ME362

Automobile Engineering
8. Braking and Suspension
System
Brakes
Function of a brake is to stop or slow down a moving vehicle or to prevent it from moving when it is
stationary. All brake systems depends on the force of friction for their operation.
Force of friction depends on the nature of the surface in contact with each other, on the force
pressing them together and on the speed of their relative motion. The more two bodies are pressed
against each other, the more will the friction between them. The faster they move in relation to
each other, the less will be the friction between them. The ratio of force of friction to the force
holding the two bodies in contact with each other is a constant for the two surfaces and is known as
the coefficient of friction.
When energy is used to overcome friction, heat is generated.
Brakes
Classification
1. Based on method of application – internal expanding brakes and external contracting brakes.
2. Based on type of force transmission – mechanical and hydraulic brakes.
3. Based on number of wheels to which they are applied – Two wheel brakes and four wheel
brakes.
4. Based on type of friction force – Disc brake (axial force) and Drum brake (radial force)
Brakes
Motor Vehicle Brake
In a motor vehicle the brake serves two purpose – to control the
speed of the vehicle and to hold the vehicle in place when it is
stationary. To accomplish this most motor vehicles have two
independent brake systems – a service brake operated by a foot
pedal and a parking or emergency brake operated by a hand or
foot lever.
Drum Brake operation
In a motor vehicle drum brake the brake shoes are made to contact
an auxiliary wheel called as the drum which is attached to the
vehicle’s wheel. In most designs two shoes are used with each
drum to form a complete brake mechanism at each wheel. Each
brake shoe is pivoted on an anchor pin at one end (the heel) and
made to contact a cam at the other (the toe). When the cam is
turned the shoes are forced toward the drum. Brake lining is
fastened to the outside surface of the shoes to increase the
coefficient of friction and to prevent the wearing away of the
metal. A retracting spring draws the shoes away from the drum
when the cam is moved to the release position.
Brakes
Mechanical Brake
In a mechanical system the pressure from the
brake pedal is transmitted to the wheel
brakes by means of rods and shafts or cables
and shafts. The shoes are expanded against
the drum by cams as explained in the drum
brake operation, or by means of levers,
toggles or wedges. The entire mechanical
linkage operates to transmit pedal force to
the brake shoes and to multiply that force
through leverage to produce effective
braking.
Brakes
Hydraulic Brake
In hydraulic brakes the pedal force is transmitted
to the brake shoe by means of a confined liquid
called brake fluid. The force applied to the pedal
is multiplied and transmitted to all the brake
shoes by a system of force transmission based
on Pascal’s principle. The principle states:
Confined liquids transmit pressure without loss
equally in all directions.
It essentially consists of a master cylinder and
piston which is connected by tubing to hydraulic
wheel cylinders (slave cylinder) at each of the
four wheels. The pistons of these cylinders move
out to apply the pressure to the wheel brakes.
The multiplication of the force is done by
appropriate design of the brake pedal length and
the areas of the master and slave cylinder
pistons.
Brakes
Hydraulic Brake
Front wheel brake pistons of larger diameter are
provided than those on the rear to take
advantage of the greater braking ability of the
front wheels due to the weight shift to the front
wheels during braking.
An adjusting screw provided at the bottom is
used to adjust the brake shoes for lining wear.
The shoes can be moved farther apart by the
adjusting screw, with the lining wear, so as to
make closer contact with the drum.
Brakes
Self Equalization of Hydraulic Brakes
One of the chief difficulties encountered in the
mechanical brakes is in obtaining simultaneous
brake action on all four wheels. In hydraulic brakes
the shoes are forced into contact with the drums to
act together regardless of their initial adjustments.
Self Energizing action of Brakes
In modern automobiles the “self-energizing” or the
“servo” feature of the brakes uses the force of the
rotating drum to increase the brake pressure. When
the brakes are applied the primary shoe tends to
rotate in the direction of wheel rotation. Since the
primary shoe is linked to the secondary shoe, the
secondary shoe is forced against the anchor pin at
the top. The result of this wrapping action forces
both the shoes tightly against the drum and the
braking pressure is more uniformly applied.
Brakes
Brake Shoes
Brake shoes are semi-circular segments of steel
with specially treated asbestos lining (or other heat
and wear resisting friction material) riveted or
cemented to the outside or bearing surface.
Brake Drum
These are thin cylindrical members with the outside
ends closed and the inside open to admit the brake
shoes. Brake drums are made of cast iron and steel.
The steel provides the strength and the cast iron
inner surface provides more coefficient of friction
and dissipates heat more rapidly.
Brakes
Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)
Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor
vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking,
preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery
surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly increase braking
distance, although still improving vehicle control.
Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the rotational
speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a condition
indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake
at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns faster.
Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic
pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This
process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation.
Some anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of
this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic
braking in extreme conditions.
Brakes
Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotation speed below a critical threshold,
because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the centre of the curve turn slower than
the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all road going vehicles.
If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle
instrument panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-
mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road
vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are
rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the
years.
Brakes
Disk Brakes
A disc brake is a type of brake that uses calipers to squeeze pairs of
pads against a disc in order to create friction that retards the
rotation of a shaft, such as a vehicle axle, either to reduce its
rotational speed or to hold it stationary. Caliper is an assembly
which consists of the hydraulic wheel pistons. The energy of
motion is converted into waste heat which must be dispersed. Disc
brakes are most commonly used for vehicle braking but they are
applicable to almost any rotating shaft.
The brake disc is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases
be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or
ceramic matrix composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or
the axle. To retard the wheel, friction material in the form of brake
pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is forced
mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electromagnetically
against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached
wheel to slow or stop.
Brakes
Disk Brakes
Drilled brake rotors, as the name implies, have holes drilled in
them. When the brake pad grabs the rotor, it creates friction, which
creates heat. If that heat can't escape, it leads to brake fade, which
reduces the brakes' stopping power. The second reason is gas build
up. The materials used in some older types of brake pads cause gas
to build up between the rotors and pads. That gas also limits
stopping power. The last reason is water. If a car drives through a
puddle, a carwash or even a rainstorm, the brake rotors can get
wet. A wet brake rotor is slippery and difficult for the brake pads to
grab. Having drilled holes on a brake rotor makes it easy for heat,
gas and water to be quickly moved away from the rotor surface,
keeping the brake performance strong.
The downside of using drilled rotors on your vehicle is that all of
those holes tend to weaken the rotors -- just like punching holes in
the wall of a house would weaken the wall. After repeated stressful
driving, the rotors can even crack.
Brakes
Disk Brakes
Slotted brake rotors u­se slots carved into the flat metal surface to
move gas, heat and water away from the surface of the rotors. You
can think of the slots as irrigation ditches that move the unwanted
materials safely out of the way. Slotted brake rotors are popular
with performance car drivers because the type of driving they do
puts a lot of stress on the rotors. Drilled rotors. As mentioned
earlier, have been weakened, which makes them prone to cracking
around the holes, particularly when they've been repeatedly driven
hard. Because they tend to be a little more durable than the drilled
brake rotors, slotted brake rotors may be a better brake part choice
for some performance car drivers. Slotted brake rotors tend to
wear down brake pads very quickly. Because of this, the most
common type of performance brake rotors found on production
performance cars are of the drilled variety. While that type of
construction is seen as too weak for racing applications, most
everyday drivers should have no trouble with drilled rotors on their
street cars and can save the slotted rotors for cars that are
racetrack-bound.
Brakes
Comparison between Drum and Disk Brakes
Compared to drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance, because the disc is
more readily cooled. As a consequence disc brakes are less prone to brake fade, and recover
more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective).
Most drum brake designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By
contrast, a disc brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to
the pressure placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking
pedal or lever. This tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid impending lockup.
Drums are also prone to "bell mouthing", and trap worn lining material within the assembly,
both causes of various braking problems. Bell-mouthed drum shows a distortion due to
extreme heat and braking pressure. It occurs mostly on wide drums and is caused by poor
support at the outside of the drum. Full drum-to-lining contact cannot be achieved and fading
can be expected. Drums must be turned.
Brakes
Power Brakes
It uses a combination of mechanical
component to multiply the force applied to
the brake pedal by the driver into enough
force to actuate the brakes and stop a
vehicle that can weigh several tons. The
brake pedal is connected to the Vacuum
booster which is the first step of the force
multiplication. The brake booster uses
vacuum from the engine to multiply the
force that your foot applies to the master
cylinder. The vacuum booster is a metal
canister that contains a clever valve and a
diaphragm. A rod going through the centre
of the canister connects to the master
cylinder's piston on one side and to the
pedal linkage on the other.
Brakes
Power Brakes
Another key part of the power brakes is the
check valve which is a one-way valve that
only allows air to be out of the vacuum
booster. If the engine is turned off, or if a
leak forms in a vacuum hose, the check
valve makes sure that air does not enter
the vacuum booster. This is important
because the vacuum booster has to be able
to provide enough boost for a driver to
make several stops in the event that the
engine stops running.
Brakes
Power Brakes
On cars with a vacuum booster, the brake
pedal pushes a rod that passes through the
booster into the master cylinder, actuating
the master-cylinder piston. The engine
creates a partial vacuum inside the vacuum
booster on both sides of the diaphragm.
