J 7. Creeping Flow (Chapter 7) 7.1 General features At low Re, the momentum equation is Stokes’ equation -VP, +uV’v=0 (1) pseudosteady state Time enters the problem only as a parameter; the velocity and pressure fields respond almost instantaneously to the changes in applied pressures or the surface:movements (2) linearity Uxiiqueness in solution and linear superposition of solutions apply. (3) reversibility The flow field is reversed when the applied driving force is reversed. (4) simple governing equations Taking divergence of momentum equation yields V’P,=0 Applying the Laplace operator results inO Viv=0 Taking curl leads to V’w=0 (5) surface force calculation If the gravitational effects are neglected or the dynamic pressure is used, then V-o=0 - Apply this to a macroscopic-volume V of fluid bounded by the surface S J v-oav =0=] n-odS Vv Ss Therefore J n-ods =-[ n-ods S, S> 7.2 Reciprocal theorem Lorentz reciprocal theorem states that | n-o'v'ds | n-o"-v'dS Ss Ss where prime and double prime denote two different flow fields.Proof o'=-P,1+2u” Taking double-dot product of each term with I” o:T"=-P 1042: 0" yields o:"=2ur':T" Similarly, oe r=2ur':T" Hence o': T= o% I" Since o:T=V-(o-v) volume integrals show J V-(o-v")dV =f V-(6"-v')dV Applying the divergence theorem leads to the reciprocal theorem.7.3 Unidirectional flow and near unidirectional flow Example: torque on a rotating sphere Creeping flow requires _ pR’w u Re <<1 BC: At r=kR, v,=Vg =0, v, =Rosind As r>%, V, = Vg =v, =0 Axisymmetry indicates no ¢ dependence. The solution form is v,=V¥g =0 v, = f(r)sin@ The r and @ components of the momentum equation reduce toOF, _ OFs 00. ar Hence, Pz is constant. The ¢ component 2% 1 0 Ov, o-t 2 (sing —* r or or > sin@ 00 os 90> Yo r’ sin’ @ simplifies to d q 0-2 Daf dr subject to F(R)=Ro, f()=0 Solving the above equation finds oe oR’ sin@ ¢ r The torque on a small surface element dS = R’ sinédédois dG =1,,Rsin0dS where oe Therefore, the torque on the sphere is G =-87p10R* Example: Squeeze flow, \, Ft) Flow Ue Flow Saat QH() : r ee \ } Ut) | ' Ft) R 7 The disk velocity is __ dH(t) 3 dte poate sted stake Assumptions i HU H Rea ccy Fo ce] H 7 R imply a pseudosteady, almost unidirectional flow, where Hy and Up are the largest half height and velocity. The r-momentum equation is =F OMe wee or dz" subject to ov, v,(H,t)=0, 3 |.-0=0 The solution is H’ oP Eel etal git geet v7, 2,0) = 3 ar [I GP} Integrating the continuity equation, over z yieldsZz 1d =-| -— dd: i. 5 rare’ Examining the boundary conditions for v,, Vv, |--0= 0, vz -w= —U finds that v, is independent of r. Therefore v, and OP,/or are both proportional to r. Assume aP, == t or if () to get Hf z 12,3 Vi(Zt)= pees 2 (Zt) FA 3G} Using the condition at z=H yields 3 ww th=-> #0 2H? The pressure is thus 3 wUR? rio Pir, =— 1-( (7st) i [ Gd and the velocity components becomeWw (ret) = 20 pS) H v.(et)=-SUte (5) As can be seen, the time dependence is implicitly through H and U, a main feature of pseudo-steady state The applied force is calculated by 3n wUR* F(t)=22| P,(r,t)rdr =— J 8 H The above equation is called the Stefan equation. If F is constant, the disk velocity decreases with time as H decreases. If U is constant, F increases with time. Namely, it gets more difficult to squeeze the film as the film thickness gets smaller. Since the inertial term~pV/R, and the viscous term~uV/Hy’, (Vis the scale for the radial velocity), PVH} / UR = pU,H,/u<<1 eat Fec4 (*): p Hy,7.4 Stream function solutions (see also Section 5.9) It is convenient to use a stream function for 2D flows or axisymmetric flows. A stream function is defined such that the continuity equation is automatically satisfied. a. Definition For 2D flows in the rectangular coodinate system, the stream function is defined by a ee dy > : ox x Taking curl of Stokes’ equation gives dv, ov V’w=-e,V’(—-—) =0 Mg ree ee 'y Therefore, Vy =-w, Viv =V?V'y =0 Note that the above equations are also valid for the cylindrical coordinates (r, 8). For axisymmetric flows,wv Ey =—IW, Tn foble oll for the cylindrical coordinates (r, z), E’y =-(rsin0)w, for the spherical coordinates (r, 8), and Ey = E’E’y =0 b. Physical significance A streamline is represented by a constant value of stream function. A tangent to the streamline at a given point