metals
Article
Stress Triaxiality and Lode Angle Parameter Characterization of
Flat Metal Specimen with Inclined Notch
Jian Peng 1, * , Peishuang Zhou 1 , Ying Wang 1 , Qiao Dai 2 , David Knowles 3






Citation: Peng, J.; Zhou, P.; Wang, Y.;
Dai, Q.; Knowles, D.; Mostafavi, M.
Stress Triaxiality and Lode Angle
Parameter Characterization of Flat
Metal Specimen with Inclined Notch.
Metals 2021, 11, 1627. https://
doi.org/10.3390/met11101627
Received: 7 September 2021
Accepted: 9 October 2021
Published: 13 October 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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Metals 2021, 11, 1627. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101627
and Mahmoud Mostafavi 3
1 School of Mechanical Engineering and Rail Transit, Changzhou University, Changzhou 213164, China;
zpshuang@163.com (P.Z.); wangying8547@163.com (Y.W.)
2 School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, Changzhou 213001, China;
daiqiao@126.com
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TR, UK;
david.knowles@royce.ac.uk (D.K.); m.mostafavi@bristol.ac.uk (M.M.)
* Correspondence: jpeng@cczu.edu.cn
Abstract: The stress state has an important effect on the deformation and failure of metals. While
the stress states of the axisymmetric notched bars specimens are studied in the literature, the studies
on the flat metal specimen with inclined notch are very limited and the stress state is not clearly
characterized in them. In this paper, digital image correlation and finite element simulations are used
to study the distribution of strain and stress state, that is stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter.
Flat specimen with inclined notch was tested to extract the full field strain evolution and calculate
stress state parameters at three locations: specimen centre, notch root and failure starting point. It is
found that compared with the centre point and the notch root, the failure initiation point can better
characterize the influence of the notch angle on the strain evolution. Conversely, the centre point
can more clearly characterize the effect of the notch angle on stress state, since the stress states at the
failure point and the notch root change greatly during the plastic deformation. Then the calculated
stress state parameters of the flat metal specimen with inclined notch at the centre point are used in
Wierzbicki stress state diagram to establish a relationship between failure mode and stress state.
Keywords: flat metal specimen with inclined notch; stress triaxiality; lode angle parameter
1. Introduction
The deformation and failure mode of metals are not simply related to the material
itself, but also related to the stress state they endure. Stress triaxiality is an important
parameter of the stress state [1–3], which affects the nucleation, growth and coalescence of
voids in the metal damage process, and affects the ductility [4,5]. The failure mechanisms
of metal are different under different stress triaxialities [6–8]. For example, Bao [4] carried
out extensive experimental researches on the stress triaxiality of 2024-T351 aluminium
alloy, including upsetting test, shear test and tensile test. They found that void growth
was the main failure mode under high stress triaxiality, while under low stress triaxiality,
the crack developed in the way of combined shear and void growth modes, and in the
negative stress triaxiality, the fracture was controlled by shear only. In order to examine the
critical strain at different stress states, Kiran [9] and Liu [10] carried out micromechanical
analysis and proposed that the critical strain was a non-monotonic function with stress
triaxiality. Lin [11] conducted a series of hot tensile tests on notched round bar specimens
with different radii which showed that the fracture strain decreased with the increase of
stress triaxiality. Kondori [12] and Li [13] demonstrated that stress triaxiality had a great
influence on the evolution of micro-voids and ductile fracture of the alloys.
In addition to the stress triaxiality, the Lode angle parameter is another important stress
state parameter that affects the deformation and failure of metals [14,15]. Srivastave [16]
and Zhu [17] observed that the Lode angle parameter affected the evolution of void
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 2 of 14

shape and subsequently determined the development of damage and fracture mechanism.
Ma [18] studied the effects of initial porosity, stress triaxiality and Lode parameter on plastic
deformation and ductile fracture, and found that stress triaxiality and Lode parameter
affected the development of the void volume fraction.
Besides notched round bar specimen, notched flat specimen is another important one
to understand the effect of stress state on the mechanical and failure behaviour. Since a
wide range of stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameters can be achieved by changing
the notch angle and notch size of the notched flat specimens, it is convenient to study the
stress state on mechanical and failure behaviour of metals. Maysam [19] used a series
of flat specimens containing notch specimen, central hole specimen, and smiley shear
specimen to construct the correlation of fracture strain with stress triaxiality and Lode
angle parameter by Hosford–Coulomb fracture model. Skripnyak [5] investigated the
effect of stress triaxiality on mechanical behaviour and fracture of Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloy by
the notched flat specimen at high strain rate within the stress triaxiality range from 0.33
to 0.6, and proved that the near alpha titanium alloy was ductile in this stress triaxiality
range. Anderson [20] studied the influence of stress triaxiality and strain rate on the failure
behaviour of a dual-phase DP780 steel by vertical notched flat specimen, found that extent
of transverse cracking due to martensitic islands increased with triaxiality. Malcher [21]
studied the fracture behaviour of AA6101-T4 by both the notched rectangular cross-section
specimen and notched round bar specimen for the stress triaxiality ranging from 0–0.6.
A tension-shear specimen covering a wide range of stress triaxialities was designed by
Zhang [22] to study the effect of the stress state on plasticity and ductile failure, and found
that the fracture locus was a nonmonotonic function of the stress triaxiality. Flat notched
plate pure shear test and flat notched plate tensile shear test were performed by Li [23]
to study the effect of the stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter on the ductility and
fracture mechanism of the structural steel, and found that, the ductility of Q460 steel was
different under different Lode angle parameters, and the stress triaxiality controlled the
ductility and fracture mechanism of the steel.
The research on stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter of notched tensile spec-
imens mainly focused on axisymmetric bar specimens which supported developing a
system stress state diagram of stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter by Bai and
Wierzbicki [24]. The diagram assists characterizing the failure of material as a function of
the stress state for different types of notched specimens. However, the research on non-
axisymmetric flat metal specimen with inclined notch is limited and mainly focuses on the
analysis of stress triaxiality. There are very limited reports on the effect of the Lode angle
parameter on the failure behaviour of flat metal specimen with inclined notch. The study
on the stress state of flat plate notched specimen is not only beneficial to complement the
understanding of the stress state for notched flat metal specimens, but also has a potential
engineering value. In this work, digital image correlation (DIC) and finite element simu-
lation (FES) are used to characterize the stress state of flat metal specimen with inclined
notch and analyse the influences of stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter on the
failure mode.

