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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER WITH

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 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
WITH VARIABLE OUTPUT.
Osaretin C.A.1 and Edeko F.O.2
1,2,
Department of Electrical/Electronic Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Benin, Benin City. Nigeria.
charles.osaretin@uniben.edu1 , frededeko@yahoo.co.uk2

ABSTRACT drastically due to overcharging and deep

The aim of this project is to design and construct
a solar charge controller, using mostly discrete
components. The charge controller varies its
output to a step of 12V; for a battery of 200Ah
rating. The design consists of four stages which
include current booster, battery level indicator,
battery charge controller and power supply unit.
The designed system is very functional, durable,
economical, and realisable using locally sourced
and affordable components. This work is a
prototype of a commercial solar charge
controller with protection systems that will
prevent damages to the battery associated with
unregulated charging and discharging
mechanisms.
Keywords: indicator, booster, controller,
protection, discrete.
1.0INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic solar systems can be divided into
two basic categories – grid connected and off-
grid (also called stand alone or isolated) solar
systems. The grid connected systems feed the
electricity produced by solar panels to the grid
using an inverter. When the electricity is needed
during night or periods with little sunlight, the
energy is taken back from the grid. In isolated
systems, the excess electricity is usually stored
in batteries during the day and batteries are used
to power the appliances in times when
photovoltaic panels do not produce enough
energy. Solar regulators (also known as charge
controllers) play an important role in isolated
solar systems [Korenčiak et al, 2011]. Their goal
is to ensure the batteries are working optimally,
mainly to prevent overcharging (by
disconnecting solar panels, when batteries are
full) and to prevent too deep discharge (by
disconnecting the load when necessary)
[Cook,1998]. Battery lifetime reduces
40
discharging. Battery is a very expensive
component of a Solar Home System; hence it is
necessary to protect batteries from being over
charged or deeply discharged. In this regard, a
charge controller plays a vital role to protect the
battery [Ashiquzzaman et al, 2011].
One of the best ways to get power to remote,
off-grid locations in Nigeria, is through Solar
Home System (SHS). The system consists of
photovoltaic panel, battery, and a solar charge
controller. Solar energy is stored into batteries.
A solar charge controller regulates the voltage
and current that is coming from the solar panels
and going to the battery [Neha, 2013]. The
charge controller is a switching device that
controls the charging and discharging of the
battery. This will protect the batteries from
damage and hence prolong the lifespan of the
battery [Kondracki et al,
2014].
Figure 1: Block Diagram of a typical non-grid
tied Photovoltaic (PV) System.
Photovoltaic System consists of a PV / Solar
Panel (module), charge controller, batteries and
power inverter. The PV / Solar Panel (module)
or array converts the sunlight energy into DC
electrical energy. The charge controller
conditions the DC electrical voltage and current
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
produced by the PV / Solar Panel (Module) or
array to charge a battery. The battery stores the
DC electrical energy so that it can be used when
there is no solar energy available (night time,
cloudy days etc.). DC loads can be powered
directly from the PV / Solar Panel (Module) /
Battery. The inverter converts the DC power
produced by the PV / Solar Panel (Module) /
stored in the battery into AC power to enable
powering of AC loads. [Samlex, 2014]
2.0 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
A charge controller or alternatively a charge
regulator is basically a voltage and/or current
regulator, to keep batteries from overcharging. It
regulates the voltage and current coming from
the solar panels and going to the battery. Most
“12 volt” panels produce about 16 to 20 volts, so
if there is no regulation, the batteries will be
damaged from overcharging [James and Dunlop,
2012].
The obvious question then comes up – “why
aren’t panels just made to put out 12 volts?” The
reason is that if you do that, the panels will
provide power only when cool, under perfect
conditions and full sun. This is not something
you can count on in most places. The panels
need to provide some extra voltage so that when
the sunlight is low in the sky, or you have heavy
haze, cloud cover, or high temperatures, you still
get some output from the panel, so the panel has
to put out at least 12.7 volts under worst case