is the fluid velocity: dr —=v(r,t) dp where p is a parameter along a streamline, defined by ds p=J— v with s being the arc length. To know what a stream function means, one can calculate0 0 v Vy =v, ahr v= ¥=0 ox oy It shows vanishing variation of a stream function in the velocity direction. Therefore a constant value of stream function represents a streamline. The streamlines can be obtained by the trajectory method or the method of determining the stream function. Another interesting feature of a stream function is that the flow rate through a curve connecting two streamlines is equal to the difference in the stream function. y =V4 2 Y I ! L x L yay,Example: Flow near a corner O=0 —» U The Reynolds number is given by Re=pUr/u because there is no fixed length scale. Using the cylindrical coordinates, i low -oy =o y,=— rd0> ° ar GE for the stream function is Viy =V’V-y =0 where 1 0? 5H eT BC:oy oy a =ru St = 56 (7,0) =r 3p (7,0) o a ar (7,0) =0° ar (r,a@) =0 The boundary conditions suggest a solution with the following form: y=) Substitution of this solution into GE yields a 2 a 6? subject to # we ao -# HoTY, FO=f(a=F,(@)=0 +1)’ f =0 Let da +1 Cee IF =8 then, one has da’ » —, +)g=0 Ce )8The solution for g is g=acosé + bsind Therefore & +1)f =acos@ + bsind ¢ ae? Ff The solution forfis _ : b f =Acos@ + Bsin@ eu cosO a : +—6sinO 2 Use BC to determine f and thus the stream function is 5 de [a? sin @ — (sin? a0 cosO a’ -sin’ a —(a@—sinacosa)@ sin@] w= 2 The velocity components, which can be determined from the stream function, are independent of r. The stress, however, is inversely proportional to 7, and becomes singular at r=0. But the force at r=0 is finite because the area is proportional to ar.Example: Uniform flow past a solid sphere € y x t f t t Ve=U Assume Ree u The flow is axisymmetric, and the spherical coordinate system is most suitable. 1 ow 1 ow == ey =- r’sin@ 00> rsin@ or GE for the stream function is E*y = E°E’y =0 where a sind ad, 1 eo + mai ee 2 or r’ 00 sind 00>BC v,(R,0)=0, v9(R,6) =0 v,(02,8) >U cos@ , v4(o,8) > -U sind In terms of the stream function, oy oy —(R,0)=0 —(R,0)=0 30 ¢ )=0 ay ¢ ) aw a0 oY (60,6) > rU sin? @ or (0,8) > r°U sin@ cos@ From far-away conditions, one can find r’U sin? 0 00,8) > w(e,8) 7 This suggests a solution form as w(r,) = f (ry)sin? @ Substitution of this form to GE yields an equidimensional equation da 2, (45-F =0 dr?subject to df ru -9q —(R)=0 0) — f(R)=0, i ile) anaes The solution is of the form fer”: D f(r) = Art + Br? +Cr+— 7 Using the BC for f finds A=0, B=U/2, C=-3UR/4, and D=UR"/4, As a result, lr 3r,1R = UR?’ sin’ 6[—(—)? -=—+-— : i b® 4R re 3R _ 1_-R v, =Ucos6[1-=—+—(—)’ i U 2r a 3R 1.-R v, =-U sin6[{1-——-—(—)° i ; 4r io and then integrating the momentum equation finds =-3 HU Ry P,= ip oO cos@ Knowing the velocity and pressure, the drag force on the sphere can be determined: Normal stressmn:o=(—-P,+2u 2 —cos@ (-F; =k DR Tangential stress Oy, /r (I-nn)-(n-o) = ur ( >) ul ge e, = | 2R The e drag force is in the z direction given by 3 “ =e, J. -odS = I3 =~ dS = 6mUR which is Stokes’s law. Note that 1/3 of the drag is from the pressure. This result also applies to a moving sphere in an otherwise quiescent fluid: F,, =—67uRU and the corresponding velocity field can be easily obtained by subtracting the uniform flow field. Since the dynamic pressure is used in the derivation, the terminal velocity of such a sphere due to gravity can be determined by balancing the drag and buoyancy force (static pressure and gravity): 104nR?A F,= fe The result is 2 ua 2 Rede 9 pyExample: Axisymmetric extensional flow past a solid sphere x Imposed flow: u=—y(xe, + ye, —2ze,) Rate of strain: T=-y(e,e, +e,e, —2e,e.) where yis a constant. Positive and negative g correspond to uniaxial and biaxial extensional flows, respectively. Using the following relations: e, =sin@ cosde, + cosO cos de, — sin ge,e, =sin@ singe, + cosO singe, + cosge, e, =cosée, —sin Oe, x=rsin@cosd y=rsinO sing z=rcosO leads to u = yr(3cos’ 6 — le, — 3yrsin@ cos6e, Assume — PYR? u Re << Similar to the previous example, one can use the condition far from the sphere and 1 ow _ 1 ow v,=— ry? sin@ 00> ° — rsin@ dr to obtain y(~,8) > yr’ sin’ 0 cosO This suggests a solution form as w(r,0) = f (r)sin? 6 cosOwith no slip condition oy ow —(R,0)=0 —(R,0)=0 BR 8)=0, SRB) Substitution of this form to GE yields an a equation. o-Sy f=0 r subject to df f(R)=0, G®=9 fey? Using a similar approach finds y= YR’ sin? AcosOl] aye -3 45 v, =~RGcos? 