Teaching Aptitude 2

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TEACHING CONCEPT
It is realized on all hands that education is important not only for the preservation and
transmission of culture but is also an important instrument in all spheres – Social, Economic,
Political and Vocational. But at present moment, preparation for vocation is taken by many as the
fundamental aim of education. Earning of livelihood has become completely dependent upon
education. Therefore, education is a complex social, cultural and ethical process designed in a
social or cultural context. It is very much related with social structures, cultural environments,
values and ideals of people, society and the Government. These being dynamic factors because of
which the definition of teaching has been changing along with time, place and society.
In brief a proper definition of teaching should-
(i) Identify whether teaching is a process or product
(ii) Clearly indicate its constitutional factors
(iii) reveal objectives, and
(iv) say something about its organizational and structural aspect.
Definitions
1.According to Morrison, teaching is a disciplined social process in which teacher influences the
behaviour of the less experienced pupil and helps him develop according to the needs and ideas of
the society. Thus teaching is reduced to what the teacher teaches.
2.Smith states that teaching is an organized system of specific activities aimed to help the learner
learn something. Teaching may be carried out in the absence of the teacher. Smith further
elaborated the definition. He considered teaching as a tripolar process involving-
(i) Agent or source producing learning which may be human or material,
(ii) a goal or target to be achieved, and
(iii) the intervening variables consisting of learning or teaching situation involving human or
physical conditions and instructional methods.
3. Brubacher takes teaching to where the pupils play the central role and the teacher arranges
and creates situations for learning.
4. Gage defined teaching as personal relationship between the teacher and the taught causing
behaviour modification.

5. Amidon considered teaching as a process of interaction between the teacher and the taught
as a cooperative enterprise, a two-way traffic. This definition considered teaching as a set
of properly planned and clearly defined activities undertaken for the achievement of certain
objectives.
6.Clarke broadened the scope of teaching and included all those organised activities that may result
in modifying the behaviour of the learner
7.Green gave a very narrow and misnomeric concept of teaching when he called it a profession and
said that teaching is what a teacher does for the development of a child.
Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Nature of teaching may be described as
• Dynamic, Social and Humane. Teaching is not a fundamental concept because it is greatly
influenced by social and human factors which are dynamic in themselves.
• Both, Art and Science. Teaching is both art and science. It calls for exercise of talent and
creativity making it an art and involving repertoire of techniques, procedures and skills
which can be studied systematically, described and improved making it science.
• Diverse in Application. In application, teaching is of diverse nature. It may have various
forms as formal, informal, directional, instructional, formational, training, conditioning, in-
doctrination, talking, showing, doing, remedial, etc.
Characteristics of teaching may be described as
• A system of actions. Teaching is a system of actions varied in form and related with content
and pupil behaviour under the prevailing physical and social conditions.
• A professional activity. It is a professional activity involving teacher and student with a
view to the development of students’ personality. Professionalism helps students in being
regular and making harmony with their objects towards those they are concentrated.
• Subjected to analysis and assessment. Teaching can be analysed and assessed and analysis
and assessment provide a feedback for further improvement.
• An interactive process. Teaching is highly dominated by the communication skill. Teaching
is an interactive process carried with purpose and objectives.
• A specialized task. It is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of skills for realization
of certain objectives.
• A collection of various modes. Teaching is a collection of various modes of itself. It is a
broader term. Terms like conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination denote a kind of
teaching. They are a part of teaching but not a synonym with teaching. These are various
modes of teaching contributing towards teaching.
The Aim of Teaching
The aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as follows-
• Teaching – To bring changes in the behaviour of students.

• Conditioning – To improve the learning skills of students.
• Training – Shaping the behaviour and conduct.
• Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge.
• Indoctrination – Formation of belief.

Modes of Teaching
There are various modes of leaching. These include conditioning, training, instruction and
indoctrination. These are a kind of teaching (or a part of teaching, i.e., whole teaching process
include all these) but not a synonym with teaching. Some concepts related to various modes of
teaching are as follows:-
1. Training helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills.

2. Distinction between training and education maybe made through the evaluation of the
degree of intelligent behaviour produced by them.
3. Instruction and indoctrination work on a higher footing than conditioning and training as
far as the involvement of intellectual powers and modes of teaching are concerned. But they
cannot be equated with teaching.
4. Instruction is mainly concerned with the development of knowledge and understanding in
an individual which represents one of many objectives of education and teaching.
5. Teaching is aimed towards shaping a total man, while instruction aims only for the
development of intellect and affect the cognitive domain of behaviour. Teaching may
include or cover instruction.
6. Indoctrination represents a fairly high level of teaching, shaping beliefs and ideals.
Indoctrination may mean teaching but teaching can be done without indoctrination.
Objectives of Teaching
Major objectives of teaching are as follows :
• To bring desired changes in pupils.