conditions.
The primary function of a charge controller is to
maintain the battery at highest possible state of
charge. The charge controller protects the
battery from overcharge and disconnects the
load to prevent deep discharge. Ideally, charge
controller directly controls the state of the
battery. The controller checks the state of charge
on the battery between pulses and adjusts itself
each time. This technique allows the current to
be effectively “tapered” and the result is
equivalent to “constant voltage” charging
[Samlex, 2014]. Without the charge control, the
current from the PV module will flow into a
battery proportional to the irradiance, whether
the battery needs to be charging or not. If the
battery is fully charged, unregulated charging
will cause the battery voltage to reach
41
exceedingly high levels, causing severe gassing,
electrolyte loss, internal heating and accelerated
grid corrosion. Therefore, charge controller
maintains the health and extends the lifetime of
the battery.
2.1 Types of Solar Charge Controllers
The two types of charge controllers most
commonly used in today’s solar power systems
are pulse width modulation (PWM) and
maximum power point tracking (MPPT). Both
adjust charging rates depending on the battery’s
maximum capacity as well as monitor the
battery temperature to prevent overheating
[Noor and Ayuni, 2009].
2.1.1 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Charge Controller
Pulse width modulation (PWM) charge
controller is the most effective means to achieve
constant voltage battery charging by adjusting
the duty ratio of the switches (MOSFET).
In PWM charge controller, the current from the
solar panel tapers according to the battery’s
condition and recharging needs. When a battery
voltage reaches the regulation set point, the
PWM algorithm slowly reduces the charging
current to avoid heating and gassing of the
battery; yet charging continues to return the
maximum amount of energy to the battery in the
shortest time. The voltage of the array will be
pulled down to near that of the battery.
PWM system has the following advantages:
 Higher charging efficiency
 Longer battery life
 Reduced battery over heating
 Minimizes stress on the battery
 Ability to de-sulfate a battery
A PWM controller is not a DC to DC
transformer. The PWM controller is a switch
which connects the solar panel to the battery.
When the switch is closed, the panel and the
battery will be at nearly the same voltage.
Assuming a discharged battery, the initial charge
voltage will be around 13V, and assuming a
voltage loss of 0.5V over the cabling plus
controller, the panel will be at =13.5V. The
voltage will slowly increase with increasing
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
state of charge of the battery. When absorption
voltage is reached, the PWM controller will start
to disconnect and reconnect the panel to prevent
overcharge (hence the name; pulse width
modulated charge controller)
[Vitronenergy, 2014].
2.1.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking
(MPPT) Charge Controller
Nowadays, the most advanced solar charge
controller available is the Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT). It is more sophisticated
and more expensive. It has several advantages
over the PWM charge controller. It is 30 to 40%
more efficient at low temperature. The MPPT is
based around a synchronous buck converter
circuit. It steps the higher solar panel voltage
down to the charging voltage of the battery. It
will adjust its input voltage to harvest the
maximum power from the solar panel and then
transform this power to supply the varying
voltage requirement of the battery plus load. It is
generally accepted that MPPT will outperform
PWM in a cold temperature climate, while both
controllers will show approximately the same
performance in a subtropical to tropical climate.
The MPPT charge controller is a DC to DC
transformer that can transform power from a
higher voltage to power at a lower voltage
[vitronenergy, 2014]. The amount of power does
not change, therefore, if the output voltage is
lower than the input voltage, the output current
will be higher than the input current, so that the
product P=VI remains constant. Hence, in order
to get the maximum out of a solar panel, a
charge controller should be able to choose the
optimum current-voltage point on the current-
voltage curve: the Maximum Power Point. An
MPPT does exactly that. The input voltage of a
PWM controller is, in principle, equal to the
voltage of the battery connected to its output.
The solar panel, therefore, is not used at its
Maximum Power Point, in most cases.
2.2 Comparison Between MPPT and PWM
Charge Controller
If maximizing charging capacity is the only
factor considered when specifying a charge
controller, everyone would use a MPPT
controller, but two technologies are different,