2. Experiment, Simulation and Characterization

2.1. DIC Experiment and Finite Element Simulation
Since the hot-rolled 316L austenitic stainless steel has good corrosion resistance,
toughness, weldability and deformability, it is widely used in the components of nuclear
equipment, petroleum equipment and chemical equipment. The stress state is important to
understand the mechanical performance of the component made of 316L. The hot-rolled
316L austenitic stainless steel is selected as the researching metal in this paper. The uniaxial
tensile test was performed to understand the true stress-true strain curve, and the result
curve is shown in Figure 1, which proves that it has excellent toughness and deformability.
 uniaxial tensile test was performed to understand the true stress-true strain curve, and the
uniaxial
result tensile
curve test wasinperformed
is shown to understand
Figure 1, which the true
proves that stress-true
it has excellentstrain curve,and
toughness and de-
the
result curve
formability. is shown in Figure 1, which proves that it has excellent toughness and de-
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 3 of 14
formability.

Figure 1. True stress-true strain curve of 316L.

Truestress-true
Figure1.1.True
Figure stress-truestrain
straincurve
curveofof316L.
316L.

InInorder
orderto study
studythe theinfluence
influenceof stress
stressstate
stateon onthe
thetensile
tensilebehaviour
behaviourof notched
notchedflat
metal Inspecimen,
order totostudy
four the influence
inclined notch ofofstress
angles state
were on the tensile
considered behaviour
containing ofof15°,
0°, notched flat
flat
metal specimen, four inclined notch angles were considered containing 0 ◦ , 15 ◦ , 30 ◦30°
and and ◦
metal
45°. Thespecimen,
dimensions fourofinclined
specimens notch
are angles
shown were
in considered
Figure 2a. The containing
notch radius 0°,and
15°, 30°
the and .
45
thick-
TheThe
45°. dimensions
dimensions of specimens
ofallspecimensare shown
are shownin Figure 2a. The
in Figure notch radius and the thickness of
ness of specimens
specimens are allare
the the as
same same0.5 as
mm 0.5 mm3 and
and mm mm2a. The notch
3respectively,
respectively,
while
radius
while
the area
andarea
the of
the of
net
thick-
net
section
ness of specimens
section is the same. are
Thealltensile
the same testasspecimen
0.5 mm and 3 mm respectively,
is machined from while the area
the hot-rolled 316L ofaus-
net
is the same. The
sectionstainless-steel tensile
is the same. The tensile test specimen is machined
test specimen iswire machinedfrom the
from hot-rolled 316L austenitic
tenitic
stainless-steel plate plate by electro-discharge
by electro-discharge wire cutting, cutting,
and theandthethehot-rolled
longitudinal
longitudinal
316Ldirec-
direction
aus-
of
tenitic
tion of stainless-steel
specimen is plate
parallel by electro-discharge
to the rolling wire
direction cutting,
of metal.andThethe longitudinal
tensile tests of direc-
both
specimen is parallel to the rolling direction of metal. The tensile tests of both smooth and
tion of and
smooth specimen
notched is specimens
parallel to are theperformed
rolling direction of 50kN
metal.CTM504
The tensile tests of both
notched specimens are performed by SUNS 50by kN SUNS
CTM504 electric
electric controlled controlled
mechanical
smooth
mechanical and notched
testing(SUNS specimens
machine are performed by SUNS 50kN CTM504 electric controlled
testing machine Inc.,(SUNS Inc., Shenzhen,
Shenzhen, China) with China) with the displacement
the displacement rate of 3 mm/min, rate of
mechanical
3mm/min, testing
and machine (SUNS Inc., Shenzhen, China) with the displacement rate of
and the test is the test is conducted
conducted at room temperature.
at room temperature.
3mm/min, and the test is conducted at room temperature.

Notchedspecimen:
Figure2.2.Notched
Figure specimen:(a)(a) geometric
geometric dimension;(b)
dimension; (b)finite
finiteelement
elementmesh.
mesh.
Figure 2. Notched specimen: (a) geometric dimension; (b) finite element mesh.
InInorder
ordertotoobtain
obtainthe
the local
local strain
strain field
field during
duringtest,
test,DIC
DICmethod
methodisisused, which
used, whichconsists
con-
of industrial
In order cameras
to obtain (Canon
the EOS
local 1500D,
strain field Canon,
during Beijing,
test, DICChina),
method control
is systems,
used,
sists of industrial cameras (Canon EOS 1500D, Canon, Beijing, China), control systems, which racks
con-
(XJTOP,
sists Suzhou, China),
of industrial camerasand other EOS
(Canon auxiliary equipment.
1500D, Further,China),
Canon, Beijing, commercial DICsystems,
control software
GOM ARAMIS (GOM Correlate 2019, GOM GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany) is used to
calculate the local strain field. Since the flat specimen is discussed, 2D-DIC method is
used in this work. Before test, the random speckle pattern is sprayed on the surface of
the specimen. The speckle is detected with GOM software (GOM Correlate 2019, GOM
GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany), in which the face size is set to 19 × 19 pixels and the
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 4 of 14

