Energy 176 (2019) 596e603

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Closed loop elastic demand control by dynamic energy pricing in

smart grids
Asim Kaygusuz
Inonu University, Electrical-Electronics Engineering, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Broadcasting of dynamic energy price signals for consumer's demand response programs (agents) is an
Received 17 December 2018 effective and feasible way for demand side load management in future smart grids. Particularly, under
Received in revised form fluctuating generation conditions of distributed renewable sources, automated and online market
19 March 2019
management strategies based on dynamic pricing are necessary for persistently conservation of energy
Accepted 6 April 2019
balance and reducing the risk of instant energy shortages in the smart grids. This study presents a control
Available online 8 April 2019
theoretic energy market management approach based on closed loop elastic demand control scheme by
means of dynamic price signal broadcasting. A PI controller structure is used to regulate energy price
Keywords:
Demand response
signals for demand response agents of smart grid community. Thus, total energy demand can be gov-
Dynamic energy price erned to respond fluctuation of renewable energy generation. To illustrate an application, a renewable
Closed loop demand control energy integrated microgrid management scenario was studied numerically. A first order dynamic sys-
Renewable energy integration tem model with a piecewise linear price-demand response is used to represent overall demand elasticity
Smart grid of the microgrid and a renewable energy microgrid simulation scenario is developed in Matlab/Simulink
simulation environment. Simulation of 90 MWh peak demand market demonstrate that the closed loop
dynamic energy pricing can be useful to control the elastic demand for tracing fluctuating generation of
renewable energy sources. It is concluded that dynamic energy pricing can be useful medium for energy
demand control.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Integration of renewable energy sources is the main concern of
smart grid research studies due to the fact that sustainable and eco-
friendly development of society is possible only by increasing
renewable energy utilization instead of conventional generation
methods such as fossil based fuels and radioactive fuels. In order to
increase penetration of renewable sources, integration of the local
or domestic renewable energy generators to microgrids are
considered as distributed generation prospect of smart grids [1e6].
In this way, local renewable generation significantly decreases
energy dependence of the microgrids to central power plants and
thus increases energy efficiency by reducing transmission losses
[5e7]. Accordingly, this concept is also expected to support the
reduction of CO2 emission in microgids [7]. However, intermittent
and fluctuating character of renewable sources, such as uncertainty
in wind regimes and solar irradiance, is a major complication for
E-mail address: asim.kaygusuz@inonu.edu.tr.
the preservation of energy balance and still there is need for
focused research works to improve energy reliability of renewable
energy integrated grids. Depending on meteorological conditions,
energy capacity of solar and wind may change occasionally and this
brings to the problem of energy imbalance and short-term outage
risks. Demand side load management (DSLM) application of smart
grids is a strong candidate for the solution of this problem [8,9].
Because, flexible demand helps for adjustment of energy demand
according to generation fluctuations and thus serves for the pre-
vention of energy balance to some extent under generation un-
certainty [9]. This is why, control of elastic demand for the
conservation of energy balance is getting one of the main subjects
of smart grid research studies [8]. Recent works on microgrid
technologies have already announced the future potentials of
having an interactive coordination between energy suppliers and
consumers [10,11].
Automated demand side load management applications makes
the total demand of markets more deterministic and predictable for
future [12e14]. Because, automated response and deterministic
programs reduce uncertainly in demand response. For instance,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.036
0360-5442/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603
optimal load control by communicating consumer system can
operate for balancing load with generation and restoring the utility
frequency of AC power systems even if consumer uses very
simplified agent programs to manage their load response programs
[15]. For liberal energy markets, a possible way of controlling these
kind of distributed agents is to broadcast dynamic energy price
signal that is periodically updated by intelligent algorithms or
controllers [12,13]. Agent based demand response applications are
expected to work on smart meters of consumers, and these appli-
cations will be capable of receiving and responding dynamic price
signals and perform predefined domestic load management oper-
ations in future smart grids.
There is an increasing trend in works suggesting closed loop
generation, demand control schemes and electricity market in a
renewable energy system [9,11,13e18,25]. Optimal control strate-
gies have been discussed for diverse market parameters [26e30].
The current study addresses the problem of closed loop elastic
demand control for future smart grids. We carried out a theoretical
discussion on the opportunities of wide-area, automated closed
loop demand response control by dynamic price broadcasting to
consumer's demand response programs. For the calculation of
appropriate dynamic energy price to reduce energy balance error,
we employed proportional integrator (PI) controller in closed loop
demand control simulations. The operation of system can be
