇 2𝜋𝐼𝑟 2
𝐵 = 4𝜋0 (𝑟2
+𝑥 2 )3/2
F = qvB sinθ
ii. For a point at the centre of the loop i.e.,
Where, v = velocity of charge.
x = r,
3. Force on a charge (q) in uniform electric 𝜇 2𝜋𝐼
field: 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ 𝐵 = 4𝜋0 𝑟

4. Lorentz force equation: iii. For a point on the axis of a coil at a

distance equal to the radius of the coil i.e.,
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑞(𝑣⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗ )
r = x,
5. Magnetic force on each electron:
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵 = 25/20 𝑟
𝐹⃗ = −ⅇ(𝑣⃗𝑑 x 𝐵
⃗⃗ )
iv. For a point far away from the coil i.e.,
Where, vd = drift velocity of electron.
x>>r,
6. For a charged particle inside a cyclotron:
𝜇0 2𝜋𝐼𝑟 2 𝜇0 2𝐼𝐴
𝐵= =
i. Time of semi-circular motion: T/2 4𝜋 𝑥 3 4𝜋 𝑥 3

=
𝜋𝑟
=
𝜋 ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
10. Ampere’s law: ∮ 𝐵
𝑣 𝜔

ii. Time period of revolution of charged 11. Magnetic field due to a infinitely long
particle: straight wire carrying conductor:
𝜇 𝐼
T=
2𝜋
=
2𝜋𝑚 𝐵 = 4𝜋0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙2 )
𝑟
𝜔 𝑞𝐵

𝑞𝐵 12. Magnetic induction due to long

iii. Frequency of revolution: v = 2𝜋𝑚
solenoid:
𝑚𝑣
iv. Radius of circular path: r = 𝑞𝐵 B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 (for a point well inside a solenoid)
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
v. K.E. attained by particles in cyclotron: = 2
(for end point)
𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑟 2
(K.E.) = = 𝑞𝑉 13. Magnetic induction due to toroid:
2𝑚

7. Force of a current carrying conductor B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼

placed in a magnetic field: F = I/B sinθ 14. Force between two parallel current
𝜇 2𝐼1 𝐼2
8. Biot-Savart’s law: ⅆ𝐵 = 4𝜋0 =
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 carrying conductor: 𝐹 = 4𝜋0 𝑟
𝑙
𝑟2
15. Torque:

5
 Chapter 4 : Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Torque acting on a current carrying coil where, Ig is the current that produces a full
scale deflection (f.s.d.) in galvanometer; I is
τ = NBIAsinθ or MBsinθ
the current to be measured.
For radial magnetic field, θ = 90o
ii. IsS = IgG
Therefore, τ = NIAB 𝐼𝑔 𝑆 𝐺𝐼𝑔
iii. 𝐼
= 𝑆+𝐺 ⇒ 𝑆 = 𝐼−𝐼
𝑔
16. Moving coil galvanometer (MCG):
iv. For I = nIg
i. Deflecting torque acting on a coil
𝐺
τD = NBIA 𝑆 = 𝑛−1

ii. Restoring torque acting on a coil 22. Voltmeter:

𝑉
τR = kα i. 𝑅 = −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
where, k = constant of suspension, i.e., 𝑉
torque per unit twist and α = angle of twist. ii. 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑅+𝐺

iii. Current flowing through galvanometer iii. For V = nVg,

𝑘
𝐼 = (𝑁𝐴𝐵) 𝛼 = 𝐾𝛼 R = G (n – 1)

𝑘
Where, K = 𝑁𝐴𝐵 is the galvanometer
constant.
17. Current sensitivity Si of MCG:
𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵
Si = 𝐼 =
𝑘

18. Voltage sensitivity Sv of MCG:

𝜃 𝑁𝐴𝐵 𝑆𝑖
Sv = = =
𝑉 𝑘𝐺 𝐺

19. Accuracy of MCG:

𝐼 𝜃
i. 𝑑𝐼 =
𝑑𝜃

𝑘 𝑑𝜃
ii. dI = 𝑁𝐴𝐵

20. % error in measurement of current:

𝑑𝐼
% error = 𝐼
x 100

21. Ammeter:
i. I = Is + Ig

6
 Chapter 5 : Magnetism
𝜇0 2𝑀
❖ FORMULAE 𝐵𝑎 =
4𝜋 𝑟 3

1. Magnetic dipole moment (M): 11. Magnetic induction at an equatorial

point:
M = 2l x m
𝜇 𝑀
Where, 2l = magnetic length, i. Be = 4𝜋0 (𝑟 2
+𝑙2 )3/2

m = pole strength. ii. If the magnetic dipole is very short,

2. Coulomb’s law for magnetism: i.e., l is negligible.
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝜇0 𝑀
𝐹=𝑘 𝑟2 Be =
4𝜋 𝑟 3

𝐹⃗
⃗⃗ =
3. Magnetic induction: 𝐵 12. Magnetic induction at any point due to
𝑚
a short magnetic dipole:
4. Magnetic dipole moment of current
𝜇 𝑀
loop: M = NiA B = 4𝜋0 𝑟 3 √3 cos2 𝜃 + 1

5. For revolving electron: M = n(4𝜋𝑚)

𝑒ℎ 13. Declination: θ = angle between
magnetic meridian and geographic meridian
6. Torque on a bar magnet: τ = M B sinθ 𝐵
14. Angle of dip: tan 𝛿 = 𝐵 𝑉
𝐻
7. Potential energy when dipole is placed
⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵
in uniform field: U = −𝑀 ⃗⃗ 15. Horizontal component: BH = B cos 𝛿

𝐼 16. Vertical component: BV = B sin 𝛿

8. Time period of a bar magnet: T = 2π √𝑀𝐵
17. Neutral points lie on axial line of
9. Magnetic potential: magnet:
𝜇0 𝑟2 −𝑟1 𝜇 2𝑀𝑟
i. 𝑉 = ( ) B1 = 4𝜋0 (𝑟 2−𝑙2 )2 = BH
4𝜋 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝜇0 𝑀 cos 𝜃 18. Neutral points lie on equatorial line of

ii. If dipole is very short, V = ( )
4𝜋 𝑟2
magnet:
𝜇 𝑀
iii. Vaxial = ± 4𝜋0 𝜇0 𝑀
𝑟2 B2 = = BH
4𝜋 (𝑟 2 +𝑙2 )3/2
𝜇 𝑀 cos 900
iv. Vequatorial = 4𝜋0 𝑟2
=0 19. Intensity of Magnetisation:
10. Magnetic induction at an axial point: 𝑚 𝑀
I= =
𝐴 𝑉
𝜇0 2𝑀𝑟
i. 𝐵𝑎 = 4𝜋 (𝑟 2−𝑙2)2 Where, m= pole strength,
ii. If magnetic dipole is very short, A = area of cross section,
i.e., l = 0. M = Magnetic dipole moment,

7
 Chapter 5 : Magnetism
V = Volume.

20. Magnetic intensity or Magnetic field

⃗⃗0
𝐵
⃗⃗ =
intensity: 𝐻
𝜇0

𝐵
21. Permeability: 𝜇 = 𝐻
𝜇
22. Relative permeability: 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇
0

𝐼
23. Magnetic susceptibility: 𝜒 =
𝐻

24. Relation between permeability and

susceptibility:

i. B = 𝜇0 (H + I)

ii. 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
𝐶
25. Curie’s law: χ =
𝑇

Where, C is a Curie’s constant.

