BRAKES

Brakes are pretty much the most important safety device on your car. Inspecting your brakes
at least twice a year for wear and damage can protect you and your passengers while saving
you money by catching any damage before it becomes too costly. You are often able to
inspect the brakes without even removing the wheel.

Brakes/Braking and Road Safety

Introduction to Brakes and Road Safety
The ability to brake safely is an important requirement for safe driving. Safe Braking is
especially important for the most vulnerable road users such as pedestrians, cyclists and
motorcyclists, as crash data shows these categories are all too often the victims of inattention
by car, van, truck and bus drivers.

Vehicle manufacturers are continuously striving to develop better braking systems and
technology such as Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) to increase safety and reduce
accidents.
Safe braking, however, involves more than merely knowing how much pressure to apply to
the brakes - safe braking also involves working out the relevant stopping distances etc.
In this section, we will provide an overview of the importance of safe braking for road safety.

What is a Brake?
The simplest definition would be that a brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion.
Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some sort. Brakes may be broadly described as
using friction, pumping, or electromagnetics.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston
pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum,
it is similar to the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the
wheel down.
Brake pads are a part of the disc braking system, which is standard equipment for modern
vehicles. In a disc braking system, a calliper is situated around the front wheels of your
vehicle (most of a car’s stopping force comes from the front tires). The calliper is fitted with
brake pads. When you press the brake pedal, the calliper squeezes the brake pads against the
wheel and the resulting friction slows your vehicle to a stop.

It is also important that we are aware of 2 important modern brake systems and their impact
on road safety.
 ABS [Anti-lock braking system]is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels
on a motor vehicle to continue interacting attractively with the road surface as directed
by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (that is,
ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.
 Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) is an autonomous road vehicle safety system
which employs sensors to monitor the proximity of vehicles in front and detects
 situations where the relative speed and distance between the host and target vehicles
suggest that a collision is imminent. In such a situation, emergency braking can be
automatically applied to avoid the collision or at least to mitigate its effects.

What is the required Following and Stopping Distance?

Stopping distances refer to the distance that it takes for your vehicle to stop. Many vehicle
crashes can be prevented if drivers allow themselves enough time and distance from the
vehicle in front. This is referred to as a safe following distance.
Drivers are advised to drive at a speed that will allow them to stop safely within the distance
available to them. The recommended stopping distance measured in time is at least two
seconds. Safe driving involves keeping at least two seconds behind the vehicle in front and is
measured using a fixed point - when the vehicle in front passes a fixed point, it should be at
least two seconds before you also pass the same point.
It is also important that the reaction time of the driver remains uninhibited and non-distracted
as this could further extend the stopping distance.

Which Factors are affecting the Braking/Stopping distance?

An effective braking system and driver ability behind the wheel are most important to ensure
swift and safe braking. There are however also a few other factors to consider:
 Tyres and braking: Tyres are one of the most important elements when stopping a
vehicle quickly and efficiently. One of the factors used in calculating braking distance
is the traction coefficient. The higher the traction coefficient is, the shorter the braking
distance will be. The braking distance can change greatly based on the type and
condition of the vehicle's tyres. Tyres with little or no tread will be more susceptible to
skidding during heavy braking. When the tyres skid (a decrease of the traction
coefficient), they lose traction and increase the braking distance. The tyre compound or
makeup can also change braking distance. Some high-performance tyres offer better
adhesion under heavy braking and won't break loose or skid as easily as harder tyres.
 Braking and Suspension Systems: If any of these components aren't up to specification
or in poor condition, the vehicle's braking distance can change. Worn brake drums,
rotors, pads, shoes or leaky brake lines will harm braking. Since weight transfer has so
much to do with braking, worn shock absorbers and springs will only add distance
during braking. When these components are worn, the weight wants to move to the
front of the vehicle when you hit the brakes hard. [See Shock Absorbers and Safe
Driving]
 Road conditions: The condition of the road and our ability to adapt to these conditions
will affect braking distance. Dirt and gravel roads don't offer good traction and increase
braking distance. Freshly paved asphalt offers the best adhesion.
 Weather Conditions: We always need to consider the weather conditions and how this
impacts on the road surface and the vehicle. Wet roads increase braking distance.
Snowy and icy roads decrease traction even more.
  Driver ability: Driver experience and knowing your vehicle are important for safe and
fast braking. Drivers can only benefit from additional driver training and advanced
driving courses to enhance their driving skills.
 The Braking system: Whether or not the vehicle is equipped with an anti-lock braking
system (ABS) must also be taken into consideration in calculating stopping distances.