• To shape behaviour and conduct.
• Acquisition of knowledge
• To improve the learning skills of students.
• Formation of belief.
• To provide a social and efficient member to the society.
Four Modern Concepts of Teaching
1.Questioning
It is the most important device of teaching. It occurs in two ways:
(a) The teacher should ask questions of all types – introductory, developing and recapitulatory.
(b) In order that the students should be active participants in the lesson, they should be trained to
ask questions to the teachers.
2. Discussion

Discussion clears the doubts of the students and enhances their ability of expressing opinions. For
this purpose the class may be divided into groups. The teacher will direct discussion in such a way
that pupils will be encouraged to express their opinions freely and independently. After the
discussion, the teacher will classify the main points raised and sort them out into some order.
3. Investigation
Investigation may be individual or group and includes the presentation of information by the
teacher. Investigation will be followed by expression which may be written, spoken or visual and
concrete.
4. Expression
This is the last step of teaching. It will be in the form of practical activities under four headings (a)
Passive (b) Active (c) Artistic (d) Organizational Activities.
Different Variables of Teaching

Teaching process involves following variables.
1.Dependent Variable
The student is a dependent variable. He is subjected to changes and developments through the
efforts of the teacher and teaching process. In the process of teaching, the dependent variable plays
the functional or active part.
2. Independent Variable
The teacher is an independent variable. He is responsible for the functioning of students, the
dependent variables. He is free to act in the process while students are quite dependent on him. The
teacher plans, organizes, leads and controls the process of teaching. Like dependent variables,
independent variables also play the functional or active part.
3. Intervening Variables
There is need of desirable interaction between the dependent and the independent variable to
achieve the goals of teaching. This role is played by the intervening variables. The content of
teaching, methods and techniques, tactics and strategies management of instructional material and
teaching environments, etc., are the Intervening Variables.
Basic Requirements of Teaching

Basic requirements of teaching are
1.All the three variables of teaching

2.Professionalism
3.Suitable environment
4.Teacher-student relationship
5.Student’s discipline
6.Teacher’s devotion to teaching, and also on the other hand, student’s devotion to learning.
Learner’s Characteristics
(i)Habit of Readiness
Learners should have habit of readiness. This habit is also known as law of motivation. Woodworth
calls it law of mental set. The teacher should arouse the attention and interest of the students by
asking suitable questions. Curiosity is indispensable for learning.
(ii)Habit of Exercise
“Practice makes a man perfect” is a well known proverb. This habit is also known as law of practice
or law of use and disuse.
(iii)Habit of Effect
It is also called the law of pleasure and pain or law of satisfaction and annoyance. The activities
which are associated with pleasure or satisfaction becomes more effective. Activities which are
associated with pain, punishment are not repeated and their strength is decreased.
(iv) Attitudes and Habits
Learners must have good attitudes and habits. These can be formed in children by the efforts of
teacher and parents.
(v) Absence of anger and jealousy among learners
Emotion of anger and jealousy must be removed from the learner’s personality, because they
weaken the learning abilities.
(vi) Slow Beginning and Gradual Development

They should begin slowly but the process of development must be continuous and gradual.
Factors Affecting Teaching

Following factors affect teaching.
• All the three variables, i.e., dependent, independent and intervening variables
• Teacher-student relationship
• Methods of teaching used;
• Teacher-administration relationship; and
• The social environment.
Psychology Theories
Much of w hat we know about human thought and behavior has emerged thanks to various
psychology theories. For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how conditioning can be used
to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time
studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely
accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and
behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding
of psychology’s past, present and future.
1. Behavioral Theories
2. Cognitive Theories
3. Developmental Theories
4. Humanist Theories
5. Personality Theories
6. Social Psychology Theories
7. Learning Theories
8. Behavioral Theories
Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that
all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John
B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the
twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help
clients learn new skills and behaviors. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shapes our
behaviors.
2. Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem
solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. Cognitive psychology is the branch of
psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and
learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other
disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. The core focus of cognitive
psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical
applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making
accuracy and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.
3. Developmental Theories
Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and
learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behaviour,
understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society.
4. Humanist Theories
Humanistic psychology theories began to grow in popularity during the 1950s. While earlier
theories often focused on abnormal behavior and psychological problems, humanist theories
instead emphasized the basic goodness of human beings. Some of the major humanist theorists
include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow .
5. Personality Theories
Almost every day we describe and assess the personalities of the people around us. Whether we
realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people behave as they do are similar to w hat
personality psychologists do. Personality psychology looks at the patterns of thoughts, feelings,
and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the best known theories in psychology are
devoted to the subject of personality. Almost everyday we describe and assess the personalities of
the people around us. Whether w e realize it or not, these daily musings on how and why people
behave as they do are similar to w hat personality psychologists do.
6.Social Psychology Theories

Social psychology is focused on helping us understand and explain social behavior. Social theories
are generally centered on specific social phenomena, including group behavior, social influence,
love and much more. Social psychology looks at a wide range of social topics, including group
behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression and prejudice.
It is important to note that social psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social
perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behavior.
7. Learning Theories
Learning theories focus on how people learning and acquire new know ledge. This is an
interdisciplinary topic of interest that often draws upon information from psychology, education,
instructional design, and other areas.