point distance is set to 16 pixels. Through the detection of GOM software, it is found that
the small plane quality and the random speckle quality are good enough, which meets the
experimental conditions, and then the experiment is started. During the mechanical test,
the test process is recorded by industrial camera (Canon EOS 1500D, Canon, Beijing, China),
while the camera lens is Canon EF-S 18–55 mm f/3.5–5.6 IS STM. The frame rate is 24 frame
per second, and the camera resolution is 1920 × 1080 pixel. According to the pictures taken
by the camera, the strain is computed by the commercial DIC software GOM ARAMIS.
Three-dimensional solid model of inclined notched specimen is simulated by finite
element software ABAQUS 2016 (ABAQUS 2016, Dassault Systemes, Paris, France), the
elastic–plastic mechanical properties are used with the elastic modulus of 210 GPa and
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3, while the plastic stress strain data sheet obtained by uniaxial tensile
test in Figure 1 are inputted. In order to simplify the analyses, the anisotropy of 316L is not
considered, similar to other simulation studies of stress state with dual-phase steel [20],
aluminum alloy [21], the same metal [22]. The finite element mesh with the simplified
integral eight-node element type (C3D8R) is shown in Figure 2b, while the mesh size of the
notch area is refined to about 0.1 mm and those of other positions are about 0.5 mm, and
the mesh size in the thickness direction is refined to 0.1 mm with the ratio of 1/30 to the
specimen thickness. To simulate the tensile test, axial displacement is applied on one end
of specimen, where other directions are constrained, while the other end is constrained
in all directions. The boundary conditions used here are the same as those used in the
simulation of notched flat specimen by other researchers [5,22,23].

2.2. Characterization of Stress Triaxiality and Lode Angle Parameter

Stress state can be described by using stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter.
The concept of stress space is introduced to quantify the effect of stress state on material
fracture strain. For isotropic materials, the mechanical behaviour is independent of the
spatial direction, so three characteristic values of stress tensor, namely principal stresses
(σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ), can be considered in three-dimensional principal stress space. Meanwhile, the
orthogonal principal stress space can be equivalently redefined in the Lode coordinates,
which is a cylindrical coordinate system, where the hydrostatic stress is the symmetry axis.
The Lode coordinates can be constructed from the scaled version of three stress invariants
(p, q, r), which are defined as:

1 1
p = −σm = − tr (σ ) = − (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 ) (1)
3 3
r r h
3 1 i p
q=σ= S:S= (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 = 3J2 (2)
2 2
1/3  1/3 
27 1/3
 
27 27
r= det(S) = (σ − σm )(σ2 − σm )(σ3 − σm ) = J3 (3)
2 2 1 2
where S is the deviatoric stress tensor, S = σ − pI, I is the identity tensor, σ is the stress
tensor, σm and σ are the hydrostatic stress and Von Mises equivalent stress, whereas J2
and J3 are the second and third deviatoric stress invariants, the parameter p is positive in
compression, but σm is positive in tension.
Stress triaxiality is an important parameter to evaluate plastic restraint and considered
in the plastic damage model, which is defined as the ratio of hydrostatic stress to Von Mises
equivalent stress in Equation (4):
σm
η= (4)
σ
Lots of experimental observations and numerical studies showed that the effect of
stress state on fracture behaviour could not be fully reflected by stress triaxiality alone in
establishing the damage constitutive equation of ductile materials [25–27]. Therefore, the
stress triaxiality is not sufficient to completely characterize the stress state, and the Lode
 𝜎
𝜂= (4)
𝜎
Lots of experimental observations and numerical studies showed that the effect of
stress state on fracture behaviour could not be fully reflected by stress triaxiality alone in
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 establishing the damage constitutive equation of ductile materials [25–27]. Therefore,5the of 14

stress triaxiality is not sufficient to completely characterize the stress state, and the Lode
angle parameter relating to the deviating stress state should be jointly used. The Lode
angle𝜃parameter
angle is defined relating
through tothethe
normalized
deviatingthird
stressdeviatoric be jointly
stress
state should in Equation (5): Lode
used. The
angle θ is defined through the 𝑟normalized third 3√3
deviatoric
𝐽 stress
27 𝐽 ξ in Equation (5):
𝜉= = cos(3𝜃) = √ / = (5)
 𝑞 3 2 2 𝑞
r 3 3 𝐽 J3 27 J3
ξ= = cos(3θ ) = = (5)
q
The Lode angle θ can be normalized 2 J 3/2
by the parameter
2 𝜃2̅ , which
q3 is called the Lode
angle parameter:
The Lode angle θ can be normalized by the parameter θ, which is called the Lode
angle parameter: 𝜃̅ = 1 − = 1 − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜉 (6)
6θ 2
θ = 1− = 1 − arccosξ (6)
π π
3. Results and Discussion
3. Effect
3.1. Results and Discussion
of Notch Angle on Load-Displacement Curve
3.1. Effect of Notch Angle on Load-Displacement Curve
In order to analyse the influence of the extensometer gauge length on the load-dis-
In order
placement toDIC
curve, analyse the is
method influence
used as aofvirtual
the extensometer
extensometergauge length onthe
to characterize theload-
load-
displacement
displacement curve,
curve, DIC
and method
three gaugeislengths
used as ofa75virtual
mm, 50 extensometer
mm and 25 mm to characterize
are used. Fig- the
load-displacement curve, and three gauge lengths of 75 mm, 50 mm
ure 3 shows the load-displacement curves at different gauge lengths. The load-displace- and 25 mm are
used. Figure 3 shows the load-displacement curves at different gauge
ment curves of three gauge lengths show that the inclined notch angle has a significant lengths. The load-
displacement
influence on thecurves of and
strength three gauge of
ductility lengths show that
the notched the inclined
specimen, and thenotch
maximumangleforce
has a
gradually decreases with the increase of inclined notch angle. It is interesting that,maxi-
significant influence on the strength and ductility of the notched specimen, and the the
mum force
affecting gradually
degrees decreases
of notch angle on with
the the increase of inclined
load-displacement curvenotch angle. Itfor
are different is interesting
different
that, lengths,
gauge the affecting degrees
and the of notch
affecting degreeangle on shortest
at the the load-displacement
gauge length ofcurve 25 mm areindifferent
Figure 3cfor
different gauge lengths, and the affecting degree at the shortest gauge length of 25 mm in
is greater than that at the longer gauge length of 75 mm in Figure 3a. Since the gauge
Figure 3c is greater than that at the longer gauge length of 75 mm in Figure 3a. Since the
length involves not only the notch, but also the parallel length, when the traditional ex-
gauge length involves not only the notch, but also the parallel length, when the traditional
tensometer method is used to obtain the load-displacement curves of the notched speci-
extensometer method is used to obtain the load-displacement curves of the notched speci-
men, the parallel length will affect the notch angle sensitivity of load-displacement curve.
men, the parallel length will affect the notch angle sensitivity of load-displacement curve.