Formula to calculate Braking Distance

How do we calculate Braking distance? This distance refers to the distance a vehicle will
travel from the point where its brakes are fully applied to when it comes to a complete stop. It
is affected by the following:
 the original speed of the vehicle
 the type of brake system in use
 the reaction time of the driver/rider and
 the coefficient of friction between its tires and the road surface.

The theoretical braking distance can be found by determining the work required to dissipate
the vehicle's kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy E is given by the formula:
E = (1/2)mv2,
where m is the vehicle's mass and v is its speed.
The work W done by braking is given by:
W = μmgd,
where μ is the coefficient of friction between the road surface and the tires, g is the gravity of
Earth, and d is the distance travelled.
The braking distance (which is commonly measured as the skid length) given an initial driving
speed v is then found by putting W = E, from which it follows that
d = v2/(2μg).
The maximum speed given an available braking distance d is given by:
v = √(2μgd).

Advice and Tips on Braking Safely

We would like to share advice and suggestions with drivers on how to brake safely:
 ‘Normal’ Braking: Under normal circumstances (on a dry and relatively clear road), you
should be able to break early and apply gentle pressure to the brakes. As you feel the
vehicle begin to stop, apply a little more pressure, but ease off as you come to a full
stop so that you do not stop too abruptly.
 Emergency Braking: If an unexpected situation arises that requires you to stop, you
should brake straight away, but try to avoid braking too sharply, as this can cause your
wheels to lock up and your vehicle to skid. With ABS, depress the pedal down. Without
ABS, brake moderately hard (70%) while taking off a bit of steering. It's always better
to brake too much rather than too little. In a real emergency, it's best to simply stamp on
the brake pedal and let the car stop.
  Braking in Bad Weather: If the road is wet or icy, you will usually need to alter your
braking technique. This is particularly the case in icy conditions. It is extremely easy to
lose control when taking a bend. The safest way to negotiate it is to brake gently on the
straight leading up to a bend so that you are travelling slowly when you reach the bend.
Avoid braking sharply as this can lead to a skid. If you are worried about the grip (or
lack of it) on the road, you can test it by braking gently to gauge the effectiveness. Do
not leave it until just before a bend to test the brakes, as you will not have enough time
to dry them out before you need to break.
 Braking after driving through water: If you have to drive through a considerable amount
of water, your brakes can lose their effectiveness for a while afterwards. Test the brakes
by braking gently to see if they work properly, but make sure that you do this only
when it is safe to do so. If you find that they do not work as effectively as normal, apply
light pressure to the brakes while you are driving at a fairly slow pace, as this will dry
them out.
 Braking and Turning /Changing Direction: Avoid braking and turning at the same time
where possible. Turning while on the brakes can cause the vehicle to not turn as well or
not slow down as much.
 Brake-Turning: Turning the wheel into the corner while still lightly on the brakes. This
causes the car to lean forward, pressing the front tires to the ground, giving them more
grip for steering. This is a basic technique, and no corner should be made without it.
 Trail Braking: This is a method of feathering the brakes while turning into the corner
and it will provide the best and safest control over the vehicle as it is leaning on the
front tyres, allowing for more traction to those tyres.

Drivers are advised in an emergency to focus on where you want to go, and not on what you
want to avoid. It's very difficult to steer away from something that you're looking at directly,
and many people tend to focus on what they are worried about colliding with. Instead,
concentrate on where you want the car to go (to the side of the object) and pay attention to
how the car responds.

Inspecting the Brakes

We are all aware of how important it is to brake safely – yet we often fail to pay enough
attention to the condition of our brakes! This is an important part of effective vehicle
maintenance.

