Mo 8

Chapter 8
Bonding:
General Concepts
Dr. Mamoon Alokour

8.1 Types of Chemical Bonds
 A Chemical Bond
• Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make
them function as a unit.
• A bond will form if the energy of the aggregate is
lower than that of the separated atoms.
• Ionic Bonding
1. Electrons are transferred
2. Metals react with nonmetals
3. Ions paired have lower energy (greater stability)
than separated ions
Coulomb's Law (to calculate the energy of interaction

between ions)
−19
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐸 = (2.31 × 10 𝐽. 𝑛𝑚)( )
𝑟
where E = energy in joules
Q1 and Q2 are numerical ion charges .
r = distance between ion center in (nm)
*negative sign indicates an attractive force

The Interaction of
Two Hydrogen
Atoms
The Interaction of Two Hydrogen
Atoms
Ionic Bonding : electrons are transferred
Covalent Bonding : electrons are shared equally by
nuclei.
Polar Covalent bond:
• Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms in a
molecule.
• Results in a charge separation in the bond (partial
positive and partial negative charge).
The Effect of an Electric Field on Hydrogen Fluoride Molecules
 or  indicates a positive or negative fractional charge.

8.2 Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared

electrons to itself.
• On the periodic table, electronegativity generally
increases across a period and decreases down a group.
• The range of electronegativity values is from 4.0 for
fluorine (the most electronegative) to 0.7 for cesium (the
least electronegative).
The Pauling Electronegativity Values
Example 8.1
Exercise :
Which of the following bonds would be the least
polar yet still be considered polar covalent?
Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O

Ans N-O
Exercise
Arrange the following bonds from most to least polar:
a) N–F O–F C–F

b) C–F N–O Si–F
c) Cl–Cl B–Cl S–Cl
Ans:
a) C–F, N–F, O–F
b) Si–F, C–F, N–O
c) B–Cl, S–Cl, Cl–Cl
8.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moment
 Dipole Moment
• Property of a molecule whose charge distribution can be
represented by a center of positive charge and a center
of negative charge.
• Use an arrow to represent a dipole moment.
– Point to the negative charge center with the tail of the
arrow indicating the positive center of charge.
Dipole Moment
(a) The charge distribution in the water molecule. (b) The water molecule
in an electric field. (c) The electrostatic potential diagram of the water
molecule.
No Net Dipole Moment (Dipoles Cancel)
(a) The carbon dioxide molecule. (b) The opposed bond polarities cancel
out, and the carbon dioxide molecule has no dipole moment. (c) The
electrostatic potential diagram for carbon dioxide
Example 8.2: For each of the following molecules, show the direction
of the bond polarities and indicate which ones have a dipole
moment: HCl, Cl2, SO3 (a planar molecule with the oxygen atoms
spaced evenly around the central sulfur atom), CH4 [tetrahedral (see
Table 8.2) with the carbon atom at the center], and H2S (V shaped
with the sulfur atom at the point).
8.4 Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes
 Stable Compounds
• Atoms in stable compounds usually have a noble gas
electron configuration.
Electron Configurations in Stable Compounds

• When two nonmetals react to form a covalent bond, they
share electrons in a way that completes the valence
electron configurations of both atoms.
• When a nonmetal and a representative-group metal react

to form a binary ionic compound, the ions form so that
the valence electron configuration of the nonmetal
achieves the electron configuration of the next noble gas
atom. The valence orbitals of the metal are emptied.
 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds
• solid ionic compounds contain a large collection of

positive and negative ions packed together in a way
that minimizes the + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ⋯ − repulsions
and maximizes + ⋯ − attractions .
• Example: MgO, Al2O3