Figure 3. The load-displacement curve of specimen with inclined notch at different gauge lengths:
Figure 3. The load-displacement curve of specimen with inclined notch at different gauge lengths:
(a) the gauge length of 75 mm; (b) the gauge length of 50 mm; (c) the gauge length of 25 mm.
(a) the gauge length of 75 mm; (b) the gauge length of 50 mm; (c) the gauge length of 25 mm.
In order to give more clear comparison on the influence of gauge length, the load-
In order tocurves
displacement give more clear
of three comparison
gauge on the
lengths (75 mm,influence
50 mm, 25of mm)
gaugearelength, the load-
compared in one
displacement curves
figure as shown of three
in Figure 4. gauge lengths
Since the strain(75 mm, 50 mm,
distribution 25 mm)
is not are compared
uniformed in one
at the specimen
section, the gauge length affects the load-displacement curve especially at the plastic
and fracture stages, and with the gauge length increasing, the displacement increases.
Moreover, the influence degrees of gauge length are different at different notch angles,
which is caused by the difference of the stress concentration degree. Therefore, the gauge
length will affect the load-displacement curve, and DIC can better meet the requirements
of the strain characterization for the inclined notch specimen then the extensometer with
 figure as shown in Figure 4. Since the strain distribution is not uniformed at the specimen
section, the gauge length affects the load-displacement curve especially at the plastic and
fracture stages, and with the gauge length increasing, the displacement increases. Moreo-
ver, the influence degrees of gauge length are different at different notch angles, which is
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 6 of 14
caused by the difference of the stress concentration degree. Therefore, the gauge length
will affect the load-displacement curve, and DIC can better meet the requirements of the
strain characterization for the inclined notch specimen then the extensometer with a fixed
gauge length.
a fixed gaugeFor the uniformity
length. in the subsequent
For the uniformity in the analysis the displacement
subsequent correspond-
analysis the displacement
ing to the gaugeto
corresponding length of 75 length
the gauge mm is used.
of 75 mm is used.

Figure4.4.The
Figure Theload-displacement
load-displacement curves
curves at
at different
different gauge
gaugelengths
lengthsfor
forinclined
inclinednotch
notchspecimen: 0◦ ;
(a)(a)
specimen:
(b)(b) ◦
1515°;
; (c)(c) ◦
3030°;
; (d) ◦
4545°.
.
0°; (d)
3.2. Effect of Notch Angle on Strain Field
3.2. Effect of Notch Angle on Strain Field
3.2.1. Comparison of Strain Fields by DIC and Finite Element Simulation
3.2.1. Comparison of Strain Fields by DIC and Finite Element Simulation
The extensometer with a standard gauge length is commonly used to acquire the
The extensometer
load-displacement with
curve a standard
during gaugetensile
the uniaxial lengthtest.
is commonly used toon
Previous studies acquire the
the tensile
load-displacement curve during the uniaxial tensile test. Previous
behaviour of notch specimen were mainly measured by the extensometer [4,22,28]. Since studies on the tensile
behaviour of notch has
the extensometer specimen were mainly
the limitation measured by
to characterize thethe extensometer
local [4,22,28].
strain of inclined Since
notched
the extensometer has the limitation to characterize the local strain
specimen, this work combines the advantages of DIC full field strain measurement method of inclined notched
specimen, this work
and finite element combines
simulation the advantages
to study of DIC
the strain field and full
stressfield
statestrain measurement
of notched specimen.
method
Figure and finite element
5 compares the Von simulation to study the
Mises equivalent strain
strain field and stress
distributions stateby
obtained of notched
DIC and
specimen. Figure 5 compares the Von Mises equivalent strain distributions
finite element simulation when the relative displacement is 3 mm with the gauge length obtained by
DIC and finite element simulation when the relative displacement
of 75 mm, from both qualitative and quantitative views. From Figure 5a–d, with the is 3 mm with the gauge
length
increaseof 75of mm, fromnotch
inclined both angle,
qualitative and quantitative
the position views. From Figure
of strain concentration shifts 5a–d, with
from notch
the
rootincrease of inclined
to the tensile notchand
direction angle,
the the position
plastic strainofarea
strain concentration
expands. From a shifts from notch
quantitative view,
root to the
Figure tensile direction
5e compares the Vonand the equivalent
Mises plastic strain areadistributions
strain expands. From a quantitative
of DIC and FES, and view,
the
Figure 5e compares
extracting the Von
line is shown in Mises
Figureequivalent
5a–d. From strain
bothdistributions
strain contour of DIC
plotand
andFES, and the
quantitative
extracting line is shown
strain distribution, in Figure
the strain value 5a–d. From
by finite both simulation
element strain contour is in aplot and
good quantitative
agreement with
strain
that ofdistribution,
DIC method, the strainindicates
which value bythatfinite
the element simulation
finite element is in acan
simulation good
wellagreement
reproduce
the deformation
with process of
that of DIC method, the notched
which indicates specimen.
that the finite element simulation can well re-
produce the deformation process of the notched specimen.
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 7 of 14
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 7 of 14