If you do not feel comfortable with your mechanical skills, it may be best to have a
professional to check your brakes and to install new parts. Working on your brakes is not the
time to test your mechanical abilities. If your brakes are installed incorrectly or worn and the
condition thereof not assessed correctly they may fail and cause a severe accident.
Brakes are pretty much the most important safety device on your car. Inspecting your brakes
at least twice a year for wear and damage can protect you and your passengers while saving
you money by catching any damage before it becomes too costly.
You are often able to inspect the brakes without even removing the wheel. If your car has
alloy wheels with spaces in the middle, you can get a proper assessment done by just peeping
through the hole! Whether you can peep through your wheel or you have to take the wheel off,
be sure you have a clear view of the brake pads and the big shiny disc.

You may start by inspecting the disc first. It should be shiny from the inside to the outer edge,
and fairly uniform. Do not be too concerned if you can see slight lines in it as this is normal
wear. However, if there are any rough spots or pronounced grooves in the disc, you should
replace your brake discs. Brake discs should always be replaced in pairs so that your car's
driveability and safety are not compromised.

Now take a look at the Brake pads. You'll have to peek up to see them, but if you follow the
surface of the disc to the top, you'll see the outside pad touching the disc. Brake pads must be
replaced when the thickness of the friction material is at 2mm thick, or when uneven wear is
evident on the brake pads.

Finally, take a look at your brake lines. Rubber coated lines should be soft and supple, not
cracked and rigid. If you see cracks in flexible brake lines they will need to be replaced. Also
be sure to inspect the hard, metal lines.

Brake Pads and Safe Braking

The brake pad is one of the most important components in your braking system; it is the part
directly responsible for stopping your car. However, brake pads are not built to last - As you
use your brakes in everyday driving, they will slowly wear down, and, eventually, need to
replace the brake pads. Therefore, it’s important to understand how brake pads work and when
to replace them.

Brake pads are soft (from an industrial standpoint) so that they don’t erode the wheel while
they are in use. Instead, the friction wears away at the brake pad, which is an easily
replaceable part. Over time, the brake pads erode with use and must be periodically replaced.
Several variables affect how often you need to replace your brake pads, but they boil down to
the model of the car you drive, your driving behaviour and how often/hard you apply your
brakes. Generally, brake pads may need to be replaced every 30,000 kilometres. The best
advice is to have them checked regularly.

How do I know the brake pads need to be replaced?

Brake pads on older vehicles have a sort of built-in alarm system to alert you when they need
to be replaced. There is a little bit of metal that pokes out of the brake pad. When the pad is
worn down enough, this metal comes into contact with your wheel every time the brakes are
applied. This creates a squealing or screeching sound every time you apply the brakes.
Take warning though: waiting until you can hear your brakes screeching to replace your brake
pads is not the best idea. The bit of metal is not exposed to the wheel until there is very little
brake pad left. Once you can hear screeching, it generally means that your brake pads have
only three or four weeks left before they are completely worn away. Without the brake pad,
you’ll be stopping your car with metal-on-metal friction, which can warp your wheel, damage
your brake system, and cause an expensive repair.

Modern cars today come with an electronic sensor on the brake pad. When your brakes have
worn down, you will see a warning light on your dashboard. When this dashboard light is
illuminated, or when you start hearing a squeak upon brake application, it is time for you to
have your brake pads replaced.

Automotive brakes are among the most important mechanisms of a car. These car brakes
safety and maintenance tips ensure the safety and functionality of the brakes. Aside from that,
they also help in ensuring a much longer life span of the braking system.
1. Check the brake fluid. There is always a need to make sure that the brake fluid is good
and most of all, it should be in its appropriate level. If the brake fluid has a milky color,
it means that condensation or the water has infiltrated the fluid and you will need to
change it. Leaving the contaminated brake fluid can damage or destroy the cylinder in
the break system and it also deteriorates the wheel cylinders.
2. Bleed the brake lines. This is mainly done to get the air out of them. Usually, it requires
two individuals to do the work. One would pump the brake pedals while the other one
would watch over the bleeder valve taking caution to close the valve when fluid starts to
flow through.
3. To ensure that the rotors and brake pads are still good, you must inspect it regularly.
You can do this by removing your car’s tire. If you notice that the brake pads are
showing wherein you cannot see much of the pad, then it is a sign that you need to
replace them.