8
 Chapter 6 : Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating
Current
❖ FORMULAE 11. Mutual inductance for two coils in
parallel:
1. Induced e.m.f:
𝐿 𝐿 −𝑀2
𝑑𝜙 LP = 𝐿 1+𝐿2 ±2𝑀
ⅇ = − 𝑑𝑡 ; 1 2

𝑑𝜙
12. Transformer:
ⅇ = −𝑁 …..(For N turns)
𝑑𝑡
i. Induced e.m.f in secondary coil,
2. Induced e.m.f in a rotating coil: 𝑑𝜙
es = −𝑁𝑠 𝑑𝑡
e = ω BNA sin ωt
ii. Induced e.m.f in primary coil,
3. Peak value of induced e.m.f in a rotating
coil: 𝑑𝜙
ep = −𝑁𝑝 𝑑𝑡
e0 = ω NBA iii. Transformation ratio,
4. Induced e.m.f: 𝑒𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= = = =𝑘
𝑒𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆
𝑑𝜙
I = 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
iv. Efficiency of transformer,
𝑑𝜙
I = 𝑁 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 ….. (For N turns) 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉 𝐼
𝜂% = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
× 100 = 𝑉 𝑆 𝐼𝑆 × 100
𝑃 𝑃
5. E.M.F induced in a straight conductor in
13. Alternating e.m.f/ current:
translational motion:
i. Alternating e.m.f,
e = Blv
e = e0 sin ωt
6. Coefficient of self induction:
𝜙 𝑒 where e0 = NBAω
i. L = 𝐼
ii. L = 𝑑𝐼
| |
𝑑𝑡 ii. Alternating current,
7. Coefficient of mutual induction: I = I0 sin ωt
𝜙1 𝑒2 𝑒0
i. M = ii. M = 𝑑𝐼 Where I0 =
𝐼2 | 1| 𝑅
𝑑𝑡

8. Self inductance for two coils in series: 14. Induced r.m.s:

𝐸0 𝐼0
Ls = L1 + L2 Erms = , Irms =
√2 √2

9. Self inductance for two coils in parallel: 15. Inductive reactance:

1 1 1 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
=𝐿 +𝐿 XL = = ωL = 2πvL
𝐿𝑝 1 2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

10. Mutual inductance for two coils in 16. Capacitive reactance:

series: 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 1 1
Xc = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
= 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑣𝐶
L = L1 + L2 ±2𝑀
17. Impedance:

9
 Chapter 6 : Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating
Current
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
Z= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
= √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2

18. Phase difference in LCR circuit:

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝑐
tanφ = 𝑅

19. Average power in A.C. circuit with

resistance only:
𝐸0 𝐼0 𝐸0 𝐼0
Pav = 2
= x = Erms x Irms
√2 √2

20. Average power dissipated in A.C. circuit

with LCR in series:
Pavg = Erms Irms cosφ
21. Resonance frequency:
1
Vr =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

10
 Chapter 7 : Electromagnetic Waves
❖ FORMULAE 9. Energy transported by electromagnetic
wave per second per unit area:
𝑑𝜙𝐸
1. Displacement current: ID = 𝜀0 𝑑𝑡 1
𝑆⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐻
⃗⃗ = 𝐸⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝜇0
⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
2. Ampere’s circuital law: ∮ 𝐵
10. Momentum transported by
3. Modified Ampere’s circuital law: electromagnetic wave:
𝑑𝜙𝐸
⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝑐 + 𝜀0
∮𝐵 ) 𝑈
p = 𝑐 , where, U is energy transport by
𝑑𝑡

4. Maxwell’s equations: electromagnetic wave.

𝑞 11. Intensity of electromagnetic waves:

i. ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑠 = ⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑠 = 0
ii. ∮ 𝐵
𝜀0
1 𝐸0 𝐵0 1 𝐵2 1
𝑑 I=2 = 2 𝜇0 𝑐 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸02 𝑐
iii. ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗ 𝑙 = − 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝐵
⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑠 𝜇0 0
𝑆
12. Pressure exerted by electromagnetic
⃗⃗ ⋅ ⅆ⃗𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝑐 + 𝜀0 𝑑𝜙𝐵)
iv. ∮ 𝐵 wave:
𝑑𝑡
𝐼
5. Electromagnetic wave: P=𝑐
i. Velocity of electromagnetic waves in free
1 𝐸0
space, c = =
√ 𝜇0 𝜀 0 𝐵0

ii. Velocity of electromagnetic waves in a

1
material medium, vm =
√𝜇𝜀

6. Refractive index (n) of a material

medium:
𝑐 1 𝜇𝜀 𝜇𝜀
n=𝑣= x √1 = √𝜇 = √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟
√ 𝜇0 𝜀 0 0 𝜀0

𝜇 𝜀
where = 𝜇 r (relative permeability), = 𝜀r
𝜇0 𝜀0

(relative permittivity of the material

medium).
7. Average electric energy density:
1
uE = 𝜀0 E2
2

8. Average magnetic energy density:

1 𝐵2
uB = 2
𝜇0

11
 Chapter 8 : Ray Optics
𝑐
❖ FORMULAE 8. Absolute refractive index: 𝜇 =
𝑣

1. Reflection of light: <i = <r 9. Relative refractive index:

2. Angle of deviation (𝜹) due to plane 1 𝜇
i. 1𝜇2 = 2𝜇 ii. 1𝜇2 = 𝜇2
mirror: 1 1

iii. 1𝜇2 x 2𝜇3 x 3𝜇1 = 1

𝛿 = (180 – 2i)
10. Horizontal shift (d) due to thickness (t)
3. Image formed by inclined mirrors:
of parallel glass slab:
Number of images (n) formed due to two
d = t tan r1
plane mirrors kept inclined to each other at
an angle θ is given by: 11. Refraction from a rarer medium:
3600 𝜇2 𝜇1 (𝜇2 −𝜇1 )
i. If
𝜃
is an even integer, then − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅

3600 12. Refraction from a denser medium:

n= 𝜃
−1
𝜇1 𝜇2 (𝜇1 −𝜇2 )
3600 − =
ii. If is an odd integer, then 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝜃
𝑣𝑑 𝜆𝑑 1
a. for an object lying symmetrically between 13. Critical angle: sin ic = 𝑣
= 𝜆
=𝜇
𝑑
the two mirrors,
14. Lens equation or lens formula:
3600
n=[ ] − 1 and 1 1 1
𝜃
𝑣
−𝑢=𝑓
b. for an object lying asymmetrically
15. Lens-maker’s formula:
between the two mirrors,
1 1 1
3600 i. 𝑓 = (1𝜇2 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
n= 1 2
𝜃
1 𝜇2 1 1
4. Relation between f and R for spherical ii. . = ( − 1) ( − )
𝑓 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅
mirror: f = 2 16. Power of spherical refracting surface:
1 1 1 2 𝜇2 −𝜇1
5. Mirror formula: + 𝑣 = 𝑓 = 𝑅 𝑃=( )
𝑢 𝑅

6. Linear magnification of spherical mirror: 17. Linear magnification of lenses:

ℎ2 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣 ℎ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
m= =− = = m = ℎ2 = 𝑢 = 𝑓+𝑢 =
ℎ1 𝑢 𝑢−𝑓 𝑓 1 𝑓

7. Snell’s law: 1 1
18. Power of lens (P): P = (𝜇 − 1) (𝑅 − 𝑅 )
1 2
𝜇2 sin 𝑖 𝜆1 𝑣1
i. 1𝜇2 = 𝜇 = = =𝑣
sin 𝑟 𝜆
1 2 2 19. Refraction through prism:
ii. 𝜇 = sin i = constant i. r1 + r2 = A

12
 Chapter 8 : Ray Optics
ii. i + e = A + 𝛿 28. Magnifying power of refracting
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑒 telescope:
iii. 1𝜇2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 =
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟2 𝑓 𝑓
i. MD = − 𝑓0 (1 + 𝑒 )
𝐴+𝛿𝑚 𝑒 𝐷
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2
20. Prism formula: 𝜇 = 𝐴 𝑓
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2 ii. 𝑀∞ = − 𝑓0
𝑒

21. Deviation through thin prism: 29. Length of the telescope (refracting):
i. 𝛿 = 𝐴(𝜇 − 1) i. LD = f0 + |ue |
ii. 𝛥 = 𝐴(𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟 ) ii. 𝐿∞ = f0 + fe
𝜇𝑣 −𝜇𝑟 𝛿𝑣 −𝛿𝑟
22. Dispersive power: 𝜔 = =
𝜇−1 𝛿

23. Dispersion without deviation:

𝐴′ 𝜇−1
i. 𝐴
= − 𝜇′ −1

ii. Net dispersion = 𝛿(𝜔 − 𝜔′ )

24. Deviation without dispersion:
𝐴′ 𝜇 −𝜇
i. = − 𝜇𝑣′ −𝜇𝑟′
𝐴 𝑣 𝑟

𝜔
ii. Net deviation = 𝛿 (1 − 𝜔′ )