Figure 5. Comparison of Von Mises equivalent strain contour plot by DIC method and finite
element simulation: (a) vertical angle; (b) 15◦ inclined notch; (c) 30◦ inclined notch; (d) 45◦ inclined
Figure 5. Comparison of Von Mises equivalent strain contour plot by DIC method and finite ele-
mentnotch; (e) Von Mises equivalent strain distribution. DIC: digital image correlation, FES: finite
simulation: (a) vertical angle; (b) 15° inclined notch; (c) 30° inclined notch; (d) 45° inclined
notch; (e) Vonsimulation.
element Mises equivalent strain distribution. DIC: digital image correlation, FES: finite ele-
ment simulation.
3.2.2. Strain Distribution and Evolution by DIC
From
3.2.2. Strain Figure 5e, and
Distribution it canEvolution
be observed by that:
DIC (1) the Von Mises equivalent strain distribution
presents a “U” shape, and the valley floor is at the centre and the value rapidly increases
From Figure 5e, it can be observed that: (1) the Von Mises equivalent strain distribu-
at the notch root, which is caused by the notch strain concentration; (2) with the increase
tion presents a “U” shape, and the valley floor is at the centre and the value rapidly in-
of notch angle, the distribution law is unchanging, but the value of Von Mises equivalent
creases at the notch root, which is caused by the notch strain concentration; (2) with the
strain increases gradually. Since the change of notch angle leads to the change of stress state,
increase of notch angle, the distribution law is unchanging, but the value of Von Mises
the Von Mises equivalent strain distribution shows the inclined notch angle dependent, but
equivalent strainpositions,
at different increasesthegradually.
inclined Since
notchthe change
angle of notchofangle
dependence leads to
equivalent the change
strain is different.
of stress state, the Von Mises equivalent strain distribution shows
In order to comprehensively study the influence of the inclined notch angle the inclined notch angleon the
dependent, but at different positions, the inclined notch angle dependence
strain evolution, Von Mises equivalent strain-displacement curves for specimens with of equivalent
strain is different.
different inclined notch angles are obtained by DIC method as shown in Figure 6, and three
In order to
locations arecomprehensively
considered, containing study thethe centre
influence
pointofofthetheinclined
extractionnotch angle
path, notchonroot
the and
strain evolution, Von Mises equivalent strain-displacement curves for specimens
initial failure point. As shown in Figure 6a, since the strain at the centre point is small with dif-
ferent
andinclined
almostnotch angles are
overlapped, obtained
it cannot by DIC method
characterize as shown
the effect in Figure
of inclined 6, and
notch three
on the strain
locations are considered, containing the centre point of the extraction
concentration. Because the notch angle affects the strain concentration position as shownpath, notch root and in
initial failure
Figure 5, point. As shown
the notch root pointin Figure
Figure6a, 6b since the not
also can strain at the centre
characterize thepoint is small
influence and
of the notch
almost overlapped,
angle on the strainit cannot characterize
evolution. As shown theineffect
Figureof inclined notch on
6c, the inclined the strain
notch angle concen-
dependence
tration. Because
of the strain the notch angle
evolution is veryaffects
clear atthethe
strain concentration
initial failure point.position
The larger as shown in Fig-
the inclined notch
ure 5, the notch root point Figure 6b also can not characterize the influence
angle is, the larger the Von Mises equivalent strain value is, and the faster the strain of the notch
growth
anglerate
on is.
theComparing
strain evolution. As shown
the results in Figure
at different 6c, the inclined
locations, the notchnotch
angleangle dependence
dependence of strain
of theevolution
strain evolution is very
at the centre clearisat
point the initial
weak failure
in Figure 6a, point. The larger
at the notch themiddle
root is inclined in notch
Figure 6b,
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 8 of 14

Metals 2021, 11, 1627 angle is, the larger the Von Mises equivalent strain value is, and the faster the strain 8 of 14
growth rate is. Comparing the results at different locations, the notch angle dependence
of strain evolution at the centre point is weak in Figure 6a, at the notch root is middle in
Figure 6b, and at initial failure point is significant in Figure 6c. Therefore, it is reasonable
toand
useattheinitial failure
initial point
failure is to
point significant in Figure
analyse the 6c. of
influence Therefore, it is on
notch angle reasonable to use the
strain evolution.
initial failure point to analyse the influence of notch angle on strain evolution.

Figure
Figure6.6.Von
VonMises
Misesequivalent
equivalentstrain-displacement
strain-displacementcurve:
curve:(a)
(a)at
atcentre
centre point;
point; (b)
(b) at
at notch
notch root;
root; (c) at
atinitial
initialfailure
failurepoint.
point.

3.3.Effect
3.3. EffectofofNotch
NotchAngle
AngleononStress
StressTriaxiality
Triaxialityand
andLode
LodeAngle
AngleParameter
Parameter
3.3.1. Distribution and Evolution of Stress Triaxiality
3.3.1. Distribution and Evolution of Stress Triaxiality
Theexciting
The excitingtheoretical
theoreticalsolutions
solutionsand andempirical
empiricalequations
equationsofofstressstresstriaxiality
triaxialityand
and
Lode angle parameter are only suitable for axisymmetric round bar specimens [7,23],
Lode angle parameter are only suitable for axisymmetric round bar specimens [7,23], and
and there is no theoretical equation for non-axisymmetric flat plate specimen. The stress
there is no theoretical equation for non-axisymmetric flat plate specimen. The stress triax-
triaxiality and Lode angle parameter of the inclined notched specimen are calculated based
iality and Lode angle parameter of the inclined notched specimen are calculated based on
on Equations (4) and (6), and the principal stress (σ , σ , σ3 ) and stress deviation tensor
Equations (4) and (6), and the principal stress (σ1, σ2,1 σ3)2 and stress deviation tensor are
are obtained by finite element simulation.
obtained by finite element simulation.
Figure 7b quantitatively shows the stress triaxiality distribution along the net section
Figure 7b quantitatively shows the stress triaxiality distribution along the net section
path of the notch at the relative displacement of 4 mm, and the extraction path is shown in
path of the notch at the relative displacement of 4mm, and the extraction path is shown in
Figure 7a. Figure 7c–e show the stress triaxiality evolution curves with displacement at the
Figure 7a. Figure 7c–e show the stress triaxiality evolution curves with displacement at
centre point, the notch root and the initial failure point. It can be seen from Figure 7b that,
the centre point, the notch root and the initial failure point. It can be seen from Figure 7b
the stress triaxiality distribution also presents a “U” shape curve, and the stress triaxiality
that, the stress triaxiality distribution also presents a “U” shape curve, and the stress tri-
is stable within the range of ±2 mm from the centre point, but it increases near the notch
axiality is stable
root, which within
is due thestress
to the rangeconcentration
of ±2 mm from andthe centre
the point,restraint
boundary but it increases near the
effect. Moreover,
notch root,triaxiality
the stress which is decreases
due to thewithstress
theconcentration
increase of theand the boundary
inclined notch angle. restraint
At theeffect.
centre
Moreover, the stress triaxiality decreases with the increase of the
point in Figure 7c, the dependence of the stress triaxiality on the inclined notch inclined notch angle. At
angle
the centre point in Figure 7c, the dependence of the stress triaxiality on the
is significant, but weak at the notch root in Figure 7d and the failure point in Figure 7e. inclined notch
angle is significant,
Because but weak
the large plastic at the notch
deformation root
and in Figure
plastic damage7d and
firstthe failure
occur point
at the in Figure
initial failure
7e. Because the large plastic deformation and plastic damage first
point, the geometric dimensions of inclined notched specimens at the failure positionoccur at the initial fail-
ure point,change
greatly the geometric dimensions
during the of inclinedprocess,
large deformation notched so specimens at thetofailure
it is difficult position
distinguish the
greatly change during the large deformation process,
difference of stress triaxiality at the initial failure point. so it is difficult to distinguish the
difference of stress triaxiality at the initial failure point.
 From the comparison of the relationships between stress triaxiality and notch angle
at different locations in Figure 7, the correlation between the stress triaxiality and notch
angle is non-existent at the failure point, and is fuzzy at notch root, but is clear at the centre
point. Therefore, only the centre point is suitable to characterize the relationship between
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 9 of 14
the stress triaxiality and notch angle.