How Do you Know if the Car Brakes are in Bad Shape?

Here are some of the most common signs of brake wear to be on the lookout for:
 When the car brakes are applied, they sink softly and slowly
This happens if there is a huge amount of air trapped or because of lack of enough brake oil.
Bleeding the break lines and checking the brake fluid are a must in this situation.
  Your car pulls to one side once when the brakes are applied
This usually means that the car brakes are not in their right position. This type of work usually
requires the skilled hand of a mechanic so get check-ups and estimates on this type of work.
 It is hard to press down on the brake pedals
When you push the car brake, they do not sink much if at all. If you have power brakes, then it
is a sign that there might be a leakage in the assist unit and in the vacuum. On the other hand,
in normal brakes, it is a sign that there might be a crack in the brake line.
 When the car brakes are applied, there is a squeaky sound
If you are hearing this sound frequently, it means that the brake pad has worn out. The two
metals are rubbing against each other, which produce the sound. This is not only annoying but
can be dangerous.
 There is a vibration when pressing the car brakes
It means that your car’s brake rotors, as well as the pads, have worn out. Replacing them is
imperative.

Exhaust Brakes:
An exhaust brake is a means of slowing a diesel engine by closing off the exhaust path from
the engine, causing the exhaust gases to be compressed in the exhaust manifold, and in the
cylinder. Since the exhaust is being compressed, and there is no fuel being applied, the
engine slows down the vehicle.

How Do They Work and What Benefits Do They Bring?

There are several ways of stopping a vehicle such as using the normal brakes, the engine brake
or for diesel-powered vehicles; drivers can also use an exhaust brake. Exhaust brakes can be
very efficient in the long run and it can considerably slow down a vehicle, regardless of its
size or weight. Let’s take a closer look at exhaust brakes and how exactly they work.
1. Exhaust brakes create backpressure in the cylinders.
This braking system actually closes down the exhaust path and it stops the gases from being
eliminated on the exhaust pipe. As a result, backpressure is built in the manifold and in the
cylinders, making the engine work backwards and subsequently slowing down the vehicle.

2. Drivers can rely only on exhaust brakes for stopping their car.
Especially if the vehicle doesn’t have a very high speed, drivers can use only the exhaust
brakes for slowing down and stopping their cars, reducing the wear and tear on the regular
brakes.

3. Exhaust brakes prevent normal brakes from overheating.

One of the biggest advantages of exhaust brakes is the simple fact that they can take some
stress off the regular brakes and prevent them from overheating, especially when going
downhill.

4. Exhaust brakes can prevent a vehicle from going downhill too fast.
In a similar fashion, if a driver transports a fifth wheeler, a caravan or a loaded trailer and he
needs to go downhill, the exhaust brake can prevent the vehicle from going too fast and it
reduces the likelihood of an accident.

5. Exhaust brakes are completely silent.

The engine brake can also be used to slow down and stop a vehicle, yet it has a big
disadvantage: it is quite loud when applied. On the other hand, exhaust brakes are completely
silent and more convenient to use on a regular basis.

6. Exhaust brakes can prolong the lifespan of normal brakes.

If a driver uses the exhaust brake frequently in order to slow down his vehicle, the normal
brakes will be spared and they can actually last three times longer. Basically, the exhaust
brakes can help drivers maintain their cars in a great condition and they can also save some
money in the long run as well.

7. Exhaust brakes can be installed on all vehicles.

Trucks of different sizes, in particular, can greatly benefit from exhaust brakes because those
vehicles are usually very heavy and they also transport cargo of large weights. Once the
exhaust brakes are installed, they can make a vehicle safer and more secure on the road and
they minimize the likelihood of putting the car in a ditch or in a tree when driving on
countryside.