each with its own advantages. The decision
42
depends on site conditions, system components,
size of array, load and cost of a particular solar
panel system. They are compared as follows.
 Temperature conditions
An MPPT controller is better suited for colder
conditions. The MPPT controller is able to
capture the excess module voltage to charge the
batteries. It produces up to 20-25% more
charging than a PWM controller. The PWM
type is unable to capture excess voltage because
the pulse width modulation technology charges
at the same voltage as the battery. But when
solar panels are deployed in warm or hot
climates, there is no excess voltage to be
transferred making the MPPT unnecessary and
negating its advantage over a PWM.
 Array Voltages
PV array and battery voltages should match for
PWM but PV array voltage can be higher than
battery voltage for MPPT.
 Battery Voltage
PWM operates at battery voltage, so it performs
well in warm temperature and when battery is
almost full while MPPT operates above the
battery voltage, so it can provide “boost” in cold
temperatures and when the battery is low.
 System Size
PWM is typically recommended for use in
smaller systems where MPPT benefits are
minimal, while MPPT is recommended for a
150W-200W or higher sized systems to take
advantage of its benefits.
 Cost
MPPT controllers are typically more expensive
than PWM controllers but are more efficient
under certain condition, so they can produce
more power with the same number of solar
modules than a PWM control.
2.3 Charge Cycle of a Charge Controller
Most quality charge controller units have what is
known as a 3-stage charge cycle as follows:
i. Bulk: In this stage, the battery will accept
all the current provided by the
solar array. The value of this current will be
equal to the Short Circuit Current Isc of
the solar array [Samlex, 2014]. During the bulk
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually
rises to the bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6volts)
while the batteries draw maximum current.
When bulk voltage level is reached, the
absorption stage begins.
ii. Absorption: During this phase, the voltage
is held constant (maintained at bulk voltage
level) for a specified time (usually an hour)
while the current gradually tapers off as the
batteries charge up. This is to avoid over-heating
and over-gassing the battery. The current will
taper off to safe levels as the battery becomes
more fully charged. [Samlex,2014]
iii. Float: When a battery becomes fully
charged, dropping down to the float stage will
provide a very low rate of maintenance charging
while reducing the heating and gassing of a fully
charged battery. When the battery is fully
recharged, there can be no more chemical
reactions and all the charging current is turned
into heat and gassing. The purpose of float is to
protect the battery from long-term overcharge
[Samlex, 2014]. After the absorption time phase,
the voltage is lowered to float level. This is
typically (usually 13.4 to 13.7volts) for a 12V
battery and the batteries draw a small
maintenance current until the next cycle.
The relationship between the current and the
voltage during the 3-phases of the charge cycle
is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: A graph showing the relationship
between the current and voltage during the 3
phases of the charge cycle. [Sunpower, 2013]
43
2.4 Charge Controller Designs
There are two basic methods for controlling or
regulating the charging of a battery; they are
shunt and series regulation [Ishtiak et al, 2013].
While both of these methods are effectively
used, each method may incorporate a number of
variations that alter their basic performance and
applicability.
When the MOSFET switch is connected in
series with the PV Array and the battery,
the Controller is called Series Type. When it is
connected in parallel across the PV Array
/ the Battery, it is called Shunt Type. In Series
Type, the MOSFET Switch is kept open
when the battery is fully charged. The PV Array
stops supplying current during this
period. In the Shunt Type, when the battery is
fully charged, the MOSFET switch is
kept closed to shunt (divert) the full short circuit
current of the PV Array away from
the battery. [Samlex, 2014]
2.4.1 Series Controller Design
A series charge controller disables further
current flow into batteries when they are full.
Figure 3: Solar Home System with a series
charge controller [Ishtiak et al, 2013]
This type of controller in Figure. 3 works in
series with the array and the battery [Marufa,
2012]. There are several variations to the series
type controller, all of which use some type of
control or regulation element in series. Relay or
solid-state switch either opens the circuit
between the array and the battery to
discontinuing charging, or limits the current in a
series-linear manner to hold the voltage of the
battery at a high value.