summarized briefly as: Depending on closed loop feedback error,
which is called as balance error (mismatch between generation and
demand) in our case, PI controller generates the price signal driving
the balance error towards zero in time. The control theory ensures
that if the feedback control system is stable and steady state error of
system is zero, the closed loop feedback error approximates to zero.
Therefore, closed loop elastic demand control system reaches en-
ergy balance by persistently updating energy price. In this
approach, energy prices, transmitted to consumer's demand
response programs (agents), are used for the management of do-
mestic loads according to consumer preferences.
For simulation study, a Matlab/Simulink simulation model was
developed. The simulation model is composed of a PI controller and
a demand response model under the unity negative feedback. For
the demand response modeling in simulation, a price-demand
response model in the form of first-order variable gain dynamic
system was developed. As an illustrative simulation example, a
renewable energy integrated microgrid management scenario is
studied and the proposed closed loop elastic demand control
scheme is implemented according to this microgrid management
scenario. The simulation results show that, in the case of generation
fluctuations, closed loop elastic demand control can be applied to
manage energy balance automatically in smart grids.
2. Smart meters, price signals and price-demand response for
DSLM
Rapid demand response in buildings is an important factor to
preserve energy balance under fluctuating energy generation
conditions. It is necessary to fulfill real time operations when a
change in generation takes place in the grid [19]. Therefore, auto-
mation of domestic load control systems is a key point for
improvement of the controllability and response time of smart grid
applications. Fig. 1 depicts a conceptual illustration of smart power
systems composed of a dynamic price server, which performs
closed loop elastic demand control operations by using dynamic
electricity pricing, and the domestic load management system of
buildings, which employ agent based DSLM programs. The agent-
based programs performing direct load control scheme can be
easily implemented in smart meters, and it can automatically
adjust the electricity demand of buildings by applying load shifting
597
or load shedding techniques [13,20] according to instant price
signal of dynamic price servers. Dynamic price servers can perform
the closed loop elastic demand control according to total genera-
tion data (S), coming from local renewable energy generators, and
total demand data (D), collected from smart meters of residences.
For AC grids, utility frequency deviations were measured for the
estimation of power imbalance state of grids [15]. Because, it can
give more accurate and faster results for the estimation of imbal-
ance states compared to the methods based on data retrieving from
smart meters.
A block diagram of closed loop elastic demand control system
was shown in Fig. 2. The price signal (p) is provided by PI controller.
Here, the elastic demand response of consumers was characterized
by the first-order dynamic system model with a piece-wise linear
price-elastic demand function DðpÞ. The elastic demand response
model can expressed by considering the time constant (t) of load
response and the price-demand function as follows:
dDo ðtÞ
t þ Do ðtÞ ¼ DðpÞ (1)
dt
where, Do ðtÞ is the instant demand of consumers and the price-
demand function DðpÞ stands for price-demand response of mar-
ket. This equation infers that change of instant demand in time take
place depending on the price-demand function.
The overall system delay is introduced by the price signal
broadcast delay (Lp ) [11,21]. This delay represents the time interval
ranging from broadcast delay of price signal to the completion of
response of the domestic load management programs. An impor-
tant point should be noticed that the automation of domestic load
management in future smart grid makes the price-demand
response of markets more deterministic and predictable. Because,
agent programs reduce uncertainty in demand response. In such
energy markets, overall demand response can approximate to
piece-wise linear functions. Fig. 3 shows the general characteristic
and important parameters of the piece-wise linear function that is
used for characterization of automated price-demand response
systems. A proper price-demand characteristic complies with the
case that as price increases, the total demand of system decreases.
This model is based on the following properties:
(i) Total demand of consumers is limited due to the finite
numbers of consumers in energy market. The model assumes
that overall electricity demand should reach a maximum
level (DH ) at a possible low price point (PL ). The point (PL ;DH )
represents a saturation point where demand elasticity
deteriorates.
(ii) Total demand of consumers never goes to zero due to the
critical loads and system losses. It reaches a minimum de-
mand level (DL ) at a possible high energy price point (PH ).
The point (PH ; DL ) represents also another saturation point
where demand elasticity deteriorates.
(iii) Between low energy price point (PL ) and high energy price
point (PH ), there is elastic demand region depending on
energy price. In this region, the change of overall demand
with respect to price approximates to a deterministic curve
depending on the automation of demand side load man-
agement of smart grids. In this region, the demand elasticity
rate of the market can be defined as,
DL
Te ¼ (2)
DH
Here, demand elasticity rate Te takes values in the range of ½0; 1.
For the case of Te ¼ 1, it means there is not any elasticity in overall
consumer demand. The demand is constant for any price in this
598 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603