METHODS OF TEACHING
Methods of Teaching According to different Schools of
Philosophy
• Methods by idealism
Buttler is right when he says, “Idealists consider themselves creators and determiners of methods,
not devotees of some one method.” They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only.
They do not specify any method to be adopted in the centers of learning. Therefore, method is the
weakest aspect of the philosophy of idealism. Different idealists have adopted different methods.
Socrates adopted the question method. Plato, his disciple, changed question method into
conversational method and made it logical. His disciple, Aristotle followed inductive and deductive
methods. Hegel adopted logical method. Pestalozzi adopted self-activity method. Herbart on
methods says, “I have no conception of education without instruction and do not acknowledge any
instruction which does not educate.” He also takes the help of discussion method and at times
suggests debate as a technique of teaching. Froebel’s familiar metaphor of the “Kindergarten”
indicates his philosophy of the methods of teaching. According to him, “The school is garden, the
educand a tender plant and the educator the careful gardener.” The work of a gardener is to see that
the child achieves the finest form possible. Ross says, “The naturalist may be content with briars
but the idealist wants fine roses. So the educator by his efforts assists the educand, who is
developing according to the laws of his nature, to attain the levels that would otherwise be denied
to him.”
Thus we reach conclusion that the idealists do not regard any particular method to be superior. But
one thing is definite that the way should not be tedious so much so that we might not acquire our
aim. So far as the methods of teaching are concerned, the idealists did not contribute any original
ideas. They have given us lofty aims of education. Ross, therefore, says, “It is only idealism that
can give a clear vision of a satisfactory goal for educative effort; we must therefore turn to idealistic
conceptions if we would get things into proper perspective.”
For classroom practice, idealists would encourage the use of the discussion and the lecture methods.
The discussion method of learning which is popularly known as the socratic method involves
questioning and discussion. It was the method of learning in the upanishadic period of Indian
education It is also known as the ‘Informal dialectic’ method. Idealists value the use of well-
prepared and presented lectures. Lecture should not be a phonographic recitation on facts but a
scholarly exposition. It should also not be delivered in an autocratic way. It should be participatory.
• Methods by Naturalism.
Rousseau considers education as a process of living. Being a process, it lasts throughout life or at
least from birth to adult life. It finds its meaning for any particular stage, not on a future state. It is
not artificial, harsh, unsympathetic, repressive of all natural inclinations, by which “the child as a
“little man” is made into a “big man” through the hands of the teacher. Development of the child

through natural process is an enjoyable, rational, harmoniously balanced, ^ useful and hence natural
life. The aim of education is achieved not in adult life, but in each succeeding day, whenever life
has its natural activities, its appropriate duties and its corresponding satisfaction. Thus stress is
given on direct experience of things. Rousseau, therefore says, “Give your scholar no verbal
lessons: he should be taught by experience alone. Teach by doing whenever you can and only A
fall back upon words when doing is out of question. Book knowledge should be as little as
possible.”
Rousseau’s method of teaching has a sound basis of actual experience. For example “science should
not be taught from books or by chalk and talk lessons,” it should rather be learned by the pupil
through his own work in the laboratory or whenever possible, through a direct study of natural i:
phenomena outside the school together.This is the exact definition of the project – a practical
problem in its natural setting. Rousseau believes that scientific atmosphere destroys science. Hence
the apparatus to be used by the child in his investigation is to be self-invented. In his words, “we
should make all our apparatus ourselves. It would…. rather our apparatus was somewhat clumsy
and imperfect, but our ideas clear as to what the apparatus ought to be, and the result to be obtained
by means of it.” Geometry should not be taught by argument and problems in text books, however
lucidly explained. It should be learned in its original sense of earth measurement by the help of
surveying the playground or school field. Again it should be learnt by the scout movement, school
journey and actual excursion, not from books or maps.
Rousseau also lays stress on the value of direct experience of social life. Children should learn the
rights and duties of a citizen through organization of a free, natural society. He recommends self-
government in place of authoritarian methods.
Rousseau believes that all learning takes place in the spirit and by the method of play: “Whether
play is seen as the recapitulation of the activities of primitive man, or as a rehearsal of future life,
adult activities, or as a means of discharging the energy of native propensities, all agreed that it is
nature’s mode of education.” Hence playway should be considered as the outstanding general
method of creative education.
The method recommended by Rousseau may be identified with the heuristic method. Though it is
not exactly heuristic, it is a method of discovery. It may be compared with the experimental method
advocated by John Dewey. This method advocates “Let him, know nothing because you have told
him, but because he has learnt it for himself. You have not got to teach him truths so much as to
show him how to set about discovering them for himself.” Learning by doing is the general
principle which governs the education of “Emile.”
• Pragmatic Methods