 Sizes of Ions
The relative sizes of an ion and its parent atom
• The size of the cation is smaller than its parent
atom, while the opposite is correct for the anion .
• Size: Al+3< Al , Cl - > Cl
 Isoelectronic ions
A series of ions/atoms containing the same
number of electrons.
• Like O2-, F-, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+
• In general, for a series of isoelectronic ions, the size
decreases as the nuclear charge Z increases.
Example 8.3
Example 8.4
8.5 Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds
 Lattice Energy
• The change in energy that takes place when separated
gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic solid.
 Q1Q2 
Lattice energy = k  
 r 
k = proportionality constant
Q1 and Q2 = charges on the ions
r = shortest distance between the centers of the
cations and anions
The energy changes involved in
the formation of solid lithium
fluoride from its elements.
Formation of an Ionic Solid
1.Sublimation of the solid metal.
• Li(s) Li(g) [enthalpy of sublimation = +161 KJ/mol ]
2. Ionization of the metal atoms.
• Li(g) Li+(g) + e [1st I.E =+520 KJ/mol ]
3. Dissociation of the nonmetal.
• 1/2F2(g) F(g) [E required to break ½ mole of fluorine
= +77 KJ] *
• Energy needed to break 1 mole of F2 is 154KJ
4 Formation of nonmetal ions in the gas phase.
• F(g) + e F(g) [Electron Affinity of F = -328KJ/mol]
5.Formation of the solid ionic compound.
• Li+(g) + F(g) LiF(s) [Lattice Energy = -1047 KJ/mol ]
Since the sum of these five processes yields
the desired overall reaction, the sum of the
individual energy changes gives the overall
energy change:
8.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds
No bonds reach 100% ionic character even with

compounds that have the maximum possible
electronegativity difference.
 measured dipole moment of X  Y 

% ionic character of a bond =   100%
 calculated dipole moment of X+Y  
 
 The relationship between the ionic character of a covalent bond
and the electronegativity difference of the bonded atoms.
**Note that the compounds with ionic character greater than 50% are
normally considered to be ionic compounds.
Operational Definition of Ionic Compound: Any compound that

conducts an electric current when melted will be classified as ionic.
8.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions
Single bond : one pair of electrons is shared

Double bond : two pairs of electrons are shared
Triple bond: three pairs of electrons are shared
As the number of shared electrons increases , the
bond length decreases , So Bond Energy Increases
Bond Energies
• To break bonds, energy must be added to the system
(endothermic, energy term carries a positive sign).
• To form bonds, energy is released (exothermic, energy
term carries a negative sign).
• The Enthalpy change for a reaction (ΔH): sum of the
energies required to break old bonds (positive signs) plus
the sum of the energies released in the formation of new
bonds (negative signs)
• ∆𝐻 = 𝐷 (𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛) − 𝐷 (𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)
**Where D represents the bond energy per mole of bonds (always has a positive
sign).
Example 8.5
8.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model
 Localized Electron Model

• A molecule is composed of atoms that are bound
together by sharing pairs of electrons using the atomic
orbitals of the bound atoms.
• Electron pairs are assumed to be localized on a
particular atom or in the space between two atoms:
– Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on an atom
– Bonding pairs – pairs of electrons found in the space
between the atoms
 Localized Electron Model
1. Description of valence electron arrangement (Lewis

structure).
2. Prediction of geometry (VSEPR model).
3. Description of atomic orbital types used by atoms to
share electrons or hold lone pairs.
Writing Lewis Structures
1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing what atoms are
bonded to each other. Put least electronegative element in the
center.
–
2. Count total number of valence e . Add 1 for each negative charge
Subtract 1 for each positive charge.
3. Complete an octet for all atoms except hydrogen.

4. If structure contains too many electrons, form double and triple
bonds on central atom as needed.
© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-36

Example 8.6 (1 of 3)
Write the Lewis structure for nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)
NF3 is a colorless, odorless, unreactive gas.

Solution
We follow the preceding procedure for writing Lewis structures.
Step 1: The N atom is less electronegative than F, so the skeletal

structure of NF3 is
Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of N and F are

2s 2 2 p3 and 2s 2 2 p5 , respectively. Thus, there are 5 +  3  7 ,
or 26, valence electrons to account for in NF3.

Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between N and each F, and
complete the octets for the F atoms. We place the remaining two
electrons on N:
Because this structure satisfies the octet rule for all the atoms, step 4 is
not required.
Check
Count the valence electrons in NF3 (in bonds and in lone pairs). The
result is 26, the same as the total number of valence electrons on
three F atoms  3  7 = 21  and one N atom (5).

Write the Lewis structure for nitric acid (HNO3) in which the
three O atoms are bonded to the central N atom and the
ionizable H atom is bonded to one of the O atoms.
HNO3 is a strong electrolyte.

Solution
We follow the procedure already outlined for writing Lewis
structures.
Step 1: The skeletal structure of HNO3 is

O N O H
O
Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of N, O, and H
are 2s 2 2 p 3 , 2s 2 2 p 4 and1s 1, respectively. Thus, there are
5 +  3  6  + 1,or 24, valence electrons to account for in HNO3.

Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between N and

each of the three O atoms and between one O atom
and the H atom. Then we fill in electrons to comply
with the octet rule for the O atoms:
Step 4: We see that this structure satisfies the octet rule for
all the O atoms but not for the N atom. The N atom
has only six electrons. Therefore, we move a lone
pair from one of the end O atoms to form another
bond with N.
Now the octet rule is also satisfied for the N atom:
Check
Make sure that all the atoms (except H) satisfy the octet rule.
Count the valence electrons in HNO3 (in bonds and in
lone pairs). The result is 24, the same as the total number
of valence electrons on three O atoms  3  6 = 18  ,
one N atom (5), and one H atom (1).

Write the Lewis structure for the carbonate ion  CO32– .

Solution
We follow the preceding procedure for writing Lewis
structures and note that this is an anion with two negative
charges.
Step 1: We can deduce the skeletal structure of the

carbonate ion by recognizing that C is less electronegative
than O. Therefore, it is most likely to occupy a central
position as follows:
O
O C O
Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of C and O are

2s 2 2 p 2 and 2s 2 2 p 4 ,
respectively, and the ion itself has two negative charges. Thus,
the total number of electrons is
 
4 + 3  6 + 2, or 24.
Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between C and each O
and comply with the octet rule for the O atoms:
This structure shows all 24 electrons.

Step 4: Although the octet rule is satisfied for the O atoms, it is not for
the C atom. Therefore, we move a lone pair from one of the O
atoms to form another bond with C. Now the octet rule is also
satisfied for the C atom:
Check
Make sure that all the atoms satisfy the octet rule. Count the
valence electrons in CO32–
(in chemical bonds and in lone pairs). The result is 24, the same
as the total number of valence electrons on three O atoms
3  6 = 18  , one C atom (4), and two negative charges (2).

Formal Charge
An atom’s formal charge is the difference between the

number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and the
number of electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis
structure.
 total number of bondingelectrons 

1
formalchargeon an atom totalnumber of valence total number of
  
in aLewis structure electrons in the free atom non bonding electrons
2
The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule or ion must equal the charge
on the molecule or ion.

Write formal charges for the carbonate ion.

Strategy
The Lewis structure for the carbonate ion was developed in
Example 8.8:
The formal charges on the atoms can be calculated using the

given procedure.
Solution
We subtract the number of nonbonding electrons and half of the
bonding electrons from the valence electrons of each atom.
The C atom: The C atom has four valence electrons and
there are no nonbonding electrons on the atom
in the Lewis structure. The breaking of the
double bond and two single bonds results in the
transfer of four electrons to the C atom.
Therefore, the formal charge is 4 − 4 = 0.
The O atom in C = 0: The O atom has six valence electrons

and there are four nonbonding electrons on the
atom. The breaking of the double bond results
in the transfer of two electrons to the O atom.
Here the formal charge is 6 − 4 − 2 = 0.

The O atom in C − 0: This atom has six nonbonding electrons and
the breaking of the single bond transfers
another electron to it. Therefore, the formal
charge is 6−6 −1= −1.
Thus, the Lewis structure for CO32– with formal charges is
Check
Note that the sum of the formal charges is −2, the same as the
charge on the carbonate ion.

Formal Charge and Lewis Structures
1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which

there are no formal charges is preferable to one in
which formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar
distributions of formal charges, the most plausible
structure is the one in which negative formal
charges are placed on the more electronegative
atoms.

Formaldehyde CH2O,
a liquid with a disagreeable odor, traditionally has been used
to preserve laboratory specimens. Draw the most likely
Lewis structure for the compound.

Strategy
A plausible Lewis structure should satisfy the octet rule for
all the elements, except H, and have the formal charges (if
any) distributed according to electronegativity guidelines.
Solution
The two possible skeletal structures are
H
C O
H C O H H
a b 
First we draw the Lewis structures for each of these
possibilities
To show the formal charges, we follow the procedure given in Example

8.9. In (a) the C atom has a total of five electrons (one lone pair plus
three electrons from the breaking of a single and a double bond).
Because C has four valence electrons, the formal charge on the atom is
4 − 5= −1. The O atom has a total of five electrons (one lone pair and
three electrons from the breaking of a single and a double bond). Since
O has six valence electrons, the formal charge on the atom is 6 − 5 = +1.