How Exhaust Brakes Work

Exhaust brakes help a truck slow down by restricting exhaust flow. Exhaust brakes are
generally installed directly behind the turbocharger turbine outlet, but can be installed
virtually anywhere in the exhaust system. A simple exhaust brake consists of a butterfly valve
inside of a tubular housing. A solenoid or mechanical attachment opens/closes the exhaust
brake as necessary. In the open position, exhaust flows normally. In the closed or partially
closed position, exhaust backpressure is greatly increased. The backpressure works against the
engine as it pumps air out of the cylinders, helping to slow down the engine and therefore the
vehicle. Some exhaust brakes are completely mechanical, while others communicate directly
with the engine's PCM (computer) to provide precision on-demand braking. Exhaust brakes
are great for controlling speeds when towing downhill or bringing heavy loads to a halt while
saving the truck and trailer brakes by reducing use.

Master Cylinder and How It Works?

Introduction
“Great things are done by a series of small things brought together” very rightly said as when
it comes to automobiles even a small components like sprockets, valves, piston rings etc. Have
great impact on overall working of an automobile vehicle. We often talk about the
components and forces that help the vehicle to speed up or to perform. But have you ever
think about the amount of force required to stop the vehicle at such a high speed?.Now this
question gives rise to many other questions like from where does this high force generated? ,
which component is responsible for this high stopping force? So let’s just discuss about the
component responsible for generating this high brake force i.e. Master cylinder.

Master cylinder in an automobile braking system is a hydraulic device in which cylinder and
one or two pistons are arranged in such a manner that the mechanical force applied by the
driver of a vehicle either by brake pedal (in cars) or by brake lever (in bikes) is converted into
hydraulic pressure which in turn transferred to the brake calliper for braking.
In hydraulic braking system, master cylinder is a device that provides required amount of
pressure or braking force to the final braking components after multiplication of the
mechanical force applied by the driver through brake pedal or brake lever.

Why We Need a Master Cylinder

As we all know now that a master cylinder in hydraulic braking system is an intermediate
component that worked as an energy converter as well as force multiplier i.e. mechanical
energy into hydraulic pressure so we need master cylinder in hydraulic braking system
because-
  When we talk about today’s automobile vehicles due to their high speed, the brake force
required (to stop or de-accelerate vehicle efficiently) is also high, which cannot be
efficiently fulfilled by mechanical braking, so hydraulic braking with master cylinder is
the new need of today’s vehicle as it generates higher brake force.
 As we all know that the brake force required in front wheels is higher than that of real
wheels due to the shifting of mass from rear to front during braking, this distribution of
brake force between rear and front wheels is a function of master cylinder.
 In hydraulic braking, the force applied by driver on brake pedal (in car) or brake lever
(in bikes) during braking (50N-70N) is not enough to cause actual braking, so an
intermediate component i.e. master cylinder is required that can multiply this force and
further transfer this high force to the brake caliper which in turn generates high brake
force and finally actual braking happens.
 In hydraulic braking the brake pedal or lever effort required for braking is drastically
decreased due to the use of master cylinder as it acts as a converter that can convert the
mechanical force applied by driver on brake pedal or lever into the high hydraulic
pressure.
 The use of master cylinder decreases the chances of brake failure as it provides the
constructional flexibility in which the braking in front and rear tyre can be made
independent of each other.

Types of Master Cylinder

On the basis of its construction and application brake master cylinders are of 2 types that are-
1. Single Circuit Master Cylinder
 It is the simple type of master cylinder just like a medical syringe, in this type of master
cylinder single piston inside a cylinder is used to cause braking.
 Single circuit m c (master cylinder) distributes equal force in all the wheels due to the
use of single cylinder single piston or circuit.
 This type of master cylinder is commonly used in many 2 wheelers and some light
weight 4 wheelers

2. Tandem Master Cylinder or Dual Circuit Master Cylinder

 It is the modified type of m c in which dual cylinder-dual piston or single cylinder dual
piston along with dual circuit is used for independent braking between front and rear
wheels.
 This type of master cylinder is used in almost all cars as it is more efficient than single
circuit m c.
 It provides the independency between front and rear wheels braking or diagonal type of
braking which is the important safety feature for a vehicle.

Construction
It consist of 5 parts :-
1. Reservoir
It is the storage tank used for storing the brake fluid in hydraulic type of braking system,
usually it is made up of plastic.