The focus of pragmatic methods of teaching is on the ‘child-in-society’ and his activities therein
rather than the book, the teacher, the subject or exclusively the child-of-nature. Learning always
occurs as a result of an activity. The teacher has to capitalize upon the activities of children to direct
the teaching-learning process. Activity is the basis of all teaching. The child should be enabled to
find out information by himself instead of pouring information on him. Children should be
encouraged to discover and investigate the facts of life. Education must develop the laboratory
habit of mind. The method of teaching should be experimental.
Dewey feels that methods of teaching should develop reflective thinking in children. They must
ask the ‘Why ?’ of things and not merely the ‘How?’ of things. Method cannot be conceived in
isolation from matter. Therefore, method should vary as matter varies.
Project method is a direct outcome of Dewey’s theory “Learning by doing”. It shifts the emphasis
from teaching to learning which can be only effective if it takes place not only through doing but
also through living. Emphasis must be given to enable the children to live an active life. They
should set to themselves a problem or task and carry it out through their own planning and activity.
Thus learning will be incidental and an outcome of purposeful activity. No formal learning is to be
forced on the child. The project method of Dewey aims at “Learning by living.” According to this,
things are learnt through carrying out certain projects as presented by real life.
Some educators have attempted to define project more clearly. Stevenson in his book “The Project
Method of Teaching” has described it as a problematic act carried to completion in its natural
setting. A project, according to Kilpatrick is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding on a
social environment. According to Ballard, “A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into
the schools.”
• Existentialist Methods
The method of teaching advocated by existentialism is of asking questions, refining answers, asking
more questions and pushing the issue until some acceptable conclusion was reached. Existentialists
favoured the Socratic approach to teaching, as it was inductive, proceeding from the immediate and
particular to the abstract and universal. In this method, knowledge and wisdom are gained through
personal relationships between the teacher and the pupil. They give emphasis on individual
attention. Since emphasis is given on individual attention, they prefer home education to school
education. “For existentialism what counts is personal contact not timetable.” The ancient Indian
educators advocated and experimented domestic system of education to give individual attention
and treatment to the students. In this system the personal touch, the living relationship between the
Acharya and Brahmachari constituted education. In a modern school, a teacher teaches a class and
not the individuals with their differences. But in ancient India, the Acharya taught the individuals
with their differences, not the class. For this they developed Gurukula System of education.
In existentialist system the teacher cannot impose upon children his own ideas, ideals, ideologies
and values. Religious education may be imparted, provided there is no scope for indoctrinations.
They advocate a method of teaching which can develop creativity among the pupils.
Methods of Teaching as recommended by Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)

• The commission suggested that methods of teaching should provide ample opportunities for
students to develop clear thinking and clear expression.
• Individual-centred methods and opportunities for practical application of knowledge should
be adopted.
• Activity method and project method should be used in school practice.
• Establishing of Experimental and Demonstration schools and training in activities such
asscout movement, N.C.C., first aid should be encouraged.
Some Specific Methods of Teaching

1. Inferential Problem Solving Technique
Inductive and deductive are two important procedures of systematic approaches to problem solving.
Steps in Inductive Method

(i)Recognition of the problem
(ii)Searching for data
(iii)Organisation of data
(iv)Framing tentative solutions
(v)Elimination
(vi)Verification
Deductive Method
(i)Recognition of problem
(ii)Searching for data
(iii)Reviewing
(iv)Formulation of inferences
(v)Verification

2. Team-Teaching
Team-teaching is also called co-operative teaching. This is a recent idea in the field of education.
M.B. Naik said, “In a team-teaching method, two or more teachers make a plan of the subjects
cooperatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effects on the students periodically.” In team
teaching, subject teachers give lectures to a big class. On every working, all the members of the
team have a common assembly. Here they discuss the methods used by the fellow-teachers.
3. Micro-Teaching
Micro-teaching is an innovative teaching technique. It is a new development in the field of teaching.
The term micro-teaching was first coined by Dwight Allen of the Stanford University in 1963.
Features of micro-teaching
• It is a teacher training technique.
• It focuses on developing teaching skills.
• It reduces the classes size in five to ten students.
• The size of the topic is also reduced.
• Micro-teaching is a highly individualized training skill.
• It provides feedback for trainee’s performance.
• It is an effective device to prepare competent teachers.
• In this technique learners are provided with immediate knowledge of the correctness of
response.
Steps in Micro-teaching
(i) Defining the skill
(ii) Demonstrating the skill
(iii)Planning the lesson
(iv)Teaching the lesson
(v)Discussion
(vi) Replanning
(vii) Re-teaching
(viii)Rediscussion
(ix) Repeating the cycle till the desired level of skill is achieved.
4. Question-Answer technique in teaching

No teacher of elementary or secondary subjects can succeed in his instruction who has not a fair
mastery of the art of questioning.
Purposes of questioning:
(i)To test the knowledge
(ii)To locate the difficulty
(iii)To arouse motivation
(iv)To secure active participation of students.
(v)To apply knowledge
(vi)To recapitulate the lesson learnt.
(vii)To promote thinking and originality
(viii)To increase self confidence
(ix)To maintain discipline
(x) To promote intellectual and social development.
Underlying the need of questioning Parkar Said. “Questioning is the key to all educative activities.”
Teaching Aids
A teaching aid is something a classroom teacher uses in her class to help students improve reading
and other skills, reinforce a skill, or to make learning fun. Teaching aids can be used in any of the
core classes.
Definition
A teaching aid is a tool used by teachers, facilitators, or tutors to help learners improve reading
and other skills illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact, or idea, and relieve anxiety, fear, or boredom,
since many teaching aids are like games.
There are several types of teaching aids to be utilized in a classroom.