In (b) the C atom has a total of four electrons from the breaking of two
single bonds and a double bond, so its formal charge is 4 − 4 = 0. The O
atom has a total of six electrons (two lone pairs and two electrons from
the breaking of the double bond). Therefore, the formal charge on the
atom is 6 − 6 = 0. Although both structures satisfy the octet rule, (b) is
the more likely structure because it carries no formal charges.
Check
In each case make sure that the total number of valence electrons is 12.
Can you suggest two other reasons why (a) is less plausible?
Resonance Structures
A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis

structures for a single molecule that cannot be
represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.

Draw three resonance structures for the molecule

nitrous oxide, N2O (the atomic arrangement is NNO).
Indicate formal charges.
Rank the structures in their relative importance to the

overall properties of the molecule.

Example 8.11(2 of 3)
Strategy
The skeletal structure for N2O is
N N O
We follow the procedure used for drawing Lewis structures
Solution
The three resonance structures are

We see that all three structures show formal charges.
Structure (b) is the most important one because the negative charge is
on the more electronegative oxygen atom.
Structure (c) is the least important one because it has a larger separation
of formal charges. Also, the positive charge is on the more
electronegative oxygen atom.
Check
Make sure there is no change in the positions of the atoms in the
structures. Because N has five valence electrons and O has six valence
electrons, the total number of valence electrons is 5 × 2 + 6 = 16. The
sum of formal charges is zero in each structure.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule (1 of 2)
The Incomplete Octet
Be – 2e –
BeH 2 2H – 2  1e –
4e –
Β – 3e – 3 Single bonds  3  2  = 6
BF3 3F – 3  7e – 9 lone pairs  9  2  = 18
24e – Total = 24

Exceptions to the Octet Rule (2 of 2)
Odd-Electron Molecules
N – 5e –
NO –
0 – 6e
11e –
The Expanded Octet (central atom with principal quantum

number n > 2)
S – 6e – 6 Single bonds  6  2  = 12
SF6 6F – 42e – 18 lone pairs 18  2  = 36
48e – Total = 48

Draw the Lewis structure for aluminum triiodide  AlI3  .
AlI3 has a tendency to

dimerize or form two units as
Al2I6.
Strategy
We follow the procedures used in Examples 9.5 and 9.6 to draw the Lewis
structure and calculate formal charges.
Solution
The outer-shell electron configurations of Al and I are 3s 2 3 p1 and 5s 2 5 p5 ,
respectively. The total number of valence electrons is 3 + 3 × 7 or 24. Because
Al is less electronegative than I, it occupies a central position and forms three
bonds with the I atoms:
Note that there are no formal charges on the Al and I atoms.

Check
Although the octet rule is satisfied for the I atoms, there
are only six valence electrons around the Al atom.
Thus, AlI3 is an example of the incomplete octet.

Draw the Lewis structure for phosphorus pentafluoride PF5  ,
PF5 is a reactive
gaseous compound.
Solution
The outer-shell electron configurations for P and F are
3s 2 3 p 3 and 2s 2 2 p 5 , respectively, and so the total number of valence
electrons is 5 +  5  7  , or 40.
Phosphorus, like sulfur, is a third-period element, and therefore it

can have an expanded octet.

The Lewis structure of PF5 is
Note that there are no formal charges on the P and F atoms.
Check
Although the octet rule is satisfied for the F atoms, there are 10
valence electrons around the P atom, giving it an expanded
octet.
Draw a Lewis structure for the sulfate ion SO2–

4

Solutions
The outer-shell electron configurations of S and O
3s 2 3 p 4 and2s 2 2 p 4 , respectively.
Step 1: The skeletal structure of SO2–

4 is
O
O S O
O
Step 2: Both O and S are Group 6A elements and so have
six valence electrons each. Including the two
negative charges, we must therefore account for a
total of 6 +  4  6  + 2,or 32, valence electrons in SO24–
Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between all the

bonding atoms:

Next we show formal charges on the S and O atoms:
Note that we can eliminate some of the formal charges for

SO2–
4
by expanding the S atom’s octet as follows:

The question of which of these two structures is more
important, that is, the one in which the S atom obeys the octet
rule but bears more formal charges or the one in which the S
atom expands its octet, has been the subject of some debate
among chemists. In many cases, only elaborate quantum
mechanical calculations can provide a clearer answer.
At this stage of learning, you should realize that both

representations are valid Lewis structures and you should be
able to draw both types of structures. One helpful rule is that
in trying to minimize formal charges by expanding the central
atom’s octet, only add enough double bonds to make the
formal charge on the central atom zero.

Thus, the following structure would give formal
charges on S  –2  and O  0  that are inconsistent with
the electronegativities of these elements and should
therefore not be included to represent the SO24– ion.