Figure 7. Distribution and evolution of stress triaxiality: (a) extraction path; (b) stress triaxiality distribution; (c) at centre
point; (d) at notch root; (e) at initial failure point.
Figure 7. Distribution and evolution of stress triaxiality: (a) extraction path; (b) stress triaxiality dis-
tribution; (c) at centre point;
From (d)the
at notch root; (e) of
comparison at the
initial failure point.between stress triaxiality and notch angle
relationships
at different locations in Figure 7, the correlation between the stress triaxiality and notch
3.3.2. Distributionangle
and is
Evolution of Lode
non-existent Angle
at the Parameter
failure point, and is fuzzy at notch root, but is clear at the centre
Besides the point.
stress triaxiality, Lodethe
Therefore, only angle parameter
centre is important
point is suitable to understand
to characterize the
the relationship between
stress state of the the
specimen with inclined
stress triaxiality andnotch.
notch Figure
angle. 8a shows the Lode angle parameter
distributions along the net section path at different inclined notch angles at the relative
displacement of 43.3.2.
mm,Distribution
while the path andisEvolution
the same of as Lode
that inAngle
Figure Parameter
7a. It can be seen that
the Lode angle parameter distribution
Besides the stresspresents a “W”
triaxiality, Lode shape
angle curve. At the is
parameter notch root, the
important to understand the
Lode angle parameters for different
stress state inclinedwith
of the specimen notch anglesnotch.
inclined are overlapped with the
Figure 8a shows thevalue
Lode angle parameter
ranging from 0.8–0.9. However,
distributions at the
along thecentre point, path
net section their atdifferences are significant,
different inclined and at the relative
notch angles
with the increasedisplacement
of the notch angleof 4 mm, while
(0–30°), thethe
Lode path is the
angle same asgradually,
increases that in Figure 7a. It can be seen that
and when
the notch angle isthe30°, Lode angleangle
the Lode parameter distribution
parameter is at thepresents
peak value a “W”andshape
close curve.
to 1. AsAtthethe notch root, the
notch angle continues to increase to 45°, the Lode angle parameter begins to decrease. with the value
Lode angle parameters for different inclined notch angles are overlapped
Figure 8b–d shows ranging fromangle
the Lode 0.8–0.9. However,
parameter at the centre
evolution curvespoint, their differences
with displacement are significant, and
at the
◦ ), the Lode angle increases gradually, and when
centre point, the with
notchthe increase
root and the of initial
the notch angle
failure (0–30At
point. the centre point in Figure 8b,
the notch ◦ , the Lode angle parameter is at the peak value and close to 1. As
when the notch angle is in angle is 30of
the range 0° to 30°, the Lode angle parameter is stable with
the notch angle continues to increase to 45 ◦ , the Lode angle parameter begins to decrease.
the displacement, and the Lode angle parameter increases with the increase in the inclined
notch angle. From Figure 8b–d shows
the results at notch the Lode
root andangle parameter
failure point in evolution
Figure 8c,d,curves with displacement at the
the evolution
centre point, the notch root and the initial failure
curves are overlapped and crossed at different inclined notch angles. The reason is that, point. At the centre point in Figure 8b,
when the notch angle is in the range of 0 ◦ to 30◦ , the Lode angle parameter is stable with
at the failure point and notch root, the materials are severely plastic deformed, and the
geometric dimensionsthe displacement, and the
are continuously Lode angle parameter increases with the increase in the inclined
changing.
notch angle. From the results
From the comparison of the correlations between at notch rootLodeand failure
angle point inand
parameter Figure
notch 8c,d, the evolution
curves are overlapped and crossed at different inclined
angle at different locations in Figure 8, the centre point is suitable to characterize the de- notch angles. The reason is that,
at the failure point and notch
pendence of Lode angle parameter on the inclined notch angle. root, the materials are severely plastic deformed, and the
geometric dimensions are continuously changing.
From the comparison of the correlations between Lode angle parameter and notch
angle at different locations in Figure 8, the centre point is suitable to characterize the
dependence of Lode angle parameter on the inclined notch angle.
Metals
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Figure 8. Distribution and evolution of Lode angle parameter: (a) Lode angle parameter distribution;
Figure 8. Distribution and evolution of Lode angle parameter: (a) Lode angle parameter distribu-
(b) (b)
tion; at centre point;
at centre (c) at
point; (c)notch root;root;
at notch (d) at
(d)initial failure
at initial point.
failure point.
3.3.3. Characterization of Stress State
3.3.3. Characterization of Stress State
The stress state is determined by both stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter.
The
Wierzbicki stressandstate
Xueis[29]
determined
found that by stress
both stress triaxiality
triaxiality and Lode
and Lode angleangle parameter.
parameter could
Wierzbicki
be correlated and by Xuenormalized
[29] found thirdthat stress triaxiality
deviatoric stressandξ. Lode
Special angle parameter
attention could
is given to be
the
correlated
plane stress by normalized third deviatoric
state, and Equation (7) givesstress ξ. Special attention
the relationship of stressistriaxiality
given to the andplane
Lode
stress
anglestate, and Equation
parameter (7) gives
for the plane stress thestate.
relationship
The “Z”oftype stress triaxiality
curve and Lode
of Equation (7) isangle
given
parameter for
in Figure 9 [24]. the plane stress state. The “Z” type curve of Equation (7) is given in Figure
9 [24].
 