6 - eG yr43 sy =—3yRcos6 sina — (8) R r P, =-Suy(X) cos? 8 1) rNote that the velocity disturbance decays as 1/r’, as opposed to 1/r in the previous case. More discussion for this difference will be made later. Normal stress nn:o=(—-P, +2u ov “Y ber 7 0 =—5uy(3cos? 6-1) Tangential stress dv, /r) (I=-nn)-(n-o) = yr 5 ler &o r =—15yy cos@ sinOe, The drag force is F, =f n-eds =0 s 7.5 Point-force solutions a. Point-force solution The concept is similar to that of Green’s function for conduction and diffusion.For a point force F acting on the fluid at the origin, the momentum equation is VP, =HV?v+6()F with the requirement that both the velocity and pressure vanish as r approaches infinity. The point- force solution is usually called the stokeslet: vr) = —_ a+) -F=G-F 87ur r ; 1 P,(r)= ae -F where c=—-a+") Sar r is the Oseen tensor. The stokeslet represents only the disturbance to a base flow due to the presence of the point force. The derivation of the stokeslet can be done by looking at the case of a uniform flow past a sphere in the limit of R0 but constant F. Discarding the contribution from the base flow, one has : 3R 1-R =Ucos6[-——+—(—)’ v, =U cos6[ oe 7!Vo ce a 3 uu ae Ayre Use the Stokes’ law to get F. pasts Zz 6mpU where F, is the force acting on the fluid. As a result, ReGcE Hoe &: = ee 7 r 6muUr » r 6muUr r The cubic term vanishes as R->0. Therefore F, 1 P,=— =—r-F 4° Amr? 4a , ~sin@e, ) 8aur =——(2e,e, +e,e,):F oe 6)*=! (te,e,)-F 8aur b. Integral representations The solutions to problems involving complex geometries can be constructed by the superposition of stokeslets. Consider a continuous distribution of forces over a surface S subject to an imposed flow u(r). The fluid velocity is given by v(r) = u(r) - f Garr’) -s(r’ yds" where : s=n-o eet (r-r')r-r') Gar a ] R=|r-r'| Numerical boundary integral techniques can be used to solve the integral equations. An analogous relation can be written for a continuous distribution of forces over a volume V.Example: Multipole expansion r’ Taylor series expansion for the Oseen tensor is Gir -r') = G(r) -r'-'VG |,.9 + Thus f G@-r)-s(r')as'= Go)-J s(r)as" s Ss =f PVG [peo S(r")dS'+.. Ss The 1“ term of RHS is G(r): f s(r')ds'=-G(r)-F Ss The 2™ term of RHS is -f r'-VG |,-9 ‘S(t )dS'= -f sr': VG |, dS" ie. Ss =-D: VG |,where the dipole tensor D =f s(r')r'dS'= f n(r')-o(r' )r'ds" Ss Ss is called the stresslet. In this way, one can see the individual contributions from the force, dipole, quadrupole, etc. For a particle with nonzero net force, the leading order velocity disturbance decays as l/r since G is involved. For a freely suspended particle (ie., F=0), the disturbance decays as 1/r’ or even faster because of VG or higher order derivatives. A stationary sphere in an extensional flow and a rotating sphere in a quiescent fluid are two examples.7.6 Faxen’s law and suspension viscosity a. Faxen’s laws Faxen’s laws allow one to calculate the force, torque, and first moment of force on a spherical particle in an arbitrary flow without aneed to solve for the velocity disturbance. These laws can be derived using the Lorentz reciprocal theorem. Consider a sphere moving at Up in an unperturbed flow u(r). The objective is to determine the drag force on the particle. Due to linearity and a vanishing fluid velocity far from the particle used in the derivation of the reciprocal theorem, we need indeed to consider the field, for which u(r) has been subtracted. The corresponding fluid velocity and stress are v” and 0”. Note that the subtraction of u does not affect the drag force as u has no contribution to the drag, which can be shown using the divergence theorem. To apply the reciprocal theorem, we use the known field around a sphere moving at -U in quiescent fluid as the comparison flow field. The corresponding fluid velocity and stress are v’ and 0”.The reciprocal theorem relates the two fields as J n-o'v"ds = | n-o"-v'dS Ss Ss RHS J n-o"-v'dS =-U-f n-o"dS =-U-F" Ss Ss F” is the quantity that we wish to determine. LHS f n-o-v'ds =f n-6'(U, —u)ds Ss Ss From the previous result, n-o'=24U= : : 2R 4aR