Draw a Lewis structure of the noble gas compound xenon tetrafluoride

XeF4 

Solution
Step 1: The skeletal structure of XeF4 is
F F
Xe
F F
Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of Xe and F are 5s 2 5 p 6 and 2s 2 2 p5 ,
respectively, and so the total number of valence electrons is 8 +  4  7  or 36.

Example 8.15(3 of 3)
Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between all the bonding
atoms. The octet rule is satisfied for the F atoms, each of which
has three lone pairs. The sum of the lone pair electrons on the
four F atoms  4 × 6  and the four bonding pairs (4× 2) is 32.
Therefore, the remaining four electrons are shown as two lone
pairs on the Xe atom:
We see that the Xe atom has an expanded octet. There are

no formal charges on the Xe and F atoms.

Valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) model:
Predict the geometry of the molecule from the

electrostatic repulsions between the electron (bonding
and nonbonding) pairs.
# of atoms # lone
Arrangement of Molecular
Class bonded to pairs on
electron pairs Geometry
central atom central atom
AB2 2 0 linear linear
******Molecular Geometry = Molecular structure

Beryllium Chloride

VSEPR (1 of 4)
# of atoms # lone Arrangement

Molecular
Class bonded to pairs on of electron
Geometry
central atom central atom pairs
AB2 2 0 linear Linear
trigonal trigonal
AB3 3 0
Planar planar

Boron Trifluoride

VSEPR (2 of 4)
# of atoms # lone

trigonal trigonal
AB3 3 0
planar planar
AB4 4 0 tetrahedral tetrahedral

Methane

VSEPR (3 of 4)
# of atoms # lone
trigonal trigonal
AB3 3 0
planar planar
trigonal trigonal
AB5 5 0
bipyramidal bipyramidal

Phosphorus Pentachloride

VSEPR (4 of 4)
# of atoms # lone
trigonal trigonal
AB3 3 0
planar planar
trigonal trigonal
AB5 5 0
AB6 6 0 Octahedral octahedral

Sulfur Hexafluoride

Summary of VSEPR

Tetrahedral Bond Angles
lone - pair vs. lone - pair lone - pair vs. bonding - bonding - pair vs. bonding -
 
repulsion pair repulsion pair repulsion

VSEPR: 3 Electron Groups
# of atoms # lone
trigonal trigonal
AB3 3 0
Planar planar
trigonal
AB2E 2 1 bent
planar

VSEPR: 4 Electron Groups (1 of 2)
# of atoms # lone

trigonal
AB3E 3 1 tetrahedral
pyramidal

# of atoms # lone Arrangement

Molecular
Class bonded to pairs on central of electron
Geometry
central atom atom pairs

trigonal
AB3E 3 1 tetrahedral
pyramidal
AB2E2 2 2 tetrahedral bent

# of atoms # lone
Class bonded to central pairs on central
atom atom
trigonal trigonal
AB5 5 0
trigonal distorted
AB4E 4 1
bipyramidal tetrahedron

# of atoms # lone
trigonal trigonal
AB5 5 0
trigonal distorted
AB4E 4 1
trigonal
AB3E2 3 2 T- shaped
bipyramidal

# of atoms # lone
trigonal trigonal
AB5 5 0
trigonal distorted
AB4E 4 1
trigonal
AB3E2 3 2 T-shaped
bipyramidal
trigonal
AB2E3 2 3 linear
bipyramidal

# of atoms # lone
AB6 6 0 octahedral octahedral
square
AB5E 5 1 octahedral
pyramidal

# of atoms # lone
AB6 6 0 octahedral octahedral

square
AB5E 5 1 octahedral
pyramidal
square
AB4E2 4 2 octahedral
planar

Summary of Molecular Shapes
Table 8.6 Geometry of Simple Molecules and Ions in
Which the Central Atom Has One or More Lone Pairs

Predicting Molecular Geometry (Structure)
1. Draw Lewis structure for molecule.
2. Count number of lone pairs on the central atom and
number of atoms bonded to the central atom.
3. Use VSEPR to predict the geometry of the molecule.