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
2.4.2 Shunt Controller Design
A shunt charge controller diverts excess
electricity to an auxiliary or "shunt" load, such
as an electric water heater, when batteries are
full.
Figure 4: Solar Home System with a shunt
charge controller [Ishtiak et al, 2013]
The shunt controller regulates the charging of a
battery from the PV array internal to the charge
controller. All shunt controllers must have a
blocking diode in series between the battery and
the shunt element to prevent the battery from
short-circuiting when the array is regulating
[Marufa, 2012]. The regulation element in shunt
controllers is typically a power transistor or
MOSFET, depending on the specific design.
Advantages of Series Type of Charge
Controller
A series Type of Charge Controller has the
following advantages over a Shunt Type
i. Lesser switching noise: during charging.
ii. Less susceptible to high voltage transient
disturbances.
iii. The voltage applied across the Series
MOSFET switch is lesser and so
experiences lesser stress
and is, therefore, more reliable.
iv. A Shunt Type requires a schottky diode in
series with the battery to prevent short
circuiting of the battery during the time the
MOSFET switch shunts the PV Array. In a
Series Type, this schottky diode is not
required and hence lower voltage drop, less
heating and consequent lower losses.
Reverse leakage through the schottky is
also eliminated. [Samlex, 2014]
2.5 Overcharge Protection
In a 12V battery system, the voltage varies
between 10.5 to 14.4volts, (depending on the
44
actual state of charge of the battery, charge
current, discharge current, type and age of the
battery).
For a normal full loaded battery with no
charging or discharging current, the battery
voltage is about 12.4volts to 12.7volts. When
charging current is flowing, the voltage jumps to
a higher level e.g. 13.7V (depending on the
current), and when loads are switched on, the
voltage drops down to a lower level e.g. 12volts
or 11.8volts (also depending on the current).
2.6 Deep Discharge Protection
When a battery is deeply discharged, the
reaction in the battery occurs close to the grids
and weakens the bond between the active
materials and the grids. When we deep discharge
a battery repeatedly, loss of capacity and
lifespan eventually occurs. To protect the battery
form deep discharge, most charge controllers
include an optional feature to disconnect the
system loads once the battery reaches a low
voltage or low state of charge condition. If the
voltage of the system falls below 11.5volts for a
minimum period of 20sec, then the charge
controller will be switched off for a minimum
30 seconds. The delay of 30 seconds is
integrated to protect the system against a
swinging situation [Marufa, 2012].
2.7 Component Selection for Controller
Design
In light of the foregoing appraisal of design
styles, the following components will form an
integral part of the design and hence, their
importance and working principles are
discussed. A list of necessary components
required to carry out the design on this project
are as follows
(i) Diodes
These are simply blocking diodes which ensure
that the current flows only one way, so that the
battery doesn’t discharge when the output from
the solar panel is low.
(ii) Zener Diodes
This part of the circuit ensures that once the
charging cut off voltage is reached by the
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
battery, the charging stops. The zener diode is
rated at 6.8V as breakdown voltage. 3.0 DESIGN OF SOLAR CHARGE
CONTROLLER
(iii) MOSFET
Based on the block diagram of Figure. 5, the
The metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect design is as follows:
transistor is used for amplification or switching
electronic signals. It ensures cut off of the load
in low battery or overload conditions.
(iv) Transistor
It is used to bypass the solar energy to a dummy
load while the battery gets fully charged. Once
the battery is fully charged, it draws all the
current thus protecting the battery.
(v) Indicators
Figure 5: The block diagram of a solar
Indicators are provided by a green LED for fully controller.
charged battery, while a set of red LEDs are
3.1 Current Booster
used to indicate under charged, overcharged and
deep discharge conditions. The current booster allows the maximum value
of current from the solar panel to flow through
Voltage Regulators to battery. The main component of the current
(vi) LM317 booster is the LM317, transistor and blocking
diodes.
It is a 3-terminal adjustable voltage regulator
which can supply an output voltage adjustable
from 1.2V to 37V. It can supply more than 1.5A
of load current to a load. We can modify the
voltage by changing the value of the resistor
connected to a pin of the voltage regulator.
These resistors determine the voltage that the
voltage regulator adjusts to and outputs.