25. Scattering of light by Rayleigh’s law:

𝑘
𝐼 = 𝜆4

26. Magnifying power of microscope:

𝐷
i. MD = (1 + 𝑓 )
𝐷
ii. 𝑀∞ = 𝑓

27. Magnifying power of compound

microscope:
𝑣 𝐷 −𝐿 𝐷
i. MD = − 𝑢0 (1 + 𝑓 ) = 𝑓0
(1 + 𝑓 )
0 𝑒 𝑒

𝑣 𝐷
ii. 𝑀∞ = − 𝑢0 . 𝑓
0 𝑒

iii. L = v0 + ue

13
 Chapter 9 : Wave Optics and Interference of light
𝜆
❖ FORMULAE i. Path difference x = 2n (2)
1. Velocity of light in vacuum: c = vλ where, n = 0, 1, 2, …
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇2 𝑐 𝜆
2. Snell’s law: 1𝜇2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = = 𝑐1 = 𝜆1 ii. Phase difference, φ = 2πn (even multiple
𝜇1 2 2

𝑐𝑎
of π)
3. Velocity of light in a medium: v =
𝜇
12. Condition for destructive interference:
4. Wavelength of light in a medium: 𝜆
i. Path difference, x = (2n – 1) (2)
𝜆𝑎
𝜆𝑚 = 𝜇 where, n = 1, 2, 3, ….
5. Relation between R.I of different ii. Phase difference φ = (2n – 1)π (odd
mediums: multiple of π)
1
i. c𝜇𝑎 = 13. Intensity in interference pattern:
𝑎 𝜇𝑐

ii. a𝜇𝑏 x b𝜇𝑐 x c𝜇𝑎 = 1 i. I = I1 + I2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos φ

1
iii. a𝜇𝑏 = = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
𝑏 𝜇𝑐 𝑥 𝑐 𝜇𝑎

ii. Imax = (a1 + a2)2

iv. 𝑎 𝜇𝑏 x 𝑏 𝜇𝑐 = 𝑎 𝜇𝑐
1 iii. Imin = (a1 – a2)2
6. Wave number: 𝑣̅ =
𝜆
𝐼 (𝑎 +𝑎2 )2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑑) iv. 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑎1 2
7. Number of waves: (N) = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 −𝑎2 )
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝜆)
𝐼 𝑎2 𝑊
8. Ratio of width of incident wavefront and v. 𝐼1 = 𝑎12 = 𝑊1
2 2 2
𝑊1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 1
refracted wavefront: = = where W1 and W2 are slit widths of
𝑊2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 1 𝜇2
S1 and S2 respectively.
9. Doppler effect in light:
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
vi. Average intensity Iav = 2
𝑐±𝑣 𝑐∓𝑣
i. 𝑣 = 𝑣0 √𝑐∓𝑣 ii. 𝜆 = 𝜆0 √𝑐±𝑣
vii. For identical sources:
iii. For v < < c
I1 = I2 = I0 and 𝑎12 = 𝑎22 = 𝑎2
𝛥𝑣 𝑣 𝛥𝑣 𝛥𝜆
a. =± b. =− a. Imax = 4a2 = 4I0 b. Imin = 0
𝑣0 𝑐 𝑣0 𝜆0

𝜙 𝜙
10. Resultant displacement due to c. I = 4I0 cos2 = Imax cos2
2 2
superposition:
14. Path difference in YDSE:
𝑦⃗ = 𝑦⃗1 + 𝑦⃗2 + 𝑦⃗3 + ⋯
i. Path difference of bright fringe,
11. Condition for constructive interference:
𝑦𝑑 𝜆
x= 𝐷
= 2n (2) = nλ

14
 Chapter 9 : Wave Optics and Interference of light
ii. Path difference for dark fringe,
𝜆
x = (2n – 1)
2

15. Distance of nth bright fringe from

centre:
𝑛𝜆𝐷
yn = 𝑑
= 𝑛𝛽; where, β = fringe width

16. Distance of nth dark band fringe from

centre:
(2𝑛−1)𝜆𝐷
𝑦𝑛′ =
2𝑑
𝜆𝐷
17. Fringe width: β =
𝑑

18. Number of fringes:

𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐿
N= 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
=𝛽

19. When thin transparent sheet is

inserted:
i. Displacement of fringes,
𝐷(𝜇−1)𝑡 𝛽(𝜇−1)𝑡
S= =
𝑑 𝜆
(𝜇−1)𝑡
ii. The number of fringes shifted, N = 𝜆
2𝜋
iii. Change in phase, Δφ = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡
𝜆

15
 Chapter 10 : Diffraction and Polarisation of Light
𝜆
❖ FORMULAE 𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2𝑎
1. Diffraction due to single slit: 9. Diffraction at plane grating:
i. The path difference between secondary For normal incidence, the principal maxima
wavelets for first minima, are (e + d) sin θ = nλ
𝜆
sinθ≈θ=𝑎 (θ is small) Where,

ii. Condition for nth minimum intensity, n = order of maximum

a sin θ = n , where n = 1, 2, 3, ….. d = width of opaque part of grating element

θ = Angle of diffraction (e + d) = width of grating element.

2. Angular position of nth minimum 10. Diffraction due to circular aperture:

intensity in diffraction due to single slit: Diffraction of circular aperture of diameter
𝜃𝑛 =
𝑛𝜆
where n = 1, 2, 3, …… ‘d’ by monochromatic light of wavelength λ,
𝑎
1.22𝜆
3. In diffraction due to single slit, distance d sin θ = 1.22λ or sin θ = 𝑑
of nth minima from central maxima (xn): 1.22𝜆
For small ‘θ’, θ = 𝑑
𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑥𝑛 = where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
𝑎 11. Condition for resolution in case of
𝑥𝑛 microscope:
and 𝜃𝑛 =
𝐷
i. Assuming objects are self illuminous,
4. In diffraction due to single slit, condition
for nth secondary maxima: 1.22𝜆 0.61𝜆
d = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆
a sin θ = (2n + 1) where n = 1, 2, 3, …. where θ = semi vertical angle at lens
2

5. Linear width of central maximum: λ = wavelength of light

2𝜆𝐷
2x = = 2 (width of secondary maximum) d = separation between the objects, or limit
𝑎
of resolution.
6. Angular width of central maximum (2θ):
ii. For objects illuminated by light of
2𝜆
2θ = wavelength λ, according to Abbe
𝑎
𝜆
7. Distance of the nth secondary maxima d = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
from the central maxima (xn) (or position
𝜆𝐷 iii. From immersion, microscope with
of nth secondary maxima): xn = (2n + 1) 2𝑎
(object immersed in medium of refractive
8. Angular position of the nth secondary index 𝜇) space between the object and
maxima in the diffraction pattern: objective is filled with medium of refractive
index 𝜇,

16
 Chapter 10 : Diffraction and Polarisation of Light
d=
𝜆 θ = Angle between axes of polariser and
2𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
analyser
iv. Numerical aperture of microscope,
k = constant of proportionality
N.A. = 𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
a = Amplitude of electric vector transmitted
12. Resolving power of microscope: from polariser.
1 2𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
R.P. = 𝑑
= 𝜆

R.P. ∝ N.A.
1
R.P. ∝ 𝜆

13. Limit of resolution of telescope:

dθ be the smallest angular separation
between the objects, D be the diameter of
objective of telescope then
for circular aperture, according to Airy,
1.22𝜆
limit of resolution dθ = 𝐷

14. Resolving power of telescope:

For circular aperture:
1 𝐷
R.P. = 𝑑𝜃 =
1.22𝜆

15. Brewster’s law:

i. 𝜇 = tan ip, where ip = Polarising angle
ii. ip + r = 90o
where, r = Angle of refraction
16. Malus’ law: Intensity of transmitted
component from analyser,
I = I0 cos2θ and I0 = ka2
Where,
I0 = Intensity of light emerging from
polariser

17
 Chapter 11 : Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
❖ FORMULAE 𝜆𝑝ℎ 𝑐 2𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸𝑒
= √2𝑚𝐸𝑒 = √ 2
1. Maximum K.E. of electrons: 𝜆𝑒 𝐸𝑝ℎ 𝐸𝑝ℎ
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⅇ𝑉0 10. Bragg’s law:
2