When you hit the brake pedal, the rod
cracks open a valve, allowing air to enter
the booster on one side of the diaphragm
while sealing off the vacuum. This increases
pressure on that side of the diaphragm so
that it helps to push the rod, which in turn
pushes the piston in the master cylinder
assisting in applying the brake pressure
even with minimal effort from the driver.
Brakes
Power Brakes
As the brake pedal is released, the valve
seals off the outside air supply while
reopening the vacuum valve. This restores
vacuum to both sides of the diaphragm,
allowing everything to return to its original
position.
Power brakes are usually used in
combination with disk brakes and also
mostly in heavy vehicles.
Suspension System
Suspension is the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle to its
wheels and allows relative motion between the two. It is important for the suspension to keep the
road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as possible, because all the road or ground
forces acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also
protects the vehicle itself and any cargo, luggage or passengers from undue shock.
A soft suspension gives good isolation from road irregularities and a stiffer suspension gives good
handling characteristics. These opposed design requirements pose tremendous challenges to the
designer. Springs are usually of the laminated leaf type, the torsion bar type or the coil type.
Suspension System
Torque reaction
Every component that produces or changes a torque also exerts an equal and opposite torque
tending to turn the casing. To understand the torque reaction consider a tractor with its rear driving
wheels locked in a ditch. In this situation torque reaction is likely to lift the front of the tractor
rather than turn the rear wheels. When the above principle is applied to rear axles, some
arrangement must be provided to prevent the axle casing turning in the opposite direction to the
driving wheels.
A torque (t) applied to the wheel, which may be
considered as a lever produces a tractive effort (Te)
at the road surface, and an equal and opposite
forward force at the axle shaft. This driving thrust
must be transferred from the axle casing to the
frame in order to propel the vehicle. The maximum
tractive effort is limited by the adhesive force (P) of
the type on the road. This force depends on the
coefficient of friction (u) and the load (W) on the
wheel.
Suspension System
Torque reaction
In the early days only leaf springs were used for the rear suspension of a vehicle, and hence these
springs were often utilized to provide the drive thrust and torque reaction functions of the drive
system. Since 1950, notable drive systems are in use on motor cars and these basic systems have
undergone several modifications to meet modern requirements.
Hotchkiss Open-type Drive
This type of drive is commonly used on passenger cars and heavy commercial vehicles. This
arrangement uses two rear leaf springs, which are longitudinally mounted, and are connected to
the frame by a ‘fixed’ pivot at the front, and swinging shackles at the rear. A universal joint is
mounted at each end of the exposed or ‘open’ type propeller shaft, with provision for
accommodating change in shaft length due to the deflection of the springs.
Suspension System
Hotchkiss Open-type Drive
To resist torque reaction the axle is clamped to the springs using ‘U’ bolts. Under heavy driving
conditions the springs deflect up at the front and down at the rear and vice versa during braking.
This movement helps to damp driving shocks and improves transmission flexibility.
Suspension System
Torque-tube Drive
This drive system is generally used in passenger cars and light commercial vehicles. Whereas the
Hochkiss drive uses stiff springs to resist torque reaction and driving thrust, the torque tube drive
permits the use of either ‘softer’ springs or another form of spring, like helical to perform their only
intended duty so that a ‘softer’ ride is possible. These use laminated springs, which are connected
to the frame by a swinging shackle at each end.
Suspension System
Torque-tube Drive
A tubular member called torque-tube, encloses the propeller shaft and is bolted rigidly to the axle
casing. The torque-tube is positioned at the front by a ball and socket joint, which is located at the
rear of the gearbox or cross-member of the frame. Bracing rods are introduced between the axle
casing and the torque tube to strengthen the arrangement. A small-diameter propeller shaft is
installed inside the torque tube and splined to the final-drive pinion. A universal joint is installed in
the centre of the ball joint to allow for angular deflections of the drive.
Suspension System
Torque-tube Drive
In this design the torque reaction and driving thrust are taken up by the torque tube. Since the
forward thrust from the ball is taken on the rear housing of the gearbox, arrangements must be
incorporated to transfer this force through the gearbox mountings to the frame. Since the torque
tube is fitted rigidly to the rear-axle centre housing, this eliminates the use of a universal joint at the
rear end of the propeller shaft.
Suspension System
The spring or suspension system of a
motor vehicle is divided into rear-end
suspension and front-end suspension.