Chart

Chart showing Human Skeleton System
A chart is something that shows a group of facts in the form of a diagram, table, or a graph. Charts
can be large enough to mount on a wall. Wall charts can be used for whole group lessons; the
teacher can write an outline or word definitions on the wall chart.
Flash Cards
A flash card is part of a set of cards that has numbers, letters, pictures or words on it. They are
commonly used for drilling students on facts. Flash cards may also be used to enhance student
memory.
Flip Charts
Flip Chart

Flip charts are useful for teaching large groups at one time. A flip chart is a large group of papers
that are attached at the top so that the papers can be flipped over one at a time to show a new page
of paper. Flip charts are often placed on an easel, which allows the teacher to easily move it. A
teacher can use a flip chart when she is showing different parts of a lesson, stages in the process of
something, steps of something, or the progress of a story as it unfolds. Flip charts are very versatile
and can be used for all classes.
Maps
Maps are something teachers can use for various projects or lessons. A map is something to use
when a teacher is describing where a city, state, country, or continent is located. Teachers can show
students different types of terrain, the population of a specific state or country, or the amount of
precipitation in various areas. Maps are great for social studies and science and give students a
great understanding of spatial relations.
Newspapers
Many teachers may not know that a newspaper is a great teaching aid. Teachers can use them to
teach about people, places and things in language arts. Newspapers can be used for math activities,
such as clipping coupons and doing basic math. A teacher can use a newspaper for finding parts of
speech, teaching about life skills, or to keep students current on news events.
Graphs

Graphs are a wonderful teacher’s aid and can be used for any subject. Teachers can make their own
graphs and use them to compare population growth in social studies, numbers or ratios of objects
in math class, or even use them for charting student growth. Teachers can make their own graphs
using computer programs or can choose to go the old-fashioned way and use graph paper.
Surveys
These are another great teaching aid. Teachers can make their own survey to pass out to the class.
On that survey, the teacher may ask the students to answer yes, no, multiple choice, or short answer
questions regarding a recent teaching unit, the overall performance of the teacher or the school in
general. Surveys are a great way for a teacher to get feedback and use that feedback to improve
teaching skills or change future lessons for more success!
Teaching aids can add to lessons, show students specifics of the lesson, or improve basic skills.
There are so many teaching aids available to teachers today; the possibilities are endless.
One cannot learn how to use teaching aids skillfully from a book. This only comes through practice.
However, the following principles may be useful to consider with any visual or audio-visual aids.
Audio-visual aids, in modern age, are used as teaching aids for all. They extensively facilitate and
enrich the learning process. They make the concepts more clear and can be repeated over and over
again.
Principles of Audio-Visual aids
(i)Principle of fulfillment of objective
(ii)Principle of selection
(iii)Principle of effectiveness
• Select the aids most suited to the communication objective, the location, and the
composition and size of the audience.
• Use the aids to reinforce the message or to support the activity that is going on. They are
there to assist, to complement and supplement what the presenter is doing. In a talk to a
group of farmers, for example, refer to the aids, explain them and ask questions about them
to check whether the audience has understood the key points.
• Make sure that the audience will be able to see and hear clearly. Audio cassettes that cannot
be heard or words on a board that are too small to be seen can make the audience restless
and inattentive, and even start talking amongst themselves.
• Practice using the aids beforehand. Where projectors aids are used, it is important that the
presenter is fully accustomed to using the equipment.
Advantages
(i)They make class room teaching effective

(ii)They make learning easy
(iii)They make use of more sensory organs.
(iv)They create interest and motivate students
Hardware and Software. Radio, TV, Tape-Recorder are said to be hardware teaching aids whereas
chalk – board, cartoons and models are software aids. Some teaching aids are only audio aids:
Radio, Tape Recorders etc., whereas television is an audio-visual aid. TV. is the most powerful
and effective mean for the education of masses. For correcting pronunciation in languages, tape-
recorder is a very helpful aid for learners. Black board is the cheapest and commonly used class
room teaching aid. The Government of India started operation Black – Board in 1987 – 88 to make
good use of this commonly used teaching aid.
Evaluation Systems
Evaluation is a device through which we can get an exact idea of what students actually achieve
from their teaching-learning experiences. Following are some important evaluation systems:
1. Examinations
Examination is the concern of the teacher, the greatest premium of parents and the first anxiety of
the students. End products of all education efforts are appraised by evaluation.
Importance of Examinations
(i)Examinations help in testing the achievement of the pupils.
(ii)Examinations are also helpful in evaluating the individual interests, aptitudes, intelligence,
physical, emotional, social and moral development.
(iii)They also provide an ease to classify the students, to provide guidance, to bring changes in
curriculum and form the basis of admissions.
Dr. Radha Krishnan said, “if examination are necessary, thorough reform of these is still more
necessary.”
2. Psychological Evaluation
We evaluate personality because it helps us to know about the physical, mental, emotional and
social behaviour of the individual, measurement of personality is also helpful in providing proper
guidance to the students.