Use the VSEPR model to predict the geometry(Molecular

structure) of the following molecules and ions:
a  AsH3
b OF2
c  AlCl4–
d  I3–
e  C2H4
Strategy
The sequence of steps in determining molecular geometry is as follows:
draw Lewis find arrangement of find arrangement determine geometry

  
structure electron pairs of bonding pairs based on bonding pairs
Solution
a) The Lewis structure of AsH3 is
There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore, the
electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral

Recall that the geometry of a molecule is determined only by the
arrangement of atoms (in this case the As and H atoms). Thus,
removing the lone pair leaves us with three bonding pairs and a
trigonal pyramidal geometry, like NH3. We cannot predict the HAsH
angle accurately, but we know that it is less than 109.5 because the
repulsion of the bonding electron pairs in the As—H bonds by the lone
pair on As is greater than the repulsion between the bonding pairs.
b) The Lewis structure of OF2 is
There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore,
the electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral.

Recall that the geometry of a molecule is determined only by
the arrangement of atoms (in this case the O and F atoms).
Thus, removing the two lone pairs leaves us with two
bonding pairs and a bent geometry, like H2O. We cannot
predict the FOF angle accurately, but we know that it must
be less than 109.5° because the repulsion of the bonding
electron pairs in the O – F bonds by the lone pairs on O is
greater than the repulsion between the bonding pairs.
c) The Lewis structure of AlCl4– is

There are four electron pairs around the central atom; therefore,
the electron pair arrangement is tetrahedral. Because there are
no lone pairs present, the arrangement of the bonding pairs is the
–
same as the electron pair arrangement. Therefore, AlCl4
has a tetrahedral geometry and the ClAlCl angles are all 109.5.
–
d) The Lewis structure of I3 is
There are five electron pairs around the central I atom;

therefore, the electron pair arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal.
Of the five electron pairs, three are lone pairs and two are
bonding pairs.

Recall that the lone pairs preferentially occupy the equatorial
positions in a trigonal bipyramid. Thus, removing the lone
pairs leaves us with a linear geometry for , that is, all three I
atoms lie in a straight line.
e) The Lewis structure of C2H4is
The C = C bond is treated as though it were a single bond in

the VSEPR model. Because there are three electron pairs
around each C atom and there are no lone pairs present,
the arrangement around each C atom has a trigonal planar
shape like BF3, discussed earlier.
Thus, the predicted bond angles in C2H4 are all 120°.
Comment
–
1) The I3 ion
is one of the few structures for which the bond angle (180) can be
predicted accurately even though the central atom contains lone pairs.
2) In C2H4,all six atoms lie in the same plane. The overall planar geometry
is not predicted by the VSEPR model, but we will see why the molecule
prefers to be planar later. In reality, the angles are close, but not equal, to
120 because the bonds are not all equivalent.

Mo 8

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Chapter 8

Dr. Mamoon Alokour

Coulomb's Law (to calculate the energy of interaction

*negative sign indicates an attractive force

 or  indicates a positive or negative fractional charge.

• The ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared

Mg–O C–O O–O Si–O N–O

Arrange the following bonds from most to least polar:

a) N–F O–F C–F

Electron Configurations in Stable Compounds

• When a nonmetal and a representative-group metal react

• solid ionic compounds contain a large collection of

• Example: MgO, Al2O3

No bonds reach 100% ionic character even with

 measured dipole moment of X  Y 

Operational Definition of Ionic Compound: Any compound that

Single bond : one pair of electrons is shared

• ∆𝐻 = 𝐷 (𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛) − 𝐷 (𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)

 Localized Electron Model

1. Description of valence electron arrangement (Lewis

3. Complete an octet for all atoms except hydrogen.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-36

Write the Lewis structure for nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)

NF3 is a colorless, odorless, unreactive gas.

Step 1: The N atom is less electronegative than F, so the skeletal

Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of N and F are

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-38

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-39

HNO3 is a strong electrolyte.

Step 1: The skeletal structure of HNO3 is

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-41

Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between N and

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-43

Write the Lewis structure for the carbonate ion  CO32– .

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-44

Step 1: We can deduce the skeletal structure of the

Step 2: The outer-shell electron configurations of C and O are

This structure shows all 24 electrons.

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-47

An atom’s formal charge is the difference between the

 total number of bondingelectrons 

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-48

Write formal charges for the carbonate ion.

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The formal charges on the atoms can be calculated using the

The O atom in C = 0: The O atom has six valence electrons

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-51

Thus, the Lewis structure for CO32– with formal charges is

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-52

1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-53

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-54

To show the formal charges, we follow the procedure given in Example

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A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-58

Draw three resonance structures for the molecule

Indicate formal charges.

Rank the structures in their relative importance to the

© McGraw-Hill Education. 9-59

The three resonance structures are

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We see that all three structures show formal charges.