There are three types of rear-end
suspension system
1. Longitudinal leaf spring
2. Transverse leaf spring
3. Coil spring
Suspension System ‘U’ Bolt

Rear end suspension

Leaf Springs must be
1. strong and resilient enough to
Front Hanger Spring Shackle Rear Hanger
transmit the driving thrust and torque
2. Resist side sway
3. Support the sprung weight of the
body (unsprung weight comprises
wheels, brakes, axles etc.)
Leaf Springs are also called as semi-elliptic springs because of their shape. It consists of 4 to 7
leafs of special spring steel held together by a center bolt. The spring is clamped to the rear axle
housing by ‘U’ bolts while each end is pivoted to the frame through spring eye. One end is
secured to the front hanger by a bolt and the other end to the rear hanger by spring shackle. The
spring shackle provides compensation for changes in length as the spring elongates in compression
and shortens when it rebounds. Rebound clips are located at intermediate positions along the
length of the spring. They are made tight enough to hold the leafs together yet loose enough to
allow the leaves to slide over one another
Suspension System
Rear end suspension
Transverse leaf springs
These springs are mounted in an inverted position parallel to and above the rear axle. Each end is
shackled to the axle and the frame is attached to the higher center position. They are mostly used
in combination with torque tube drives so are not required to transmit driving thrust and torque.
Suspension System
Rear end suspension
Coil springs
These springs are seated in pan shaped brackets attached to the rear axle and are compressed
against similar spring seats incorporated into the frame or body. This suspension is also always used
in conjunction with torque tube drive. Hence coil springs are not subjected to driving thrust or
twist.
Suspension System
Spring rate and frequency
Flexibility of a spring depends on its property called spring rate. Spring rate is defined as the weight
in kgs required to deflect the spring by one cm. A soft spring has a lower rate than a stiff spring.
Springs which return quickly to their original shape or oscillate rapidly after being deflected are said
to have higher frequency than those that return or oscillate slowly.
Suspension System
Shock Absorbers
Ideal springs alone are not shock absorbers, as springs only store and do not dissipate or absorb
energy. Vehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs. In this combination,
"shock absorber" refers specifically to the hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration.
Pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers are used in conjunction with cushions and springs. An
automobile shock absorber contains spring-loaded check valves and orifices to control the flow of
oil through an internal piston.
While shock absorbers serve the purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their
intended sole purpose is to damp spring oscillations. Shock absorbers use valving of oil and gasses
to absorb excess energy from the springs. Those which offer resistance both during compression
and rebound of the spring are called double-acting shock absorbers and those which resist only on
rebound are called as single-acting shock absorbers.
Suspension System
Shock Absorbers
Spring rates are chosen by the manufacturer based on the weight of the vehicle, loaded and
unloaded. Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use. Along with
hysteresis in the tire itself, they damp the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up
and down. Effective wheel bounce damping may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance.
Suspension System
Front suspension
Front suspension is more complicated because the wheels apart from moving up and down must
also be able to swing at various angles to the vehicle frame for steering. Practically all passenger
cars use independent front suspension system.
Independent suspension typically offers better ride quality and handling characteristics, due to
lower unsprung weight and the ability of each wheel to address the road undisturbed by activities
of the other wheel on the vehicle. And it allows wheel camber to be adjusted individually, when
provided for by the manufacturer.
Suspension System
Stabilizers
Stabilizer bars are part of a car's suspension system. They are sometimes also called anti-sway bars
or anti-roll bars. Their purpose in life is to try to keep the car's body from "rolling" in a sharp turn.
In a sharp turn the part of the car on the outside of the turn gets pushed down toward the road and
the part of the car on the inside of the turn rises up. In other words, the body of the car "rolls" 10 or
20 or 30 degrees toward the outside of the turn. If the turn is fast enough, the tires on the inside of
the turn actually rise off the road and the car flips over. Roll is bad. It tends to put more weight on
the outside tires and less weigh on the inside tires, reducing traction. It also messes up steering.
The stabilizer rod is attached to the frame of the car in front of the front tires with bushings in such
a way that it can rotate. Its arms are attached from the rod to the front suspension member on both
sides.
During a turn the front suspension member of the outside of the turn gets pushed upward. The arm
of the sway bar gets pushed upward, and this applies torsion to the rod. The torsion then moves the
arm at the other end of the rod, and this causes the suspension on the other side of the car to
compress as well. The car's body tends to stay flat in the turn.
Suspension System
Stabilizers
If you don't have a stabilizer bar, you tend to have a lot of trouble with body roll in a turn. If you
have too much stabilizer bar, you tend to lose independence between the suspension members on
both sides of the car. When one wheel hits a bump, the stabilizer bar transmits the bump to the
other side of the car as well, which is not what you want. The ideal is to find a setting that reduces
body roll but does not hurt the independence of the tires.