3rd class Automobile Technology chapter 8

Brake system

8-1 Fundamentals of the brake system.

Brakes are by far the most important mechanism on any vehicle because the
safety and lives of those riding in the vehicle depend on proper operation of the
braking system. It has been estimated that the brakes on the average vehicle are
applied 50,000 times a year! Brakes are an energy-absorbing mechanism that
converts vehicle movement into heat while stopping the rotation of the wheels.
All braking systems are designed to reduce the speed and stop a moving vehicle
and to keep it from moving if the vehicle is stationary. Service brakes are the
main driver-operated brakes of the vehicle. Service brakes are also called base
brakes or foundation brakes see figure 8-1

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8-2 BRAKE SYSTEM PARTS.

Most vehicles built since the late 1920s use a brake on each wheel. To stop a
wheel, the driver exerts a force on a brake pedal. The force on the brake pedal
pressurizes brake fluid in a master cylinder. This hydraulic force (liquid under
pressure) is transferred through steel lines and flexible brake lines to a wheel
cylinder or caliper at each wheel. Hydraulic pressure to each wheel cylinder or
caliper is used to force friction materials against the brake drum or rotor. The
friction between the stationary friction material and the rotating drum or rotor
(disc) causes the rotating part to slow and eventually stop. Since the wheels are
attached to the drums or rotors, the wheels of the vehicles also stop. The heavier
the vehicle and the higher the speed, the more heat the brakes have to be able to
absorb. Long, steep hills can cause the brakes to overheat which results in the
brakes not being able to produce the friction necessary to slow or stop a vehicle.

8-2-1 The Brake Pedal

The brake pedal is a simple lever. The fulcrum is at the top of the brake pedal
arm, the input is on the opposite end, and the output rod is somewhere in
between. For example, a driver input force of 100 N is multiplied by a 4:1 ratio
into 400 N of output force. This output force becomes the input force for the
power brake unit or booster. The travel of the drivers foot will be 4 times the
travel of the booster input push rod. Pedal ratios on most power brake vehicles
today vary between 3:1 and 5:1

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8-2-2 Master cylinder\

PURPOSE AND FUNCTION

The master cylinder is the heart of the entire braking system. No braking occurs
until the driver depresses the brake pedal. The brake pedal linkage is used to
apply the force of the driver’s foot into a closed hydraulic system that begins
with the master cylinder.

MASTER CYLINDER RESERVOIRS

Most vehicles built since the early 1980s are equipped with see-through master
cylinder reservoirs, which permit owners and service technicians to check the
brake fluid level without having to remove the top of the reservoir. Some
countries have laws that require this type of reservoir. The reservoir capacity is
great enough to allow for the brakes to become completely worn out and still
have enough fluid reserve for safe operation. The typical capacity of the entire
braking system is usually 2 to 3 pints (1 to 1.5 liters). Vehicles equipped with
four wheel disc brakes usually hold 4 pints (2 liters) or more. The entire brake
system is filled with brake fluid up to the “full” level of the master cylinder
reservoir. see figure 8-2

Figure 8-2 the Master cylinder with brake fluid level at the “max” (maximum)
line.

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8-2-3 DRUM BRAKES.

Drum brakes are used on the rear of many rear wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive,
and four-wheel-drive vehicles. When drum brakes are applied, brake shoes are
moved outward against a rotating brake drum. The wheel studs for the wheels
are attached to the drum. When the drum slows and stops, the wheels also slow
and stop. Drum brakes are economical to manufacture, service, and repair. Parts
for drum brakes are generally readily available and reasonably priced. On some
vehicles, an additional drum brake is used as a parking brake on vehicles
equipped with rear disc brakes. See figure 8-3 shown brake drum brake shoes.

8-2-3 DISC BRAKES.

Disc brakes are used on the front of most vehicles built since the early 1970s
and on the rear wheels of many vehicles. disc brake operates by squeezing brake
pads on both sides of a rotor or disc that is attached to the wheel.
Disc brakes use a piston to squeeze friction material (pads) on both sides of a
rotating disc (rotor). Disc may be spelled disk by some manufacturers, but disc
is the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) term and the most commonly
used spelling in the industry. The rotor is attached to and stops the wheel.
Disc brakes are used on the front wheels of late-model vehicles, and on the rear
wheels of an increasing number of automobiles. Disc brakes were adopted
primarily because they can supply greater stopping power than drum brakes
with less likelihood of fade. This makes disc brakes especially well suited for
use as front brakes, which must provide 60% to 80% of the vehicle’s total
stopping power

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figure 8-3 all components of the brake system

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8-2-4 Brake lines

High-pressure double-walled steel brake lines or high-strength flexible lines are
used to connect the master cylinder to each wheel. The steel brake lines are
also called brake pipes or brake tubing. Brake lines carry brake fluid from the
master cylinder to the ABS hydraulic control unit, wheel cylinders, and brake
calipers. The brake lines contain and direct the pressure of the brake hydraulic
system. Most of the total length of the brake line consists of rigid tubing. For
maximum strength and durability, all brake systems use double walled brake
tubing made from plated steel sheet. There are two
types of double-walled tubing:
_ Seamless
_ Multiple ply

8-2-5 WHEEL CYLINDERS

Hydraulic pressure is transferred from the master cylinder to each wheel
cylinder through brake fluid. The force exerted on the brake fluid by the driver
forces the piston inside the wheel cylinder to move outward. Through pushrods
or links, this movement acts on the brake shoes, forcing them.