hπ
i 27 2 1
ξ = cos 1−θ = − η η − (7)
2 2 3
 = cos 1 −  = − 𝜂( − ) (7)
The stress states of ten classical specimens are marked in Figure 9. Because the
The stress
previous statesofofnotched
research ten classical
specimenspecimens
did not arecover
marked theinstress
Figure 9. Because
state the metal
of the flat pre-
vious research of notched specimen did not cover the stress state
specimen with inclined notch, the stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter of the 0–45◦ of the flat metal specimen
with inclined
inclined notch,
notched the stress
specimen triaxiality
studied in thisand
paperLode angle
at the sameparameter of the 0–45°ofinclined
small displacement 0.07 mm
notched
are added specimen studied in stress
in the Wierzbicki this paper at the same
state diagram, withsmall displacement
the ellipse blue area ofin
0.07 mm 9.are
Figure As
added
shown ininthe Wierzbicki
Figures 7c andstress
8b, the state diagram,
stress withand
triaxiality theLode
ellipse blueparameter
angle area in Figure 9. As
are strongly
shown
dependent in Figure
on the 7cinclined
and Figure notch 8b, the at
angle stress triaxiality
the centre pointand Lode
of the angle parameter
specimen. Therefore,are the
strongly dependent on the inclined notch angle at the centre point
centre point is used to characterize the stress state of flat notched specimen in Figure of the specimen. There-9,
fore,
whichtheiscentre pointinisthe
also used used to characterize
studies of the stressthe stress
state state of round
of notched flat notched specimen
bar specimens in
[7,30]
Figure 9, whichflat
and notched is also used in[21–23].
specimens the studies VonofMises
the stress
stressstate
is anof equivalent
notched round stressbar speci-
based on
mens
shear[7,30]
strainand notched
energy. flat specimens
According [21–23]. Von
to the definition Mises
of stress stress is an
triaxiality, theequivalent
decrease ofstressstress
based on shear
triaxiality strain energy.
represents According
the increase to the
of shear loaddefinition of stress triaxiality,
ratio. Therefore, the decrease
with the increase of the
ofnotch
stressangle, the shear
triaxiality load ratio
represents increases.
the increase of shear load ratio. Therefore, with the increase
It needs
of the notch to bethe
angle, mentioned
shear load that, since
ratio this paper focuses on the effect of inclined notch on
increases.
the Itstress
needs state and
to be the same notch
mentioned radius
that, since is paper
this used, the variation
focuses on the range
effectofof
stress triaxiality
inclined notchis
onlimited,
the stresswhile that
state andof Lode
the sameangle parameter
notch radiusisislarge,
used,as shown
the in Figure
variation range9.of Instress
further studies,
triaxial-
itymore combinations
is limited, while that of of
notch
Lodeangles
angle and radii are
parameter needed
is large, to construct
as shown a comprehensive
in Figure 9. In further
stress state
studies, morediagram for notched
combinations of notchflat angles
specimen.and radii are needed to construct a compre-
hensive stress state diagram for notched flat specimen.
Metals
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Figure 9. The stress state of the specimen with inclined notch in the Wierzbicki stress state diagram.
Figure 9. The stress state of the specimen with inclined notch in the Wierzbicki stress state diagram.
3.4. Effect of Stress State on Failure Mode
3.4. Effect of Stress
In order State on the
to analyse Failure Mode
effect of notch angle on failure mode, Figure 10 shows the
specimen fracture diagram, shear
In order to analyse the effect of notchstrain contour
angle onplot, normal
failure strain
mode, contour
Figure plot, stress
10 shows the
triaxialityfracture
specimen contourdiagram,
plot andshear
Lode strain
angle contour
parameter at normal
plot, the initial failure
strain displacement.
contour plot, stressIt
can be seen
triaxiality fromplot
contour theand
specimen fracture
Lode angle diagram
parameter in Figure
at the 10a the
initial failure failure position
displacement. of
It can
the specimen with the vertical notch is at the notch root, and with
be seen from the specimen fracture diagram in Figure 10a the failure position of the spec- the increase of the
inclined
imen withnotch angle, the
the vertical fracture
notch position
is at the shiftsand
notch root, from thethe
with notch root toofthe
increase thetensile direction.
inclined notch
Moreover, for the specimen with the vertical notch, the thickness necking
angle, the fracture position shifts from the notch root to the tensile direction. Moreover, covers the entire
net section of the notched specimen, but with the increase of the inclined
for the specimen with the vertical notch, the thickness necking covers the entire net section notch angle, the
thickness necking only covers the small notch root area. Therefore,
of the notched specimen, but with the increase of the inclined notch angle, the thickness the failure mode of
the specimen
necking with the
only covers vertical
the small notch
notch is area.
root pure Therefore,
ductile fracture, but with
the failure mode the
ofinclined notch
the specimen
angle increasing, the failure mode changes from pure ductile fracture
with the vertical notch is pure ductile fracture, but with the inclined notch angle increas- to mixed ductile
and shear fracture. Comparing the shear strain in Figure 10b with the normal strain in
ing, the failure mode changes from pure ductile fracture to mixed ductile and shear frac-
Figure 10c, with the increase of the notch angle, the shear strain changes greatly and the
ture. Comparing the shear strain in Figure 10b with the normal strain in Figure 10c, with
shearing area is expanding, but the normal strain distribution does not change obviously,
the increase of the notch angle, the shear strain changes greatly and the shearing area is
which indicates that with the increase of the inclined notch angle, the notched specimen
expanding, but the normal strain distribution does not change obviously, which indicates
changes from the normal strain controlled to the shear strain controlled, which leads to
that with the increase of the inclined notch angle, the notched specimen changes from the
the change of the failure mode. From the stress triaxiality contour plot in Figure 10d,