2. Einstein’s photoelectric equation: 2d sinθ = nλ = D sin φ

12 For n = 1
K.E.max = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ⅇ𝑉0 = E – φ = h(v – v0)
1 1
2d sin θ = λ
= hc (𝜆 − 𝜆 )
0

3. Work function of a metal:

φ = hv – K.E.max
4. Energy of photon in free space/air:
ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑐 𝑚𝑐 2
E (in eV) = = 𝜆𝑒 =
𝑒 𝑒
ℎ𝑐
E (in joule) = hv = 𝜆
= mc2

5. Momentum of photon in free space/air:

𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
p = mc = 𝑐 = 𝑐
=𝜆

6. Number of emitted photons per unit

time:
𝑛 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃𝜆
= = =
𝑡 𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑐

P = power (of source used for illumination)

E = Energy of each photon
7. de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves:
ℎ ℎ 1 1 1
λ=𝑝 = and λ ∝ 𝑣 , λ ∝ 𝑚 , λ ∝ 𝑝
𝑚𝑣

8. de-Broglie wavelength of an electron:

ℎ ℎ 12.27
𝜆𝑒 = = = Å
√2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚ⅇ𝑉 √𝑉
9. Ratio of wavelength of photon to
wavelength of electron:

18
 Chapter 12 : Atoms and Nuclei
❖ FORMULAE 9. Relation between energy (En) and
Rydberg constant (R):
1. Number of scattered particles:
−𝑅ℎ𝑐𝑍 2
1 𝑁1 𝑡1 En = 𝑛2
𝑁∝ 𝜃 , =𝑡
𝑠𝑖𝑛4 ( ) 𝑁2 2
2
10. Ionisation energy:
2. Distance of closest approach:
𝑍2
Ei = Rch eV
4𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 1 𝑛2
r0 = 𝑚𝑣 2
, k = 4𝜋𝜀
0
11. Excitation energy:
3. Impact Parameter:
1 1
Ee = −𝑅 [ 2 − ]Z2ch
𝜃 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖2
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡( )
2
b= 1
4𝜋𝜀0 ( 𝑚𝑣 2 ) 12. Ionisation and excitation potential:
2

4. Coulomb force between the nucleus and 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑒

Vi = 𝑒
and Ve = 𝑒
electrons:
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2
13. Wavelength of radiation/ Wave
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
= 𝑟 number of lines in hydrogen spectrum:
1 1 1
5. Angular momentum: 𝑣̅ = = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ] where, n1 < n2
𝜆 1 2
𝑛ℎ
Ln = Iω = mvr = 14. Number of neutrons:
2𝜋

6. Energy-difference between two N=A–Z

successive energy levels:
15. Radius, volume and density of nucleus:
ΔE = E2 – E1 = hv 4
i. R = R0 A1/3 ii. V = 3 𝜋𝑅03 𝐴 ,
7. Radius of nth Bohr’s orbit:
𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝜀0 𝑛 2 ℎ 2 iii. 𝜌 = 𝑉
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
16. Mass-energy relation:
8. Energy of electron:
E = mc2
𝑒2 𝑚𝑒 4
i. K.E. = =
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 8𝜀02 ℎ2 𝑛2 17. Mass defect:
−𝑒 2 −𝑚𝑒 4
ii. P.E. = = Δm = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn] – M
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜀02 ℎ2 𝑛2

−𝑒 2 −𝑚𝑒 4 18. Packing fraction:

iii. T.E. = 8𝜋𝜀 =
𝑟 8𝜀 2 ℎ2 𝑛2
0 0 𝑀−𝐴
𝑓= 𝐴
𝑒2 𝑚𝑒 4
iv. B.E. = 8𝜋𝜀 = 8𝜀2 𝑛2 ℎ2
0𝑟 0 19. Binding energy:
v. B.E. = K.E. = - T.E. and P.E. = - 2 K.E. B.E. = (Δm)c2

19
 Chapter 12 : Atoms and Nuclei
20. Binding energy per nucleon:
𝛥𝑚×931
B.E. per nucleon = 𝐴

21. Decay constant:

(𝑑𝑁∕𝑑𝑡)
𝜆=−
𝑁

22. Half-life period:

𝑙𝑛 2 0.693
T= 𝜆
= 𝜆

23. Average life:

1 𝑇
i. tav = τ = 𝜆 ii. τ = 0.693

24. Number of radioactive nuclei present

at time t:
i. N = N0 e-λt
1 𝑛 𝑡
ii. N = N0 (2) ; where, n = 𝑇

25. Rate of radioactive disintegration:

0.693
|R|= λN = 𝑇
N

20
 Chapter 13 : Electronic Devices
❖ FORMULAE 10. Input and output voltages for switching
circuit:
1. Conductivity of semiconductors:
i. Vi = VBB = IBRB + VBE and
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑛 + 𝜎𝑝 = ⅇ[𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ ]
ii. Vo = VCE = VCC – ICRC
𝛥𝑉
2. Dynamic resistance: rd =
𝛥𝐼 11. Gains in an amplifier:
3. Half-wave rectifier: i. Current amplification factor,
i. Rectified current and voltage, 𝐼
hfB = α = 𝐼𝐶 < 1
𝐼0 𝑉0 𝐸
Idc = , Vdc =
𝜋 𝜋 ii. Base current amplification factor,
𝑉𝑜
ii. Peak loaded current(I0) = 𝐼
𝑟𝑑 +𝑅𝐿 hfE = β = 𝐼 𝐶 > 1
𝐵
4. Full-wave rectifier: 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
iii. Voltage gain, Av = α =β >1
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑖
i. Rectified current and voltage,
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
2𝐼0 2𝑉0 iv. Power gain, Ap = α2 𝑟𝑖
> 1 = β2 𝑟𝑖
Idc = 𝜋
, Vdc = 𝜋
𝑉𝑜 12. a.c. and d.c. current gains:
ii. Peak loaded current (Io) =
𝑟𝑑 +𝑅𝐿 𝛥𝐼
i. αac = 𝛥𝐼𝐶 |
2 𝐸 𝑣𝐵𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐼
5. Ripple factor: r = √( 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) − 1
𝑑𝑐 𝛥𝐼𝐶
ii. 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = |
𝛥𝐼𝐵 𝑣
6. Zener diode: 𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐼 𝐼
i. Vz = Vin – IsRs ii. Iz = Is – IL iii. αdc = 𝐼𝐶 iv. 𝛽𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼 𝐶
𝐸 𝐵

7. Wavelength of radiations (λ) in LED: 13. Relation between current gains:

𝑐 ℎ𝑐 𝛼 𝛽
𝜆=𝑣= 𝛽 = 1−𝛼 and 𝛼 = 1+𝛽
𝐸𝑔

8. Current through emitter: 14. Frequency of oscillations in oscillator:

IE = IB + IC 1
v = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
9. For the transistor in CE mode:
15. Boolean expressions:
i. Input dynamic resistance,
i. For OR gate: Y = A + B
𝛥𝑉𝐵𝐸
Ri = | ii. For AND gate: Y = A.B
𝛥𝐼𝐵 𝑣
𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

ii. Output dynamic resistance, iii. For NOT gate: Y = 𝐴̅

𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐸 ̅̅̅̅̅
iv. For NAND gate: Y = 𝐴. 𝐵
Ro = |
𝛥𝐼𝐶 𝐼
𝐵=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
v. For NOR gate: Y = 𝐴 +𝐵