8-2-6 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BRAKE SHOES

The primary shoe (forward facing shoe) is self-energized by drum rotation to
create a servo action that forces the secondary shoe more firmly against the
drum. Because of this, the two shoes have physical differences and cannot be
interchanged. To help deal with the added friction, heat, and wear it undergoes,
the lining of the secondary shoe extends nearly the full length of the shoe lining
The secondary shoe lining material also has a high coefficient of friction to
provide good stopping power. The primary shoe undergoes far less stress than
the secondary shoe, and its lining is often shorter sometimes less .

Figure 8-4 A typical dual-servo drum brake

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8-3 Brake design requirement.

All braking forces must provide for the following:

1- Equal forces must be applied to both the left and right sides of the vehicle to
assure straight stops.
2- Hydraulic systems must be properly engineered and serviced to provide for
changes as vehicle weight shifts forward during braking. Hydraulic valves must
be used in the hydraulic system to permit the maximum possible braking forces
but still prevent undesirable wheel lockup. Antilock braking systems (ABS) are
specifically designed to prevent wheel lockup under all driving conditions,
including wet or icy road conditions.
3- The hydraulic system must use a fluid that will not evaporate or freeze. The
fluid has to withstand extreme temperatures without boiling and must not
damage rubber or metal parts of the braking system.
4- The friction material (brake shoes or brake pads) must be designed to provide
adequate friction between the stationary shoes or pads and the rotating drum or
rotor. The friction material should be environmentally safe. Non asbestos lining
is generally considered to be safe for the environment and the technician. The
design of the braking system should secure the brake lining solidly to prevent
the movement of the friction material
during braking. It is this movement of the friction material that causes brake
noise (squeal).
5- Most braking systems incorporate a power assist unit that reduces the driver’s
effort but does not reduce stopping distance. The most commonly used brake
booster is vacuum operated.

Due to the friction between the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To
summarize, the sequence of events necessary to stop a vehicle include the
following:

1. The driver presses on the brake pedal.

2. The brake pedal force is transferred hydraulically to a wheel cylinder or
caliper at each wheel.
3. Hydraulic pressure inside the wheel cylinder or caliper presses friction
materials (brake shoes or pads) against rotating brake drums or rotors.
4. The friction slows and stops the drum or rotor. Since the drum or rotor is
bolted to the wheel of the vehicle, the wheel also stops.

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5. When the wheels of the vehicle slow and stop, the tires must have friction
(traction) with the road surface to stop the vehicle.

8-4 Antilock braking systems (ABS)

ABS help prevent the wheels from locking during sudden braking, especially on
slippery surfaces. This helps the driver maintain control. Antilock brakes
increase safety because they eliminate lockup and minimize the danger of
skidding, allowing the vehicle to stop in a straight line. ABS also allows the
driver to maintain steering control during heavy braking so the vehicle can be
steered to avoid an obstacle or another vehicle. ABS can improve braking when
road conditions are less than ideal, as when making a sudden panic stop or when
braking on a wet or slick road. ABS does this by monitoring the relative speed
of the wheels to one another. It uses this information to modulate brake pressure
as needed to control slippage and maintain traction when the brakes are applied.

ABS AND TIRE TRACTION

Preventing brake lockup is important because of the adverse effect a locked
wheel has on tire traction. The brakes slow the rotation of the wheels, but it is
friction between the tire and road that stops the vehicle and allows it to be
steered. If tire traction is reduced, stopping distances increase, and the
directional stability of the vehicle suffers. Traction is defined in terms of tire
slip, which is the difference between the actual speed and the rate at which the
tire tread moves across the road. A free-rolling wheel has nearly zero tire slip,
while a locked wheel has 100% tire slip. between the tire and road that stops the
vehicle and allows it to be .
When the brakes are applied, the rotational speed of the wheel drops, and tire
slip increases because the tread moves across the road slower than the actual
vehicle speed. This slip creates friction that converts kinetic energy into braking
and cornering force.

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he theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A skidding wheel (where the tire
contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than a non-
skidding wheel. If you have been stuck on ice, you know that if your wheels are
spinning you have no traction. This is because the contact patch is sliding
relative to the ice By keeping the wheels from skidding while you slow down,
anti-lock brakes benefit you in two ways: You'll stop faster, and you'll be able
to steer while you stop.

There are four main components to an ABS system:

 Speed sensors

 Pump

 Valves

 Controller

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Speed Sensors

The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is
about to lock up. The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some
cases in the differential, provide this information.

Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some
systems, the valve has three positions:

 In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is
passed right through to the brake.

 In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the
master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the
driver push the brake pedal harder.

 In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

Pump

Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some
way to put that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve
reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to get the pressure back up.

Controller

The controller is a computer in the car. It watches the speed sensors and
controls the valves.

ABS at Work

There are many different variations and control algorithms for ABS systems.
We will discuss how one of the simpler systems works.

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking

for decelerations in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before a wheel
locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel
would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five
seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 kph) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that
locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.

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The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it

reduces the pressure to that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases
the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do this very quickly,
before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is that the tire
slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very
near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system
maximum braking power.

When the ABS system is in operation you will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal;
this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. Some ABS
systems can cycle up to 15 times per second.

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