Fig. 1. An schematic diagram of domestic load management concept based on dynamic electricity price broadcasting [11,21] for smart house [20] and dynamic price server
performing closed loop elastic demand control.

deviation around an expected value and these random demand

Fig. 2. Block diagram of closed loop elastic demand control system for numerical
simulation.
deviations indicate the uncertainty in demand response of con-
sumers. However, increase of automated demand side load man-
agement application in the grid can reduce the demand uncertainty
and thus makes the demand response more predictable. In order to
make the simulation study more realistic, an additive demand
uncertainty (nd ) was added to output of overall demand response
model as illustrated in Fig. 2. The additive demand uncertainty
signal was generated by a random number generator with a zero
mean and the sd demand variance.

3. Numerical study

3.1. Step generation response of closed loop elastic demand control

system

Fig. 4 shows Matlab/simulink simulation environment, which

was developed to implement the closed loop elastic demand con-
trol simulation in Fig. 2. Increase of demand elasticity by using
smart grid technologies strengthens the dependence of demand
response to dynamic energy prices in the energy markets. In the
simulation study, a PI controller is used to adjust local market
prices. PI controller is a simple and widely used practical controller
structures in control engineering, preferably employed in the
control of noisy industrial process. This controller has two design
Fig. 3. General characteristics of price-demand response model and important pa-
coefficients, which are configured to tune controller response:
rameters and points. proportional gain (kp ) and integrator gain (ki ).
Price response of the demand control system is generated by
controller output in Fig. 4. Fig. 5(a) and (b) show the demand and
region, that is, the overall demand of market is very firm or strict. price responses of the system obtained in the cases of step gener-
For the case Te ¼ 0, it means that the demand is fully elastic in this ation rise and fall for various configuration of controller co-
price range. In practice, the fully elastic demand is not applicable efficients. Step rise and step fall in generation are used to represent
because there are critical loads that must be always supplied. the fastest change of generation that refers the worse case in
By considering to Figure (3), piece-wise linear price-demand generation fluctuation, and the results were used for tuning PI
function can be expressed as, controller to find out a desired demand and price responses.
8 Although, demand responses show slight differences in Fig. 5(a),
>
> DH p < pL price responses of PI controllers present significant diversity as
>
>
< ðD  D Þ shown in Fig. 5(b).
H L
DðpÞ ¼ ðp  pL Þ þ DH pL  p  pH (3) To obtain a desired demand and price response, PI controller
>
> ðpL  pH Þ
>
> coefficients are configured. Fig. 5 also reveal that the gain ki is
:
DL p > pH effective in regulation of the balance state prices (after the settling
of demand), and the gain kp mainly takes effect on the magnitude of
With Laplace transform of equation (1), the transfer function of
price signal in unbalanced states (before the settling of demand).
the price-demand response can be expressed as
The gain ki deals with steady state error and provides settling of
elastic demand to stationary part of generation profile. Due to in-
1
Do ðsÞ ¼ DðpÞ (4) verse proportional relation between price and demand, negative kp
tsþ1 and ki gains should be used to manage energy balance. We tuned PI
equation (4) models the time varying (price-varying) first-order controller as kp ¼ 1 and ki ¼ 2 in our market simulation sce-
dynamics of the overall demand response of an electricity market nario so that this configuration provide enough fast response to
for smart grid. Demand data of real energy markets exhibits slight reach energy balance, yet it's price variability is still low. This
 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603 599

Fig. 4. Matlab/simulink model for closed loop elastic demand control simulation.