2. Cylinder
It is the air tight housing inside which the piston moves with the moment of brake pedal which
in turn causes conversion and multiplication of force. Cylinder is usually made up of cast iron
or aluminium.
 It is connected with the reservoir through inlet valve and also with brake lines through
outlet valve.
 In single circuit m c there is only 1 compression chamber.

3. Piston
It is the reciprocating part of the master cylinder that reciprocates inside the cylinder due to
the movement of brake pedal, the piston causes compression of brake fluid inside the cylinder
which in turn generates high hydraulic pressure.
 In single circuit only 1 piston is used.

4. Returning Spring
It is the simple coil type of spring used inside the cylinder which helps the piston and brake
pedal to retain its original position after brake pedal is released.

5. Valve
In single circuit m c it is the outlet valve through which the brake line is attached,  The
compressed brake fluid is further transferred to the caliper through this valve.

Tandem Master Cylinder

1. Reservoir
In tandem master cylinder instead of single reservoir 2 or dual chamber reservoir is used as a
storage tank for brake fluid.

2. Cylinder
Same cylinder as in single circuit type is used with the little modification i.e. it is the housing
of 2 pistons and also there are 2 outlet and 2 inlet valves.
 In tandem m c there are 2 compression chamber inside the cylinder.

3. Piston
Instead of one piston, 2 pistons that are primary piston and secondary piston are used in
tandem m c, the actuation of secondary piston occurs after completion of the primary piston
movement.
 primary piston is connected to the brake pedal and secondary piston is placed just
behind the returning spring of primary piston.
4. Returning Spring
In tandem m c 2 returning springs are used one with the primary piston and second with the
secondary piston.

5. Valves

Working 
Single Circuit Master Cylinder
 In single circuit master cylinder when brake pedal is not pressed i.e. non actuation
position the piston remains at its original position which in turn closes the inlet valve of
the reservoir due to which there is no incoming of brake fluid takes place between
reservoir to compression chamber.
 When brake pedal is pressed i.e. actuated position, the piston which is connected to the
brake pedal through connecting rod moves which in turn opens the inlet valve due to
which incoming of brake fluid from reservoir to compression chamber takes place.
 This brake fluid inside the compression chamber is compressed due to the movement of
piston inside the cylinder just like the medical syringe.
 After compression up to a certain pressure the outlet valve opens and this highly
compressed brake fluid is further transferred to the brake lines for further brake
actuation.

Tandem Master Cylinder

The working of tandem master cylinder is 70% same as the single circuit m c but in this type 2
independent circuits of braking is used let see how its work-
 When brake pedal is not actuated, the piston remains at their original place, closing the
inlet valve of both the compression chambers, which in turn cuts the incoming of brake
fluid between both the reservoir or both the reservoir chambers.
 When the brake pedal is actuated, at first the primary piston moves due to which
opening of primary inlet valve takes place.
 Initially due to the movement of primary piston compression of the brake fluid inside
primary chamber takes place.
 After completion of the compression in primary chamber primary outlet valve opens up
and this compressed brake fluid is further sent to brake callipers through brake lines and
actuation of the primary circuit brakes take place.
 After the completion of the primary piston movement i.e. at its extreme end, the
secondary piston starts moving because of the force applied by the primary piston’s
spring which in turn opens the secondary valve and incoming of brake fluid from
secondary reservoir to secondary compression chamber takes place.
 This brake fluid is then compressed and after complete compression secondary outlet
opens up and this highly compressed fluid is sent to the brake callipers through brake
lines and actuation of the secondary circuit brakes take place.
Classification of Brake system:
1. On the basis of mode of actuation:
1. Foot brake (also called the main brake) operated by foot pedal.
2. Handbrake – it is also called parking brake operated by hand.
2. On the basis of mode of operation
1. Air brakes
2. Electric brakes
3. Hydraulic brakes
4. Mechanical brakes
5. Vacuum brakes
3. On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels
1. Front-wheel brakes
2. Rear-wheel brakes
4. On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact
1. Externally – contracting brakes
2. Internally – expanding brakes