Macromolecules – Nutrients: Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins and Carbohydrates

Why Eat?
- For our body to get the energy it needs to survive

Macronutrients
•Macro meaning very large in scale. Provide:
– Structural materials
o Provide substances needed by the body to manufacture new cells for growth
and replace old/damaged cells or tissues
– Energy
o Needed by the body to carry out cellular processes E.g. ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) -necessary in cellular respiration
o Sustains our physical and mental activity

Carbohydrates
- Always contain C, H & O in the same proportion. 2 H, 1 O & 1 C

Function:
- Provide short term energy and builds cell membranes

E.g. Glucose C6H12O6 (grape sugar)

1. Monosaccharides
- Simple sugar
- Examples: Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose
- does not have to be digested, it can be used directly by our body.
1. Disaccharide
- Double Sugar
- Glucose + fructose = sucrose
- Glucose + galactose = lactose

2. Polysaccharides
- Ex. Starch, glycogen and cellulose
- Many monosaccharides linked together
- Greater than 10 but can range from 20-2500

Proteins
- Building blocks:
o Made up of amino acids
o There are 20 amino acids
o Many made up of 100s od amino acids joined together by peptide bonds to
form long chains called polypeptides
- Function
 o Structure and support for blood cells, tissue and muscle
o Produce enzymes that speed up chemical reactions
o Fight diseases – antibodies

Nucleic Acids
- Structure:
o RNA – ribonucleic acid
o DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
o Made up of nucleotides
- Function
o Contains genetic info and directs growth and development
o RNA makes proteins

Building Up Macromolecules
- Condensation: a chemical reaction in which H2O is removed from 2 molecules in
order for both molecules to be combined
Breaking Down Macromolecules
- Hydrolysis (hydro water, lysis  break down): a chemical reaction in which
H2O breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. Proteins, carbs & lipids all need to
be broken down before the body can use them.
- Enzymes: proteins that speed up reactions

Types of Digestive Enzymes

- Usually end in ase
- Carbohydrates – carbohydrase & amylase
- Lipids – lipase
- Proteins – protease & pepsin
- Nucleic acid – nuclease

Micronutrients - Minerals
- inorganic substances that enable chemical reactions & aid in tissue development,
growth, and immunity (ex. Ca, Fe, Mg, K, Na)

Vitamins
-Same function as minerals, but are organic (ex. Vit. A, B, C, D, E)

Special Nutrient – Water

- transports nutrients
- flushes toxins and eliminates waste – urine and sweat
- lubricates tissues and joints
- forms essential body fluids – blood and mucus
- regulates body temp (homeostasis) – sweat
Obtaining Food
- Animals are heterotrophs – must consume food. There are four general feeding
mechanisms:

Digestive System

4 Stages of Digestion
1. ingestion –taking in nutrients
2. digestion –breakdown of molecules
3. absorption –taking up of digested molecules into digestive tract.
4. elimination –removal of waste food from the body.

Mouth
1. Chemical digestion: salivary glands that secrete saliva, contains the enzyme
amylase which is released to break down starch into simple sugars.
2. Mechanical: Teeth break down food, tongue helps turn the food into a soft
bolus.

Esophagus
- A hollow muscular tube that transports the bolus to stomach by peristalsis=
wave-like muscular contractions; mucus keeps passage moist.
- Epiglottis near windpipe prevents bolus from entering lungs

Stomach
- Food stored here temporarily -> further chem. & mech. digestion.
- J-shaped, muscular -> churns food into chyme (thick liquid)
- Break down of protein occurs
- food triggers secretion of gastric juice, a mixture of

a) HCl(acid) – breaks down food

b) mucus – protects stomach lining from acid
c) enzymes - pepsin breaks down proteins, is inactive until acid is released
d) salt and water

Small Intestine

- Lined with villi = tiny finger-like projections that ↑ surface area to improve
nutrient absorption into the blood.
- Break down of lipids occurs
- Each villus is covered in microvilli (to increase surface area for reabsorption)

Small intestine - Three parts (in order)