Fig. 5. (a) Demand response and (b) price responses from closed loop elastic demand control simulation for various PI coefficients.

behavior is very useful to obtain demand response instantly
without having a high price volatility when generation fluctuations
takes place.
Fig. 6 shows demand and price responses of control system
(kp ¼  1; ki ¼  2) for a generation alteration in triangular
waveform. As seen in the figure, the control system can adapt
elastic demand to generation fluctuations by adjusting energy price
signal in accordance. Since the demand rises from zero at the
beginning of simulation, it gives an overshoot and then achieves
convergence to the alternating generation.
3.2. Smart microgrids simulation scenario with local renewable
generation
This section presents an illustrative simulation example for the
closed loop elastic demand control for a renewable energy

Fig. 6. (a) Demand response and (b) price responses from the closed loop elastic demand control simulation for kp ¼ 1 and ki ¼ 2 under triangular waveform generation.
600 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603

integrated smart microgrid scenario. The local generation and local

elastic demand control scheme for smart grid are depicted in Fig. 7.
Local price server calculates the local energy price and broadcasts it
to domestic load management systems of residences. Thus, the
system regulates local elastic demand (Do ) with respect to fluctu-
ations in renewable energy generation (Sr ).
In this grid, energy balance condition can be written as,

Do ¼ Sr þ St (5)
It is assumed that local demands (Do ) is elastic demand, of
which the price-demand response approximates to the piece-wise
linear price-demand function introducing upper and lower bounds
(DH ;DL ) for the grid demand as defined in Fig. 3. By considering this
demand elasticity model, transmission and renewable energy
infrastructure can be planed as follow:
(i) In order to avoid energy shortages, minimum demand of
microgrid, which depends on critical loads, should be supplied
even in the inefficient hours of renewable generation
(minfDo g  Sr þ St ).
(ii) In order avoid excessive renewable generation, total energy
generation should not exceed maximum demand of microgrid (Sr þ
St  maxfDo g). Because, this case lead to increase installation and
maintenance costs of renewable generation system.
Considering these two constraints, the following condition Fig. 8. Hourly energy price and total demand profiles used in the simulation [22].
should be satisfied for efficient and reliable renewable energy
utilization,
simulation, the piece-wise linear price-demand response was ob-
minfDo g  Sr þ St  maxfDo g (6) tained from 24-h market price and demand data shown in Fig. 8.
These hourly dynamic price and demand profiles were taken from
By considering piece-wise linear price-demand function in the study of Niknam et al. [22] by scaling them to MWh levels. To
Fig. 3, upper and lower bounds of demand can be found as extract piece-wise linear price-demand response function from
minfDo g ¼ DL and maxfDo g ¼ DH . For the worst case, even if the these market profiles in Fig. 8, the hourly price and demand values
zero renewable generation (Sr ¼ 0), the critical loads of grid must were combined with respect to the time sampling ðpi ; Di Þ and a
be supplied and work steadily. So, the continuous energy coming time-independent price-demand data set was formed as fðpi ;
from transmission grid should be planned at least St ¼ DL to ensure Di Þ : i ¼ 1; 2; 3::24g. In this set, data points, which is not appropriate
energy balance in the worst case. Then, considering the both upper for a proper price-demand relation, are filtered out by excluding the
bound of generation Sr þ St  DH for energy efficiency and the points that is not satisfying the proper price-demand response
worst case condition St  DL for grid reliability, the renewable condition defined as,
generation capacity can be planned as,

Sr ¼ D H  D L (7)   
dDðtÞ dpðtÞ
This equation suggests that the capacity of fluctuating energy <0 (8)
dt dt
sources (renewable energy generation) can be planed to match the
demand elasticity range of the smart grids ðDH  DL Þ in order to Then, the filtered data set was used to estimate piece-wise
maintain energy balance of microgrids persistently. linear price-demand response function of the market [23] and
For the demand elasticity modeling of the smart grid in the following function as obtained,

Fig. 7. Closed loop elastic demand control simulation scenario.