21
 Chapter 14 : Communication Systems
❖ FORMULAE 4. Length of antenna

1. Velocity of electromagnetic waves: i. Hertz antenna or Half-wave antenna:

𝐸 𝜆
c = 𝐵0 l=2
0

where, E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of ii. Marconi antenna or Quarter-wave

electric and magnetic fields respectively. 𝜆
antenna: l=4
2. Sky wave propagation:
5. Power radiated from an antenna of
i. Critical frequency, length l:

vc = 9√𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 2
𝑃 ∝ (𝜆 )
where, Nmax = maximum electron density of
ionosphere 6. The signal strength of a sinusoidal
carrier wave:
ii. Effective refractive index of the
81.45𝑁 c(t) = Ac sin (ωct + φ)
ionosphere, 𝜇𝑟 = √1 − 𝑣2
where, Ac = amplitude and
where, N = electron density of ionosphere
ωc = angular velocity
v = frequency of E.M. waves in Hz
φ = initial phase of the carrier wave
iii. Relative permittivity of layer of
81.45𝑁 7. Amplitude-modulated wave:
atmosphere is, 𝜀𝑟 = 1 − 𝑣2
i. Original carrier-wave and modulated
iv. Skip distance,
wave frequency,
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝜔𝑐 𝜔𝑚
𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 2ℎ√( 𝑣𝑐
) −1 fc =
2𝜋
and fm =
2𝜋

Where, where,

h = height of reflecting layer of atmosphere ωm = Angular velocity of modulating

frequency
vmax = maximum frequency of E.M wave
ii. Amplitude of carrier wave = Ac
vc = critical frequency for the layer of
atmosphere iii. USB = fc + fm

3. For space wave propagation, the iv. LSB = fc – fm

maximum range of transmission: v. Bandwidth (B.W.) = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm)
d = √2ℎ𝑅 , R >> h = 2fm
where, h = height of the antenna vi. Modulation factor or modulation index,
R = radius of the earth

22
 Chapter 14 : Communication Systems
𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
ma = 𝐴𝑐
= 𝐴max + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛

vii. Average power in an unmodulated

𝐴2
wave, 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑅𝑐

viii. Total power in an amplitude modulated

2
𝑚𝑎
wave, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + 2
)

where, ma = modulation index

ix. The currents Ic and It are related by the
formula,

𝐼𝑡 2
𝑚𝑎
= √1 +
𝐼𝑐 2

8. Frequency-Modulated wave:
i. Modulation index:
𝛿
mf =
𝑓𝑚

where, 𝛿 = frequency deviation

fm = modulation frequency
fc = mean frequency
ii. Frequency deviation:
𝛿 = fmax – fc = fc – fmin
Where, fmax = maximum value of
instantaneous frequency
fmin = minimum value of instantaneous
frequency
fc = mean frequency.

23
 CHEMISTRY
FORMULAE SHEET
CLASS 11 & 12

Biology Simplified Tamil

 Chapter 1 : Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
❖ Formulae 12. Volume occupied by one mole of a gas
at STP = 22.4 L = 22.4 dm3
1. To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit:

9 13. Molecular mass = Vapour density x 2

OF = 5 (OC) + 32
14. Molecular formula = r x Empirical
2. Avogadro’s law, V ∝ n (At constant T and
formula
P)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1 15. r =
3. Atomic mass unit (1 amu) = th of a 12C- 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
12

atom = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

16. Mass percentage of an element =
4. Average atomic mass =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 (𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑖𝑡𝑠 % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
100
17. Percentage by mass (W/W) =
5. 1 Mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles
(atoms/molecules/ions/electrons) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑊𝐵
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
x 100 = 𝑊 x 100
𝐴 +𝑊𝐵

6. Number of moles (n) =

Where, WA = mass of solvent, WB = mass of
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
solute.

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
7. Mass of an atom = 18. Percentage by volume (V/V) =
6.022 × 1023

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝐵

8. Mass of a molecule = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
x 100 = x 100
6.022 × 1023 𝑉𝐴 +𝑉𝐵

9. Number of molecules = n x Avogadro Where, VA = volume of solvent, VB = volume

number (NA) of solute

10. Atomicity = number of atoms in a 19. Mole fraction: For a solution containing
molecule i number of components, mole fraction, xi,
𝑛𝑖
will be 𝑥𝑖 = (𝑛
11. Total number of atoms in a given 1 +𝑛2 +⋯⋅+𝑛𝑖 )

amount of substance = n x NA x Atomicity 𝑛𝐵

For a binary solution, xB =
𝑛𝐴 +𝑛𝐵

1
 Chapter 1 : Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Where, nA = number of moles of solvent, nB
= number of moles of solute.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

20. Molarity (M) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3

=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )×𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3 𝑜𝑟𝐿)

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

21. Molality (m) =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔

=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)

22. Parts per million (ppm) =

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

x 106
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2
 Chapter 2 : Structure of Atom
1
❖ Formulae 2
mv2 = kinetic energy of ejected electron(s)

1. Number of neutrons = A – Z 6. Energy of an electron (En)

where, − 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 𝑍2
= 𝑛2 ℎ 2
= - 13.6 𝑛2 eV atom-1
A = mass number
7. Energy of an electron (En) in the nth orbit
Z = atomic number of hydrogen atom:
𝑐
2. Frequency (v) = 𝜆 2.18 ×10−11
En = − erg atom-1
𝑛
Where,
2.18 ×10−18
=− 𝑛2
J atom-1
v = Frequency of electromagnetic radiation
13.6
c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m s-1 =− 𝑛2
eV atom-1

λ = Wavelength of electromagnetic 1312

= 𝑛2
kJ mol-1
radiation
313.6
3. Wave number (𝒗
̅) =
1 =− 𝑛2
kcal mol-1
𝜆

4. Energy of quantum of radiation (E): 8. Radius of Bohr’s orbit (rn)

𝑐
E = hv = h = hc𝑣̅ 𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑛2
𝜆 = 4𝜋2𝑚𝑍𝑒 2 = 0.529 x
𝑍
Å

Where, h = Planck’s constant

9. Wave number of series of hydrogen
= 6.626 x 10-34 J s spectrum:

5. For photoelectric effect: 1 1

𝑣̅ = 𝑅 [ − ]
𝑛12 𝑛22
1
hv = hvo + 2 mv2
Where,
where,
𝑣̅ = wave number
vo = threshold frequency
R = Rydberg constant = 109677.58 cm-1
v = incident frequency

3
 Chapter 2 : Structure of Atom
= 1.09677 x 107 m-1 13. Orbital angular momentum of an
electron (L):
n1 = lower energy level
ℎ
L= √𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
n2 = higher energy level 2𝜋

ℎ ℎ Where, l = Azimuthal quantum number

10. de Broglie equation: λ = 𝑚𝑣 =
𝑝

14. Number of spherical or radial nodes in

p = mv = momentum of particle
an orbital = (n – l – 1)

11. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:

Where, n = Principal quantum number
ℎ
ΔxΔp ≥ 4𝜋 l = Azimuthal quantum number

Where, Δx = uncertainty in position, 15. Number of nodal planes in an orbital = l

Δp = uncertainty in momentum 16. Maximum number of electrons in each

ℎ
principal shell = 2n2 electrons
Δx x m Δv ≥ 4𝜋 (Δp = m Δv)
17. Maximum number of electrons in each
ℎ
Δx Δv ≥ subshell = 2(2l + 1) electrons
4𝜋𝑚

12. Schrodinger wave equation: 18. Maximum number of electrons in each

orbital = 2 electrons
2 8𝜋 2 𝑚
𝛻 𝜓+ ℎ2
(E – V) 𝜓 = 0

Where, E = total energy of the system

V = potential energy of the system

𝜓 = wave function

𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
𝛻 2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 + 𝑑𝑧 2

𝑑2𝜓 𝑑2 𝜓 𝑑2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2
+ + + (E – V) 𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2 ℎ2

4
 Chapter 4 : Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
❖ Formulae

1
1. Formal charge, F.C = A – B – 2 C

Where,

A = Total number of valence electrons in free

atom

B = Total number of non-bonding electrons

C = Total number of shared electrons in a

bond

𝑁𝑏 −𝑁𝑎
2. Bond order =
2

Where,

Nb = Number of electrons in bonding orbital

Na = Number of electrons in antibonding

orbital

3. Dipole moment (μ) = Electric charge (Q) x

distance of separation (r)

4. Percentage ionic character

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

= 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
x 100

5
 Chapter 5 : States of Matter : Gases and Liquids
❖ Formulae d1 = Initial density

1. Rate of diffusion: d2 = Final density

Rate of diffusion of a gas 4. Charles’ law:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 V ∝ T (at constant P and n)

= 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉
𝑇1
= 𝑇2
2. Relationship between temperature units: 2

9 5 Where,
oF = 5 oC + 32 and oC = 9 (oF – 32)