There are three methods of personality assessments namely – psychometric, projective and
behavioural assessments. But, we are discussing only projective test, here.
Projective Tests
Projective tests have been devised as one method for uncovering unconscious motives. This test is
used by psychoanalysts by interpreting the symbolic meanings of the persons behaviour to arrive
at the underlying motives.
A projective test presents an ambiguous stimulus to which the individual may respond as he wishes.
Theoretically, because the stimulus is ambiguous and does not demand a specific response, the
individual projects his personality through his responses, just as a movie camera projects an image
on the screen. Projective tests tap the subject’s imagination, and through his imaginative
productions it is assumed that he reveals something about himself. Two of the most widely used
projective tech¬niques are the Rorschach Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.
(a) The Rorschach Test.
It was developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in the1920s, consists of a series of
10 cards, each displaying a rather complex inkblot. Some of the blots are coloured and some are in
black and white. The subject is instructed to look at the inkblots one at a time and report everything
seen on the card—everything the inkblot could look like or resemble. After the subject has finished
the 10 cards, the examiner usually goes back over each response, asking the subject to elaborate
some responses and to tell what features of the blot gave a particular impression.
Most psychologists base their interpretations on an impressionistic evaluation of the response

record as well as the subject’s .general reaction to the test situation: for example, is the individual
defensive, open, competitive, cooperative, and so on.
(b) Thematic Apperception Test. Another popular projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test
(abbreviated TAT) developed at Harvard University by Henry Murray during the 1930s. This test
is less ambiguous than the Rorschach because it involves pictures of actual scenes rather than
inkblots. The subject is shown a series of pictures, similar to that in Figure and asked to make up a
story about each. He or she is encouraged to give free reign to imagination and to tell whatever
story comes to mind. The test is intended to reveal the basic “themes” that recur in a person’s
imaginative productions. Apperception means a readiness to perceive in certain ways, based on
prior individual experience. Hence, the test’s name implies that people interpret ambiguous pictures
according to their individual readiness to perceive, and that they elaborate stories in terms of
preferred plots or themes that reflect personal fantasies. In taking the TAT, the subject tells stories

about 20 pictures. If particular problems are bothering the subject, they may show up in a number
of the stories.
When confronted with a picture similar to that in Figure, a 21-year-old male told the following
story. She has prepared this room for someone’s arrival and is opening the door for a last general
look over the room. She is probably expecting her son home. She tries to place everything as it was
when he left. She seems like a very tyrannical character. She led her son’s life for him and is going
to take over again as soon as he gets back. This is merely the beginning of her rule, and the son is
definitely cowed by this overbearing attitude of hers and will slip back into her well-ordered way
of life. He will go through life plodding down the tracks she has laid down for him. All this
represents her complete domination of his life until she dies (Arnold, 1949).
Although the original picture shows only a woman standing in an open door, the subject’s readiness
to respond with something about the relationship to his mother led to this story of a woman’s
domination of her son. The clinician whose patient told this story reports that facts obtained later
confirmed the interpretation that the story reflected the subject’s own problems.
In analysing responses to the TAT cards the psychologist looks for recurrent themes that may reveal
the individual’s needs, motives, or characteristic way of handling interpersonal relations.
3. Philosophical Evaluation
There is much controversy about testing, grading and promotion in the field of education.
Philosophers, who support conservative view on evaluation are of opinion that the intellectual
development of the students can be judged in terms of their mastery of subject matter. The best
means of determining the student’s intellectual progress is to discover how well he has learned the
assigned material. To what extent he has memorized all the facts, vocabulary or formula of a
particular subject. It also involves testing the mastery of principles and generalization to be derived
from the subject. It may also test student’s ability to apply his knowledge to other situations. Thus
the conservative school supports this evaluation of achievements.
The liberal school of thought gives emphasis on the development of the ‘who’s child’. It is not
concerned with the academic achievement of the students. They take the help of varieties of
techniques and methods to measure the personal and social development of the students and group
in which they work. Thus evaluation is also a problem of philosophical analysis.
INNOVATIVE TOOLS
(A) MULTIMEDIA LEARNING PROCESS
Multimedia is the combination of various digital media types such as text, images, audio and video,
into an integrated multisensory interactive application or presentation to convey information to an
audience. Traditional educational approaches have resulted in a mismatch between what is taught
to the students and what the industry needs. As such many institutions are moving towards problem
based learning as a solution to produce graduates who are creative; think critically and analytically,
to solve problems. In this paper, we focus on using multimedia technology as an innovative
teaching and learning strategy in a problem-based learning environment by giving the students a
multimedia project to train them in this skill set.
Currently, many institutions are moving towards problem-based learning as a solution to producing
graduates w ho are creative and can think critically, analytically, and solve problems. Since know
ledge is no longer an end but a means of creating better problem solvers and encourage lifelong
learning. Problem-based learning is becoming increasingly popular in educational institutions as a
tool to address the inadequacies of traditional teaching. Since these traditional approaches do not
encourage students to question w hat they have learnt or to associate w ith previously acquired
know ledge. Problem-based learning is seen as an innovative measure to encourage students to
learn how to learn via real-life problems The teacher uses multimedia to modify the contents of the
material. It will help the teacher to represent in a more meaningful way, using different media
elements. These media elements can be converted into digital form, modified and customized for
the final presentation. By incorporating digital media elements into the project, the students are
able to learn better since they use multiple sensory modalities, which would make them more
motivated to pay more attention to the information presented and retain the information better.
(B) OTHER INNOVATIVE TOOLS SUGGESTED
The researchers suggest some of the methods that can very well be applied by the modern teachers.
As the researchers feel that basically the core objective of teaching should never be deviated by the
use of an innovative method. The following methods which are suggested are an extension to the
traditional methods of teaching.