normal strain controlled to the shear strain controlled, which leads to the change of the
with the increase of the inclined notch angle, the maximum point of the stress triaxiality
failure mode. From the stress triaxiality contour plot in Figure 10d, with the increase of
shifts from the notch root to the tensile direction, which is similar with the failure point in
the inclined notch angle, the maximum point of the stress triaxiality shifts from the notch
Figure 10a. Furthermore, the Lode angle parameter at the centre point non-monotonically
root to the tensile direction, which is similar with the failure point in Figure 10a. Further-
changes with the increase of the inclined notch angle, as listed in Figure 10e. Therefore, the
more, the Lode angle parameter at the centre point non-monotonically changes with the
stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter work together to affect the failure mode of the
increase
specimen of with
the inclined
inclinednotch
notch.angle, as listed in Figure 10e. Therefore, the stress triaxiality
and Lode angle parameter work together to affect the failure mode of the specimen with
inclined notch.
Metals 2021,11,
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Figure 10.Correlations
Figure10. Correlationsofofspecimen
specimenfracture
fracturediagram,
diagram,shear strain
shear contour
strain plot,
contour normal
plot, normalstrain contour
strain plot,
contour stress
plot, triaxiality
stress triaxial-
contour
ity contour plot and Lode angle parameter: (a) specimen fracture diagram; (b) shear strain contour plot; (c) normalstrain
plot and Lode angle parameter: (a) specimen fracture diagram; (b) shear strain contour plot; (c) normal strain
contour
contourplot;
plot;(d)
(d)stress
stresstriaxiality
triaxialitycontour
contourplot;
plot;(e)
(e)Lode
Lodeangle
angleparameter.
parameter.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusion
In
In this
this paper,
paper,DIC
DICandandfinite
finiteelement
elementsimulation
simulationare areused
usedto
tostudy
studythe
thestress
stressstate
state
parameters of flat metal specimen with inclined notch, and the relationships
parameters of flat metal specimen with inclined notch, and the relationships between betweenthe
the stress
stress state
state parameters
parameters and and failure
failure mode mode are analysed.
are analysed. The main
The main conclusions
conclusions are as are
fol-
as following:
lowing:
(1)
(1)DIC
DICmethod
methodhashasthe
theadvantage
advantagein inpresenting
presentingthethenon-uniform
non-uniformdeformation,
deformation,which
which
can be utilized to characterize the local strain field for inclined notched specimen.
can be utilized to characterize the local strain field for inclined notched specimen. Based on
Based
DIC results, it is found that with the increase of inclined notch angle, the failure position of
on DIC results, it is found that with the increase of inclined notch angle, the failure posi-
notched specimen shifts from notch root to the tensile direction.
tion of notched specimen shifts from notch root to the tensile direction.
(2) Based on DIC method and finite element simulation, the distributions of strain,
(2) Based on DIC method and finite element simulation, the distributions of strain,
stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter and their evolutions with displacement are
stress triaxiality and Lode angle parameter and their evolutions with displacement are
revealed. Comparing with the centre point and notch root, the failure point can better
revealed. Comparing with the centre point and notch root, the failure point can better
characterize the influence of the inclined notch angle on the strain evolution. On the
characterize the influence of the inclined notch angle on the strain evolution. On the con-
contrary, only the centre point can characterize the influence of the inclined notch angle
trary, only the centre point can characterize the influence of the inclined notch angle on
on the stress state parameter evolution. Then, the stress state parameters at the centre
the stress state parameter evolution. Then, the stress state parameters at the centre point
point of the flat metal specimen with inclined notch are added on the Wierzbicki stress
of the flat metal specimen with inclined notch are added on the Wierzbicki stress state
state diagram.
diagram.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.P. and P.Z.; methodology, Y.W.; software, P.Z.; validation,
Author
J.P. Contributions:
and Q.D.; Conceptualization,
formal analysis, J.P. and J.P.
Y.W.; investigation, P.Z.;and
methodology, Y.W.;J.P.;
P.Z.; resources, software, P.Z.; valida-
writing—original
tion, J.P. and Q.D.; formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, J.P. and P.Z.; resources, J.P.;
draft preparation, J.P. and P.Z.; writing—review and editing, J.P., D.K. and M.M.; visualization, P.Z.; writing—orig-
inal draft preparation,
supervision, J.P.; projectJ.P.administration,
and P.Z.; writing—review
J.P.; fundingand editing, J.P.,
acquisition, J.P.D.K.
All and M.M.;
authors visualization,
have read and
P.Z.; supervision, J.P.; project administration,
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
J.P.; funding acquisition, J.P. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Grant
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, Grant
Number 52075050, Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, Grant Number BK20201448, Post-
Number 52075050, Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, Grant Number BK20201448,
graduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province, Grant Number, KYCX20_2544.
Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province, Grant Number,
The authors want to thank four anonymous reviewers for their encouragement and valuable com-
KYCX20_2544. The authors want to thank four anonymous reviewers for their encouragement and
ments on the revision of this paper.
valuable comments on the revision of this paper.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Metals 2021, 11, 1627 13 of 14

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Some data used during the study are available from the corresponding
author by reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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