V1 = Initial volume
and T K = t oC + 273.15
V2 = Final volume
3. Boyle’s law:

1
T1 = Initial temperature
P∝ (at constant T and n)
𝑉
T2 = Final temperature
P1V1 = P2V2
5. Gay Lussac’s law:
Where,
P ∝ T (at constant V and n)
V1 = Initial volume
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
P1 = Initial pressure

Where,
P2 = Final pressure

P1 = Initial pressure
V2 = Final volume

P2 = Final pressure
P ∝ d (at constant T and n)

𝑃1 𝑃
T1 = Initial temperature
𝑑1
= 𝑑2
2

T2 = Final temperature
Where,
6. Avogadro’s law:

6
 Chapter 5 : States of Matter : Gases and Liquids
V ∝ n (at constant P and T) P2 = Final pressure

𝑉1 𝑉
𝑛1
= 𝑛2 V1 = Initial volume
2

V2 = Final volume
Where,

T1 = Initial temperature
V1 = Initial volume

T2 = Final temperature
V2 = Final volume

9. Universal gas constant (R):

n1 = Initial number of moles

R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1

n2 = Final number of moles

= 8.314 x 107 erg K-1 mol-1

7. Ideal gas equation:

= 0.0821 L atm mol-1 K-1

PV = nRT

= 1.987 Cal. K-1 mol-1

Where,

10. Dalton’s Law of partial pressure:

R = universal gas constant

PTotal = p1 + p2 + p3 + …. (at constant T, V)

P = pressure

Where PTotal = Total pressure of the gas

V = volume

p1, p2, p3 = Partial pressure of the gases

T = temperature

11. Percentage of gas in a mixture:

n = number of moles

% of a gas in mixture =
8. Combined gas equation:
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑝1)
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 x 100
= 𝑃𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑃𝑉
Where, 12. Compressibility factor (Z): Z = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

P1 = Initial pressure For ideal gas, Z = 1

7
 Chapter 5 : States of Matter : Gases and Liquids
PV = nRT

For real gases PVreal = ZnRT

𝑉
Z = 𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

Vreal = volume of a real gas

Videal = volume of an ideal gas

13. Molecular velocities of gas molecules:

2𝑅𝑇
i. Most probable velocity = √
𝑀

8𝑅𝑇
ii. Average (or mean) velocity = √
𝜋𝑀

3𝑅𝑇
iii. Root mean square velocity = √ 𝑀

where,

R = universal gas constant

T = temperature in Kelvin

M = molecular mass

𝟏
14. Kinetic energy = x mass x (velocity)2
𝟐

1
K.E. = x molecular mass x (r.m.s. velocity)2
2

1 3𝑅𝑇 3
=2xMx = 2 RT (for 1 mole)
𝑀

8
 Chapter 6 : Thermodynamics
❖ Formulae Temperature is constant; q = - w

1. Internal energy: Exchange of heat is possible with the

surroundings.
U = Uratational + Uvibrational + Utranslational +
Uintermolecular + Uintramolecular + Unuclear + …. 6. For an adiabatic process:

2. First law of thermodynamics: ΔU = q + w ΔH ≠ 0 or q = 0, ΔT ≠ 0, ΔU ≠ 0 and ΔU = w

3. Pressure-volume work: Exchange of heat is not possible with the

surroundings.
w = -pex ΔV
7. For an isochoric process (constant
where, w = Work done and ΔV = Vf – Vi, Vf =
volume): qv = ΔU
Final volume, Vi = Initial volume, pex =
External pressure 8. For an isobaric process (constant
pressure):
4. Maximum work done in reversible
isothermal expansion: qp = ΔH = ΔU + P(ΔV)

𝑉 9. Enthalpy (H):
wmax = - 2.303 nRT log10 𝑉2 and
1
Change in enthalpy is given by,
𝑃1
wmax = - 2.303 nRT log10 ΔH = ΔU + P(ΔV)
𝑃2

For a gaseous reaction or reaction involving

where, wmax = Maximum work done, R = Gas
at least one gas component
constant, n = Number of moles, T =
ΔH = ΔU + ΔnRT
Temperature, V2 and V1 = Final and initial
volume respectively, P2 and P1 = Final and Where, Δn = Number of moles of gaseous
products – Number of moles of gaseous
initial pressure respectively. reactants.

5. For an isothermal process: For a reaction, enthalpy change (ΔrH) is

given by,
ΔU = 0, ΔT = 0, q ≠ 0.
ΔrH = 𝛴Hproduct - 𝛴Hreactant

9
 Chapter 6 : Thermodynamics
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
10. Enthalpy of sublimation: ΔS =
𝑇

ΔsubH = ΔfusH + ΔvapH Where, qrev = heat supplied to a system at

Where, ΔfusH = Enthalpy of fusion,
ΔvapH = Enthalpy of vapourization
11. Enthalpy of solution:
temperature T (Kelvin).
For a reaction, entropy change (ΔS) is given
by, ΔS = 𝛴 Sproduct - 𝛴 Sreactant
15. Second law of thermodynamics in terms
of entropy:

ΔsolH = ΔlatticeH + ΔhydH ΔSuniverse = ΔStotal = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr

Where, ΔlatticeH = Lattice enthalpy, Where,

ΔhydH = Enthalpy of hydration ΔSuniverse = Change in entropy of universe,

12. Bond enthalpy and enthalpy of reaction: ΔSsys = Change in entropy of system,

ΔSsurr = Change in entropy of surroundings.

ΔHo (reaction) = 𝛴 m ΔHo (reactant bonds)
16. Gibbs energy:
−𝛴n ΔHo (product bonds)
Change in Gibbs energy is given as,
Where, ΔHo = Standard enthalpy of reaction,
m and n are the coefficients of reactants and ΔG = ΔH – TΔS

products respectively.
17. Relation between Gibbs energy change

13. Heat capacity: and equilibrium constant:

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
Heat capacity (C) = 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑞 ΔGo = - 2.303 RT log K
𝛥𝑇

Where, ΔGo = Standard free energy change,

𝐶
Specific heat capacity = 𝑚
K = Equilibrium constant, R = Gas constant, T
𝐶
Molar heat capacity = = Temperature.
𝑛

Where m = mass of the substance,

n = number of moles of the substance

14. Entropy:

10
 Chapter 7: Equilibrium
❖ Formulae b, c and d are stoichiometric coefficients of
corresponding substances.
1. Equilibrium constant in terms of molar
concentrations (Kc): 3. Relation between Kp and Kc:

Consider the reversible chemical reaction, Kp = Kc(RT)Δn

aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD Where,

[𝐶]𝑐 ×[𝐷]𝑑 Kp = Equilibrium constant in terms of partial

Kc = [𝐴]𝑎
×[𝐵]𝑏
pressure

Where,
Kc = Equilibrium constant in terms of molar

[A], [B], [C] and [D] are molar concentrations concentration

of reactants (A and B) and products (C and D)

R = Gas constant = 0.0821 L atm K-1 mol-1
respectively.
Δn = Change in number of moles of gases =
a, b, c and d are stoichiometric coefficients
number of moles of gaseous products –
of corresponding substances.
number of moles of gaseous reactants

2. Equilibrium constant in terms of partial

4. Degree of dissociation (α):
pressure (Kp):
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
α= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
Consider the gas-phase reaction,

aA(g) + bB(g) ⇌ cC(g) + dD(g) 5. Percent dissociation:

(𝑝 )𝑐 (𝑝 )𝑑 Percent dissociation = α x 100

Kp = (𝑝 𝑐 )𝑎(𝑝𝐷 )𝑏
𝐴 𝐵

6. Ostwald’s dilution law for weak acid and

Where,
weak base:

pA, pB, pC and pD are the equilibrium partial

For weak acid
pressures of A, B, C and D respectively and a,
Ka = α2C = α2/V

11
 Chapter 7: Equilibrium
Where, Ka1 , Ka2 and Ka3 are acid dissociation
constants for primary, secondary and
Ka = Dissociation constant for weak acid
tertiary dissociations respectively.
α = Degree of dissociation
9. Relation between pH and pOH:
C = Concentration in mol dm-3
pH = - log10 [H+] and pOH = - log10 [OH-]
V = Volume of solution in dm3
pH + pOH = 14