(vii) LM7812
It is a fixed linear voltage regulator integrated
circuit. It is commonly used in electronic
circuits requiring a regulated power supply due
to their ease of use and low cost. They produce a
voltage that is positive relative to a common
ground. This IC has three terminals.
Other components used to realize these circuits
are op-amp, filter capacitor and relay.
Figure 6: The current booster
The LM317 keeps the voltage constant and can
handle a maximum of 1A; so if the panel
produces a current of less than 1A, the transistor
does not conduct and the current flows through
the LM317 to charge the battery.
If current is above 1A, the transistor conducts
because there is a voltage drop across that is
large enough to be the base voltage of the
transistor to be turned on.
To ensure that the transistor does not conduct
when the current is still less than or equal to
1amp, we calculate the value of .

45
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
The drop should be less than 0.7V for the that it is fully charged and it needs to stop
transistor not to conduct so; hence charging and it is cut off with the help of the
charge controller circuit. The diode near is
reversed biased and doesn’t conduct.
V=I (1) From the voltage divider rule; to get ,
equation (3)
V=0.7V; I=1A, the value of is 0.7Ω
At above 1amps, the voltage drops exceeds 0.7V ( )
and the transistor conducts and the excess
current flows through to the battery via the pass
transistor.
= =12V=voltage from the battery
To get the resistor value , we use voltage
divider rule; Assuming =10V (reference voltage) i.e. at
12V, the inverting terminal should be 10V
( )
( )
=1.25V (LM317 rating), (which is
required) = 14.2V, Assume =220Ω ∴ Let =10kΩ, hence =2kΩ
=2288Ω (as a practical value)
The values of and can also be calculated
Diode and are blocking diodes. using equation (4)
The diodes used here should be able to
withstand a fault current of more than 10A. The ( )
diode 6A1D is used in this circuit with forward
current =15A and peak inverse voltage and are current limiting resistors
PIV=100V.
3.2 Battery Level Indicator
Where = =12v, =2v, =20mA,
This circuit monitors the level of charge of
the battery. The circuit diagram is shown in = = =500Ω
Figureure 7;
3.3 Battery Charge Controller
The circuit diagram as shown in Figure.8

Figure7: Battery level indicator

The circuit used an Op amp, LM358 as
comparator. If the voltage that appears across
the inverting terminal is higher than the
reference voltage, the output of the comparator Figure 8: Battery charge controller
is low, which will be forward biased with the
diode close to , making it come on, indicating The circuit makes use of a comparator IC
(LM358) and a relay with a contact of 30A.
46
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
When the IC is positively saturated, it means the 3.4 POWER SUPPLY UNIT
battery needs to charge; the transistor conducts,
collector current flows, the relay is energized This circuit acts as a stable power supply to the
and the contact closes, current then flows to the battery level indicator. The reason why this
battery to charge it. circuit is embedded in the charge controller is
because it curtails unstable power output
When negatively saturated (when full), the through the use of a fixed voltage regulator
transistor doesn’t conduct, the relay is de- (7812) that gives a constant (fixed) regulated
energized and the contact opens and current output voltage of 12V; the reference voltage for
seizes to flow to the battery and it doesn’t all comparator circuits which the voltage of the
charge. battery is compared with. The circuit diagram is
shown in Figureure 9.
The transistor used is BC547 and to ensure that
it operates at cut off or saturation, we make: is an optional filter capacitor ( ); it is
present in the circuit, incase there is an AC
signal. The fixed voltage regulator is a DC
device and won’t regulate, if there is an AC
=Base resistance of the transistor ( )
signal.The fixed voltage regulator (7812) has a
as a regulated output voltage of 12V
practical value).
is a current limiting resistor connected in
=Impedance of coil relay (A value of 400Ω series with an LED (power indicator) that
was used for ) indicates that the circuit is on.