 1. duodenum: ~0.5m, most digestion occurs here due to secretions from pancreas &
gall bladder
2. jejunum: 2.5m, has a large # of folds and continues digestion & absorption
3. ileum: 3m,has fewest villi, undigested material pushed through

Three Accessory Organs

1. Pancreas
2. Liver
3. Gall Bladder

1. Pancreas: leaf-shaped, fluid contains enzymes to break down food, releases

bicarbonate to neutralize acidic chyme and raise pH, also makes insulin and
glucagon  controls blood sugar levels (homeostasis)
2. Liver: largest internal organ in body
a. Produces bile to break down lipids and is stored in the gall bladder
b. Stores glycogen, iron and vitamins
c. Disposes of body wastes - alcohol, drugs
3. Gall Bladder
a. Stores bile

Nutrient Absorption in the Small Intestine

- Monosaccharides  go to liver to be converted into glucose energy. Any excess
is converted into glycogen in the liver and stored for “back up”
- Amino acids  go to the liver to be turned into waste or new proteins.
- Glycerol + fatty acids  reassembled to form triglycerides and then can be
absorbed for energy.

Large Intestine (Colon)

- Shorter but wider than small intestine
- Main function:
- water is re-absorbed (into blood)
- home to anaerobic bacteria: continue food breakdown and produce vitamins &
minerals (folic acid, vit. B and K)
- Dried content -> feces -> pushed through by muscle contractions to the rectum ->
anus

Diarrhea & Constipation

- Diarrhea-not enough water being absorbed by the large intestine
- Constipation-too much water being absorbed by the large intestine

Digestive System Disorders

- Acid Reflux or Heartburn

Peptic Ulcers
 - •mucus covering stomach lining weakens -> sores -> tissues inflamed from HCl
- •Often Heliobacter pylori bacteria attach to wall -> prevent mucus production
- •Treatment includes: antibiotics, antacids & lifestyle changes (↓ food intake,
avoiding alcohol & smoking)

Inflammatory
Bowel Disease (IBD)
- Diseases that cause inflammation in intestines
- No cure –Colitis and Crohn’s Disease
- Crohns disease: can affect and inflame any part of the digestive tract (mouth ->
anus)
- Colitis results in loose and bloody stools
- Treatment includes: Special diet & medication.
- Surgery to remove parts of colon

Constipation
- •Bowel movements are 3/week or fewer, stools are dry, small, and difficult to
eliminate
- •Due to inadequate water intake, and poor diet
- •Treatment: increase fibre intake

Hepatitis
•inflammation of liver caused by a virus
1. hepatitis A: contaminated water (vaccine exists for protection)
2. hepatitis B: sexual contact with an infected person (vaccine exists for
protection)
3. hepatitis C: infected blood contact (no vaccine)

Cirrhosis
- •irreversible replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue
- •Caused by hepatitis C & alcoholism
- •Symptoms: fatty liver resulting in jaundice
- •Treatment: transplant, if possible

Gallstones
- •Cholesterol in the bile precipitates out forms solid crystals (gallstones), ducts can
be blocked extreme pain!
- •Caused by obesity, high alcohol intake, heredity
- •Treatment: medications or ultrasound shockwaves to disintegrate stones; severe
cases -> g.b. removal

The Non-Invasive Endoscope

 - -allows surgeons to locate, diagnose & remove ulcers, tumours, and other
problems by observing the lining of any part of the alimentary canal (= tube from
mouth to the anus) without cutting, entering at either end.
- -Cameras, lasers (for cutting or sealing), or forceps (for extraction) can be
attached.
- -A capsule endoscope, (has tiny camera) shown below, can be used to observe the
small intestine.

Diabetes
- body cells are unable to use glucose (sugar) for energy
- •not enough or cannot properly use insulin
- •w/o insulin, glucose cannot get into the cells, and blood glucose rises to life-
threatening levels.
3 types:
- Type 1: insulin-producing cells destroyed by immune system (diagnosed often in
children insulin injections)
- Type 2: either the body does not make enough insulin or it is unable to properly
use the insulin (usually in people above 40, from poor diet & lack of exercise)
- Type 3: gestational: develops during pregnancy -> control with diet