For weak base

where,
Kb = α2C = α2/V
[H+] = Molar concentration of H+ ions
Where,
[OH-] = Molar concentration of OH- ions
Kb = Dissociation constant for weak base
10. Henderson – Hasselbalch equation for
7. Ionic product of water (Kw): acidic and basic buffer:

Kw = [H+] [OH-] For acidic buffer

[𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒]
Where, pH = pKa + log10 [𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]

[H+] = Molar concentration of H+ ions

For basic buffer

[OH-] = Molar concentration of OH- ions [𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]

pOH = pKb + log10
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒]

8. Acid dissociation constant:

11. Solubility product (Ksp):
For diprotic acid: Ka = Ka1 x Ka2
Consider the general solubility equilibrium,
For triprotic acid: Ka = Ka1 x Ka2 x Ka3
𝑦+ 𝑥−
AxBy(s) ⇌ x𝐴(𝑎𝑞) + y𝐵(𝑎𝑞)
Where,
Ksp = [Ay+]x [Bx]y

12
 Chapter 7: Equilibrium
12. Solubility:

Solubility in g/dm3 = Molar solubility

(mol/dm3) x Molar mass (g/mol)

13. Relation between solubility product and

solubility:

Ksp = xx . yy . Sx+y

Where S = molar solubility.

14. Conditions of precipitation:

IP < Ksp : the solution is unsaturated and

precipitation will not occur.

IP = Ksp : the solution is saturated and

solubility equilibrium exists.

IP > Ksp : the solution is supersaturated and

hence precipitation of the compound will
occur. Where, IP = ionic product.

13
 Chapter 9: Hydrogen
❖ Formulae

1. Volume strength = 5.6 x Normality

Volume strength

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 5.6 x x 10
𝐸𝑞.𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑖.𝑒.17)

Volume strength

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝐿−1
= 5.6 x
𝐸𝑞.𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑖.𝑒.17)

2. Volume strength = 11.2 x Molarity

Volume strength

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 11.2 x 𝑀𝑜𝑙. 𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂2 (𝑖.𝑒.34)
x 10

Volume strength

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝐿−1
= 11.2 x 𝐸𝑞.𝑤𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝐻
2 𝑂2 (𝑖.𝑒.17)

14
 Chapter 12: Organic Chemistry – Some Basic Principles and
Techniques
80 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝐵𝑟
188 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100

❖ Formulae 8. % of iodine =

1. Rf = 127 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑙

235 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
9. % of sulphur =
12
2. % of carbon = 44 x
32 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂4
x 100
233 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
x 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
62
10. % of phosphorus = 222 x
2
3. % of hydrogen = x
18 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔2 𝑃2 𝑂7
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
32
11. % of oxygen (Iodine method) = 88
x
28
4. % of nitrogen (Dumas method) = 22.4 x
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
x 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100
= 100 – [% of all other elements in
5. % of nitrogen (Kjeldahl’s method) = organic compound]

𝑉
1.4 ×𝑀 ×2(𝑉− 1 )
2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Where, V = volume of M H2SO4 taken

V1 = volume of M NaOH required for

titration of excess of H2SO4

6. % of chlorine =
35.5 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙
x 100
143.5 ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

7. % of bromine =

15
 Chapter 1: Solid State
❖ Formulae
1. Packing efficiency
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
× 100

2. Relationship between radius of atom (r) and edge length (a):

Simple cubic Bod-centered Face-centered

unit cell Cubic unit cell Cubic unit cell
𝑎 √3 𝑎
𝑟= 𝑟= 𝑎 𝑟=
2 4 2√2

3. Volume of one particle in unit cell:

Simple cubic Bod-centered Face-centered

unit cell Cubic unit cell Cubic unit cell
𝜋𝑎3 √3𝜋𝑎3 𝜋𝑎3
6 16 12√2

4. Total volume occupied by particles in unit cell:

Simple cubic Bod-centered Face-centered

unit cell Cubic unit cell Cubic unit cell
𝜋𝑎3 √3𝜋𝑎3 𝜋𝑎3
6 8 3√2

5. Distance between the nearest neighbours (D) in a unit cell:

Simple cubic Bod-centered Face-centered

unit cell Cubic unit cell Cubic unit cell
√3𝑎 𝑎
𝐷=𝑎 𝐷= 𝐷=
2 √2

6. Density of unit cell (d):

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑍 ×𝑀
d= = g cm-3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎 3 × 𝑁𝐴

where, a is the edge length of unit cell in cm

Z is the number of atoms per unit cell

1
 Chapter 1: Solid State
M is the molar mass (g/mol)
NA is Avogadro number (6.022 x 1023 mol-1)
For fcc, Z = 4, for bcc, Z = 2 and for simple cubic, Z = 1
𝑥𝑍
7. Number of atoms in x g of metal = 𝑑 × 𝑎3
𝑥
8. Number of unit cells in x g of metal = 𝑑 × 𝑎3
𝑉
9. Number of unit cells in volume (V) of metal = 𝑎3

10. Some unit conversions:

1 pm = 1 x 10-12 cm
1 Å = 1 x 10-8 cm = 100 pm

2
 Chapter 2: Solutions
❖ Formulae
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑊𝐵
1. Percentage by mass (w/w) = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100 = x 100
𝑊 𝐴 + 𝑊𝐵

Where, WA = mass of solvent, WB = mass of solute.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝐵
2. Percentage by volume (V/V) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100 = 𝑉 × 100
𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵

Where, VA = volume of solvent, VB = volume of solute.

3. Mole fraction: For a solution containing i number of components, mole fraction, xi, will be
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑖
xi = =
(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 +⋯+ 𝑛𝑖 ) 𝛴𝑛𝑖

𝑛𝐵
For a binary solution, xB =
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵

Where, nA = number of moles of solvent, nB = number of moles of solute.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑛
𝐵 𝑛
4. Molarity (M) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3
= 𝑉 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑚3 )
or 𝑉 (𝑖𝑛𝐵𝑚𝐿) × 1000

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔) 𝑊𝐵

M= =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 )×𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3 𝑜𝑟 𝐿) 𝑀𝐵 𝑉

Where, WB = mass of solute, MB = molar mass of solute, V = volume of solution.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐵 𝑛 𝑛𝐵
5. Molality (m) = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
or 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔)
× 1000

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔) 𝑊𝐵

= 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 ) ×𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔) =
𝑀𝐵 𝑊𝐴 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

6. Parts per million (ppm) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 x 106

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
7. Number of moles (n) = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

8. Henry’s law: p = KH x
Where, p = pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the solution,
x = mole fraction of the gas in solution,
KH = Henry’s law constant.
9. Raoult’s Law:
PT = 𝑝𝐴𝑜 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑝𝐵𝑜 𝑥𝐵 (for an ideal binary solution of two liquids)
Where, pT = total vapour pressure of the solution,
𝑝𝐴𝑜 = vapour pressure of pure component A,

3
 Chapter 2: Solutions
𝑝𝐵𝑜 = vapour pressure of pure component B,
𝑥𝐴 = mole fraction of component A,
𝑥𝐵 = mole fraction of component B.
10. Vapour pressure: Vapour pressure of a solution containing non-volatile solute, pA = 𝑝𝐴𝑜 𝑥𝐴
where, 𝑝𝐴𝑜 = vapour pressure of pure component A,
𝑥𝐴 = mole fraction of component A.
11. Lowering of vapour pressure:
∆𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐴𝑜 − 𝑝𝐴 OR
∆𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐴𝑜 𝑥𝐵
where, 𝑝𝐴𝑜 = vapour pressure of pure solvent A,
𝑝𝐴 = total vapour pressure of solution,
𝑥𝐵 = mole fraction of solute B.
12. Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
∆𝑝𝐴 𝑊𝐵 𝑀𝐴
𝑜
𝑝𝐴
= 𝑥𝐵 = 𝑀 . 𝑊𝐴
𝐵

where, WA and MA are mass and molecular mass of solvent A, respectively,

WB and MB are mass and molecular mass of solute B, respectively.
13. Elevation of boiling point (ΔTb):
𝑊𝐵
ΔTb = Kb . m = Kb 𝑀 . 𝑊𝐴
[when the masses and molar mass are expressed in kg and kg mol-1,
𝐵
respectively.]
Where, ΔTb = elevation of boiling point due to addition of non-volatile solute,
Kb = ebullioscopic constant,
m = molality of the solution.
𝐾𝑏 × 𝑊𝐵 ×1000
ΔTb = 𝑀𝐵 × 𝑊𝐴
[ when the masses and molar mass are expressed in g and g mol-1,
respectively.]
14. Depression of freezing point (ΔTf):
𝑊𝐵
ΔTf = Kf m = Kf 𝑀 𝑊𝐴
[when the masses and molar mass are expressed in kg and kg mol-1,
𝐵
respectively.]