The diode used is 6A1D. It is a free-wheeling

diode. It removes residual current generated by
the inductor as it creates a free wheel till the =12V, =2V, (10mA-20mA)
current dampens out.

The practical value of used is 1kΩ

Figure 9: Power supply unit

47
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
3.5 Mode of Operation: The complete circuit diagram of the charge controller is shown in Figure 10.

Figure10 : Complete circuit diagram of a solar charge controller

The solar charge controller circuit is made up of
four stages, namely; the current booster, the
power supply unit, the battery level indicator
and the battery charge controller.
The current booster ensures that maximum
current is gotten from the output of the solar
panel through the use of a pass transistor
(MJ2955); this current goes through to charge
the battery, a variable voltage regulator
(LM317) sets a constant output voltage of 14.2V
to charge the battery and blocking diodes that
ensure that current flows in the required
direction.
48
The battery level indicator monitors the charge
of the battery through the use of a comparator
which compares a reference voltage, to the
voltage of the battery and indicates through
LEDs if the battery is fully charged or
undercharged.
The power supply unit supplies a constant
output voltage of 12V to the comparator circuits
in the design to ensure that unstable power
output is avoided and this is used as the
reference voltage which is compared to the
battery’s voltage.
The battery charge controller cuts off the battery
from charging when fully charged through the
use of a comparator IC and a relay. When the
battery is not full, the IC is positively saturated,
the transistor conducts, the relay is energized
 JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING VOL 12, NO 2, ISSN 1118 – 5058
NOVEMBER 2015
and the contact closes ensuring that the current
flows through to charge the battery. When the
battery is charged full, the IC is negatively
saturated, the transistor doesn’t conduct, the
relay is de-energized and the contact opens and
current seizes to flow to the battery.
4.0 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE
The circuit is first designed and simulated using
Proteus software after which the system was
constructed and enclosed in a 15cm by 25cm
plastic container.
5.0 TESTING/RESULTS
The functionality of the charge controller
depends on the fixed voltage output of 14.2V
from the current booster block of the solar
charge controller; hence the test data includes
reading from a 200Ah, 12V battery charged for
approximately 12hrs under varying weather
conditions.
i. Initial battery voltage level was 9.83V.
ii. Battery voltage level after first 6hrs under
exposure of panel to intense sunlight was
11.3V.
iii. Battery voltage level after approximately
12hrs under exposure of panel to reduced
sunlight intensity was 12.2V.
6.0 OBSERVATIONS/RESULT ANALYSIS
i. After proper connection of the solar panel
and battery leads to their respective
terminals on the solar charge controller,
the power and undercharging LEDs turn
ON to indicate battery charging.
ii. After 12 hours and 20 minutes of charge,
the optimum charge LED turns ON
indicating full charge and undercharge
LED turns OFF indicating that no more
current is getting to the battery. Generally
the circuit performed satisfactorily.
7.0 CONCLUSION
This work has produced a low cost, reliable and
functional solar charge controller, using locally
sourced and available components. The product
49
worked satisfactorily and can be used in a solar
home system to solve problems of power supply
in Nigeria.
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[1] Korenčiak P., Fiedler P. “Charge Controller
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Communication, Department Of Control and
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Technology pg 11.
[2] Cook G. F. “Solar Charge Controller for
Medium Power Applications” February / March
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Solar Charge Controller Using Microcontroller”
Canadian Journal on Electrical and Electronics
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International Journal of Engineering Research &
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