which is in dependent of @ and ¢. Therefore, J n--v'ds = Gye | (U, -wds Ss 3K Ss 2kTo evaluate the integral, we use the Taylor series expansion for u about the sphere center: 1 u(r) =u, +r-(Vu), + oe :(WVu), +... where the subscript 0 denotes a quantity evaluated at the particle center. Substitution of this expansion leads to 2 [ ads = 42r’[u, += Vu), ] , All the higher order terms in the Taylor series expansion have no contribution because of V‘u=0 Comparing both sides in the reciprocal theorem and cancel U yields R? 1" 2 F=F"= 6apR[(u, -U,)+ eo U)o] which is called Faxen’s first law. For a linear flow, Vu=0the drag force is proportional to the particle velocity relative to the unperturbed fluid velocity at its center. If the particle is freely suspended, it follows the imposed fluid velocity. The torque on a sphere is given by Faxen’s second law: 1 T= 8mUR'T, (Vxu),-o] where @ is the angular velocity of the sphere. For a freely suspended particle, the particle angular velocity is equal to half of the unperturbed vorticity. The first moment of force is given by Faxen’s third law: 3 D= me va), +(Vu"),] 5 +E v'vw), +(V2Vu" )o]b. Effective viscosity of a dilute suspension of spheres A suspension of particles, such as paint, has a viscosity different from the value of the solvent (suspending fluid). A major objective of studies of suspension rheology is to relate the effective viscosity to the microstructure of the suspension. There exist several length scales in particle suspensions: particle size (R), average distance between particles, and the container dimension (L). The first two are regarded as the microscopic length scales. If L exceeds the microscopic length scales, the suspension may be viewed as a homogeneous fluid with certain effective viscosity. In addition, suspension flow may have more than one velocity scale: U (microscopic), and U;, (macroscopic). An analysis based on small UR/v does not necessarily mean that U,L/v has to be small. We consider a dilute suspension of rigid spheres, whose density equals that of suspending Newtonian fluid with viscosity Uo. The spheres are both force and torque free because ef no applied external force and couple. The average stress for the suspension can be written as=-P,I+2u, where ==f odV Vy

=4f Tav Vy and V is a volume of suspension which includes both particles and fluid, and satisfies R<-2y, of (o-2u,T)dV Vy 1 | J (6-2, )dV 1 1 =-—If Pdv+—[ odv Ve ve Use the following identity: o=V-(or)-(V-o)r which, with no inertia and body forces, becomes 6o=V-(or) and the divergence theorem, the 2™ integral on RHS becomes J odV = J n-ordS V, Ss P 'P Therefore <0>-2)

=-Pyl+ =f n-ordS Sp Note that there are many particles within V, and the surface integral for each particle, in general, may be different, depending on the instantaneous positions of the particles and the interactions. For a dilute suspension, however, the particles are sufficiently far apart from one another, so that the interactions are negligible. As a result, 1 —f n-ordS = mj n-ordS =mD V; s P 0 where m is the number of particles per volume and So denotes the surface of a single sphere.Consider a suspension of identical spheres subject to simple shear flow. The rigid-body rotation causes the freely suspended particles to rotate at the same angular velocity, making no contribution to the stress. We can simply use the result for a freely suspended sphere in extensional flow to evaluate D. Taking the sphere center as the origin, 21 D=R'| | [-Pie,e, +7, ee, ]sinadedg q 0 0 where ~ P,(R,0) = — 5upy (3cos’ 8-1) T9(R,O) =-15uyy cos@ sinO e, =sinO cosde, +sind singe, + cose, e, =cos0 cose, +cosé singe, —sin Oe, The result is 20 3 D= am Mpy (€,€, +€,e, —2€,€,) which can also be obtained from Faxen’s third law.For a dilute suspension, the average rate of strain is very close to that in the unperturbed flow. Hence p= R? Ly = 5Vy uy

The average stress is 5 =-P,l ee where @, is the volume fraction of the particles. 5 Meg = Moll +59) This well-known result was first obtained by Einstein in 1906. The increase in viscosity, as compared to the fluid viscosity, is due to the resistance of rigid particles to deformation. In general, the effective viscosity of a suspension has the form similar to a virial expansion: Hog = Mgt Cib, + C.9, +)