4
 Chapter 2: Solutions
Where, ΔTf = depression of freezing point,
Kf = cryoscopic constant, m = molality of the solution.
𝐾𝑓 × 𝑊𝐵 ×1000
ΔTf = 𝑀𝐵 × 𝑊𝐴
[when the masses and molar mass are expressed in g and g mol-1,
respectively.]
15. Osmotic pressure (π):
𝑛𝐵
π = CRT = RT
𝑉
𝑊𝐵
π=𝑀 . 𝑉
RT
𝐵

𝑊𝐵
MB = 𝜋𝑉
RT

Where, MB = molar mass of solute, C = concentration of the solution,

R = gas constant, T = temperature.
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
16. van’t Hoff factor, i = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦

𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

=
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

17. Degree of dissociation (α):

𝑖−1
α=
𝑛′ −1

𝑀𝐵 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)− 𝑀𝐵 (𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑)
= 𝑀𝐵 (𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑)(𝑛′ −1)

Where, i = van’t Hoff factor, α = degree of dissociation,

MB (observed) = observed molecular mass of solute,
MB (theoretical) = theoretical molecular mass of solute.
18. Degree of association (α):
𝑖−1 𝑀𝐵 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙)− 𝑀𝐵 (𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑)
Α=1 = 1
−1 𝑀𝐵 (𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑)( −1)
𝑥 𝑥

Where, Where, i = van’t Hoff factor, α = degree of dissociation,

MB (observed) = observed molecular mass of solute,
MB (theoretical) = theoretical molecular mass of solute.
x = the number of simple molecules which combine to give associated molecule.

5
 Chapter 3: Electrochemistry
❖ Formulae 𝜅(𝑆𝑐𝑚−1 )×1000 (𝑐𝑚3 𝐿−1 )
˄e (S cm2 eq-1) =
𝐶𝑒𝑞 (𝑒𝑞 𝐿−1 )
1. Reduction potential = - Oxidation
Where, Caq = Concentration in gram
Potential
equivalent per litre (Normality)
2. 𝑬𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 (e.m.f) = Eo(cathode) – Eo(anode) 𝑙
11. Cell constant (G*): = 𝑎 = κ x R
= Eo(Right) – Eo(Left)
12. Kohlrausch’s Law: ˄𝑜𝑚 = 𝑣+ 𝜆𝑜+ + 𝑣− 𝜆𝑜−
3. Gibbs energy change and e.m.f of a cell:
𝑜
Where, ˄𝑜𝑚 = Molar conductivity of solution
ΔrG = - nFEcell and ΔrGo = - nF𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
at infinite dilution,
Where, ΔrG = Gibbs energy change
𝜆𝑜+ = Molar conductivity of cation at infinite
ΔrGo = Standard Gibbs energy dilution,
change
𝜆𝑜− = Molar conductivity of anion at infinite
4. Standard cell potential and equilibrium dilution,
constant:
𝑣+ and 𝑣− are no. of moles of cations and
𝑜 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 anions formed by dissociation of one mole
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑛𝐹 ln K = 2.303 log10 K
𝑛𝐹
of electrolyte.
𝑜 0.059
At 298 K, 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = log10 K ˄
𝑛 13. Degree of dissociation (α): α = ˄𝑚
𝑜
𝑚
Where, K = equilibrium constant
14. Dissociation constant (K):
5. Nernst equation:
𝐶 ˄2
K = ˄𝑜 (˄𝑜 −𝑚 ˄
𝑜 2.303𝑅𝑇 [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠] 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚)
Ecell = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 - 𝑛𝐹
log10 [𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
15. Faraday’s First law of electrolysis:
𝑜 0.059 [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠]
Ecell = 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 - 𝑛
log10 [𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
i. w = ZQ = ZIt
𝑙
6. Resistance (R): R = ρ where, w = amount of substance deposited
𝑎
on passing Q coulombs of electricity
1 1𝑎 𝜅𝑎
7. Conductance (G): G = 𝑅 =
𝜌𝑙
= 𝑙 Z = electrochemical equivalent,
1 𝑙
8. Conductivity (κ): κ = I = current in amperes, t = time in seconds
𝑅𝑎

9. Molar conductivity: ii. Charge on 1 mole of electron = 96500 C

𝜅(𝑆𝑚−1 ) 𝐺𝑙𝑉 = 1 Faraday
˄m (S m2 mol-1) = 𝐶(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚−3) = 𝑎
Charge on n mole of electrons = nF
𝜅(𝑆𝑐𝑚−1 )×1000 (𝑐𝑚3 𝐿−1 )
˄m (S cm2 mol-1) = 𝐶(𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐿−1 ) iii. Moles of electrons actually passed
10. Equivalent conductivity: 𝑄(𝐶)
= 96500(𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 −)

6
 Chapter 3: Electrochemistry
iv. Mole ratio
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

v. Moles of product formed

𝐼(𝐴)×𝑡(𝑠)
= 96500 (𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 −) x mole ratio

vi. Mass of product formed (W)

𝐼(𝐴)×𝑡(𝑠)
= 96500 (𝐶/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 −) x mole ratio

x molar mass of the product

16. Faraday’s Second Law of electrolysis:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑊𝐴 )
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑊𝐵 )

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 (𝐸 )
= 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 (𝐸𝐴 )
𝐵

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 ×𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐴

=
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 ×𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝐵

7
 Chapter 4: Chemical Kinetics
❖ Formulae
1. Average rate of reaction:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 ∆[𝑅] ∆[𝑃]
Average rate (rav) =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=− =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

Where, [R] = Concentration of reactants, [P] = concentration of products and t = time

𝑑[𝑅] 𝑑[𝑃]
2. Instantaneous rate of reaction: Instantaneous rate (rinst) = − =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

3. Rate law of reaction:

Rate = k[A]x [B]y [C]z
Where x, y and z are experimentally determined exponents of the concentration terms on
which the rate of reaction depends. k is the proportionality constant known as rate constant or
specific reaction rate.
[A], [B] and [C] are the concentrations of the reactants A, B and C, respectively.
4. Rate law, units of k, Integrated rate law and t1/2 for zero, first and second order reactions:

Units of ‘k’
Rate law for gaseous Integrated rate
Order Units of ‘k’ (SI) t1/2
(general) reactions law
(SI)
[𝐴]0 −[𝐴]𝑡 [𝐴]0
0 Rate = k mol L-1 s-1 atm s-1 k= 𝑡 2𝑘

2.303 [𝐴] 0.693

1 Rate = k [A]1 s-1 s-1 k= 𝑡
log10 [𝐴]0
𝑡 𝑘

1 1 1 1
2 Rate = k [A]2 mol-1 L s-1 atm-1 s-1 k = [[𝐴] − [𝐴] ] 𝑘[𝐴]0
𝑡 𝑡 0

5. Arrhenius equation:
𝐸
i. k = A ⅇ −𝐸𝑎∕𝑅𝑇 OR log10 k = log10 A − 2.303𝑎 𝑅𝑇

where, k = Rate constant, A = Frequency factor or pre-exponential factor or Arrhenius factor

Ea = Activation energy, R = Ideal gas constant = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
ii. For two different temperatures T1 and T2,
𝑘 𝐸 1 1 𝑘 𝐸𝑎 1 1
𝑎
log10 𝑘2 = 2.303 [ −𝑇]
𝑅 𝑇
OR ln 𝑘2 = 𝑅
[𝑇 − 𝑇 ]
1 1 2 1 1 2

where, k1 and k2 are rate constants at temperatures T1 and T2, respectively.

8