 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603 601

8
< 90 p < 0:35
DðpÞ ¼ 4:93p þ 91:72 0:35  p  4 (9)
:
72 p>4

The proper price-demand response condition enforces the

relation that as the price increase, the energy demand decreases
and the demand elasticity of the grid can be estimated by the data
points complying with this condition. Fig. 9 shows piece-wise
linear price-demand response function (Equation (9)) that is used
in the simulation scenario.
For the first order dynamic modeling of demand response, the
time constant (t) was taken 1 h, and the following transfer function
was used for the dynamic price-demand response in numerical
simulations.
1 In order to limit price variability and improve price stability, a price
Do ðsÞ ¼ DðpÞ
sþ1
According to equation (9), minimum and maximum demands
are DL ¼ 72 MWh and DH ¼ 90 MWh. For the worse case, energy
import from transmission grid can be planned as St ¼ 72 MWh
according to energy reliability condition St  DL . In this case, the
renewable generation capacity should be planned at least Sr ¼ 90 
72 ¼ 18 MWh. Fluctuating generation profiles for renewable en-
ergy system was taken from renewable generation measurement
data reported by Gillie. et al. [24]. This data was scaled for 18 MWh
peak generation. Fig. 10 shows overall generation ðSr þ St Þ profile
that was used in simulation.
Fig. 11 shows simulation results obtained for overall general
profiles of two days (48 h) by repeating the first day. After given an
overshoot at initiation of simulation, the demand response is
converged to fluctuating generation profile at about 5.5 h and it
traced the generation effectively until end of simulation by
adjusting electricity price suitably. The overshoot in the first 5 h
results from sharply rising of demand from zero initial value of the
demand at the beginning of simulation. Simulation results shows
that the closed loop elastic demand control system can trace the
fluctuating renewable generation by dynamic price control. How-
ever, the real world condition also includes uncertainty and system
delays and the robustness of method under demand uncertainty
and system delays is important concern for practical implementa-
tion of control structures.
In order to show effectiveness of the method in the cases of
demand uncertainty and system delays, we used price signal
broadcast delay with Lp ¼ 0:01 hours (36 s) and demand uncer-
tainly with additive noise (zero mean and variance of 1 MWh) and
carried out the simulation, again. Results are shown in Fig. 12. The
Fig. 9. Hourly energy price and total demand profiles used in simulation.
Fig. 10. Overall generation ðSr þ St Þ profile used in simulation.
elastic demand can trace the generation. However, additive noise
and price signal broadcast delay increase dynamic price volatility.
(10)
limiter function next to PI controller is used. The price limiter
function can be expressed as,
8
< 0:1 p < 0:1
p¼ p 0:1  p  12 (11)
:
12 p > 12
The simulation results indicate that closed loop elastic demand
control system including PI controller and price limiter function can
be a candidate for tracing fluctuating renewable generation in
future smart grid.
4. Conclusions
As summary, automated DSLM application in smart grids makes
demand elasticity of grids more predictable and deterministic. This
gives us opportunity of controlling elastic demand by means of
dynamic price signals and facilitates the integration of intermittent
renewable energy sources to the energy systems. This study
numerically demonstrated that closed loop elastic demand control
system employing dynamic price broadcasting can be effective
solution for the domestic load management in future smart grids.
This method presents advantages of improving energy price
response of management system only by tuning PI controller.
To show an application of the proposed method, a renewable
energy integrated microgrid management scenario was also stud-
ied in simulations. The linear price-demand response model was
obtained from energy market price and demand profiles. By
considering this model, a discussion on the planning of renewable
energy microgrids was presented for energy efficiency and reli-
ability. The conditions for determining energy import capacity and
renewable energy generation capacity were derived for planning
microgrid scenario. This scenario is tested via Matlab/Simulink
simulations. To make simulations more realistic, system delays and
demand uncertainty models were included in the simulation
model. The numerical results showed that the closed loop elastic
demand control method can exhibit satisfactory performance of
tracing generation fluctuations up to a degree of price broadcast
delays and demand uncertainties. We also observed that the
limiting price variability between a predefined minimum and
maximum price range via a price limiter function can be useful to
improve stability and robustness of the control system against
broadcast delays and demand uncertainties.
Our findings show that dynamic energy pricing can be one of
controllable parameter for energy demand in renewable energy
market management. However, multi-parameter management can
be more effective and reliable for balancing energy market. Another
future work can address this topic.
602 A. Kaygusuz / Energy 176 (2019) 596e603
Fig. 11. (a) Demand response and (b) price responses of closed loop elastic demand control simulation (kp ¼ 1 and ki ¼  2) in the renewable energy integrated microgrid
scenario.
Fig. 12. (a) Demand response and (b) price responses of closed loop elastic demand control simulation (kp ¼ 1 and ki ¼  2) under price signal broadcast delay (Lp ¼ 0:01 Hours)
demand uncertainly with additive noise (random number with zero mean and variance of 1 MWh).
A future study should be carried out for experimental validation
of closed loop elastic demand control and dealing with imple-
mentation problems. For this propose, an experimental imple-
mentation of the renewable energy integrated microgrid scenario
significantly contributes to the development works of smart grid
applications by providing experimental data.
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