(1) MIND MAP

Mind maps were developed in the late 60s by Tony Buzan as a way of helping students make notes
that used only key words and images, but mind map can be used by teachers to explain concepts in
an innovative w ay. They are much quicker to make and much easier to remember and review
because of their visual quality. The nonlinear nature of mind maps make it easy to link and cross-
reference different elements of the map. As the recent research point that any particular information
explained with the help of graph charts make a high impact in the minds of the people and keeping
this as the core aspect the teachers may try to pictures the concepts and show the same to the
students.
(2) TEACHING WITH SENSE OF HUMOUR – “HUMOUR- AN EFFECTIVE MEDIUM

OF TEACHING”
Everyone loves a teacher with an infectious sense of humor. Humor strengthens the relationship
betw een student and teacher, reduces stress, makes the course more interesting and if relevant to
the subject, may even enhance recalling of the material. Humor has the ability to relax people,
reduce tension, and thereby create an atmosphere conducive for learning and communication.
Numerous studies in the field of advertisement have noted that humor is the most effective tool for
enhancing recall of advertisements. It is easy to create a humor in the classroom by reading books
of jokes and to listen to professional comics. The students should be encouraged to take notes,
especially to learn about the professionals’ use of such techniques as exaggeration, pauses, and
timing. Observe reality and exaggerate it – much humor lies in observations about real life and
truthful situations. In conclusion, humor not only plays an important role in the healing process but
is also very important in education.
(3) MNEMONIC WORDS- WORDS APPROACH

Here the teacher is not supposed to talk on a particular concept for a quite long time. But to make
it clear to the students he can just go on saying mnemonics or its associated meaning in words.
Here he goes on saying only words instead of sentence, and once they come to a basic
understanding of the meaning of a particular concept then the teacher w ill explain in sentences.
For example in teaching language courses this technique can be used as an effective medium by
the teacher to develop word power.
• Dictionary must be used widely

• Word power increases
• Teacher also gets to know many w ords pertaining to a particular concept.
(4) Z TO A APPROACH
This approach attempts to explain the application part of a particular concept first. The teacher
should explain the application of a particular concept first and explain the effects of such
applications. For example in management subject – motivation is explained in a manner that the

organization get extensive benefits out of using some techniques like promotions and awards. So
here the use of promotion is explained first and later students would get interest in know ing w hat
are promotions and awards. The teacher starts explaining what is promotion and explains what
motivation theory in management is. Another example we can try is that in accounting the Income
statement and Balance Sheet can be explained first and later drawing their attention to double entry
system of book keeping.
Strengths
• Makes a particular concept clear
• Students develop interest to know exactly the concept.
• Creates long lasting memory/correlation of a concept.
Weaknesses
• Take quite long time for a teacher to introduce a concept
• Initial difficulty in understanding a particular concept will be encountered.
•
(5) ROLE PLAYING AND SCENARIO ANALYSIS BASED TEACHING
Role playing and scenario analysis is mostly used in organizations that try to analyze a problem
pertaining to the organization, and this is also used in management institutions. But the similar kind
of practice can be tried in other specialization too like science and engineering. Science and
engineering courses have practical but in support of those practical if students are given a scenario
and other options to solve a particular issue, then the students are exposed to decision making in a
given environment.
For example, in teaching accounting the role of accountant can be explained by role playing
technique. Invoice and bills can be given to students and asked them to assume the role of
accountant. Here the real entries pertaining to transactions are made by the student and this is more
practical approach to teaching where theory is supplemented by proper practical knowledge.
Similar kind of technique can be applied in management, engineering and science courses.
Learning Theory and Behavioral Psychology

Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent behavioral change or
potential behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter the way we perceive our
environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or
behave. John B. Watson (1878-1958) w as the first to study how the process of learning affects our
behavior, and he formed the school of thought know n as Behaviorism. The central idea behind
behaviorism is that only observable behaviors are worthy of research since other abstraction such
as a person’s mood or thoughts are too subjective. This belief was dominant in psychological
research in the United Stated for a good 50 years. Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in
how our behavior results from the stimuli both in the environment and within ourselves. They
study, often in minute detail, the behaviours we exhibit while controlling for as many other
variables as possible. Often a grueling process, but results have helped us learn a great deal about
our behaviours, the effect our environment has on us, how we learn new behaviors, and what
motivates us to change or remain the same.
Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning.
One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, w as actually discovered accidentally by
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist w ho discovered this phenomenon
while doing research on digestion. His research was aimed at better understanding the digestive
patterns in dogs. During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who
had tubes inserted into various organs to measure bodily responses. What he discovered w as that
the dogs began to salivate before the meat powder was presented to them. Then, the dogs began to
salivate as soon as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain interest
in this phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of his famous Classical
Conditioning study.
Basically, the findings support the idea that w e develop responses to certain stimuli that are not
naturally occurring. When w e touch a hot stove, our reflex pulls our hand back. It does very
instinctually, in this no learning involved. It is merely a survival instinct. But w hy some people,
after getting burned, pull their hands back even w hen the stove is not turned on?
Pavlov discovered that we make associations which cause us to generalize our response to one
stimuli onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with. In other words, hot burner = ouch, stove =burner,
therefore, stove = ouch.
Operant Conditioning.
Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is called Operant Conditioning. The
term “Operant” refers to how an organism operates on the environment, and hence, operant
conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can be
thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.
Let’s explain that a little further. The classic study of operant conditioning involved a cat who was
placed in a box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in order for the
door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because freedom is reinforcing. In its
attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the door opens. The cat is now free. Once
placed in the box again, the cat w ill naturally try to remember w hat it did to escape the previous
time and w ill once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the box, the
quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through natural consequences, how to

gain the reinforcing freedom. We learn this w ay every day in our lives. Imagine the last time you
made a mistake; you most likely remember that mistake and do things differently when the situation
comes up again. In that sense, you’ve learned to act differently based on the natural consequences
of your previous actions. The same holds true for positive actions. If something you did results in
a positive outcome, you are likely to do that same activity again.
Reinforcement
The term reinforce means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus
which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. For example, if you w ant
your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will
eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing
because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.
This is a simple description of a reinforcement , the treat, which increases the response, sitting.
We all apply reinforcers everyday, most of the time without even realizing we are doing it.
You may tell your child “good job” after he or she cleans their room; perhaps you tell your partner
how good he or she look when they dress up; or maybe you got a raise at work after doing a great
job on a project. All of these things increase the probability that the same response will be repeated.
There are four types of reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment, and extinction. We’ll discuss
each of these and give examples. Positive Reinforcement.
The examples above describe what is referred to as positive reinforcement. Think of it as adding
something in order to increase a response. For example, adding a treat will increase the response
of sitting; adding praise w ill increase the chances of your child cleaning his or her room. The most
common types of positive reinforcement are praise and rewards, and most of us have experienced
this as both the giver and receiver.
Negative Reinforcement
Think of negative reinforcement as taking something negative aw ay in order to increase a response.
Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his mother to take out the garbage week after week. After
complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day performs the task and to his
amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of this negative stimulus is reinforcing and w ill
likely increase the chances that he will take out the garbage next week.
Punishment

Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior. The most common
example of this is disciplining (e.g. spanking) a child for misbehaving. The reason we do this is
because the child begins to associate being punished with the negative behaviour. The punishment
is not liked and therefore to avoid it, he or she w ill stop behaving in that manner.
Extinction
When you remove something in order to decrease a behavior, this is called extinction. You are
taking something away so that a response is decreased. Research has found positive reinforcement
is the most pow erful of any of these. Adding a positive to increase a response not only works
better, but allows both parties to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, w hen
applied immediately following the negative behaviour can be effective, but results in extinction
when it is not applied consistently. Punishment can also invoke other negative responses such as
anger and resentment.

Teaching Aptitude 2

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PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

In brief a proper definition of teaching should-

(i) Identify whether teaching is a process or product

(ii) Clearly indicate its constitutional factors

(iii) reveal objectives, and

(iv) say something about its organizational and structural aspect.

(i) Agent or source producing learning which may be human or material,

(ii) a goal or target to be achieved, and

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

• Teaching – To bring changes in the behaviour of students.

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

1. Training helps in shaping conduct and teaching various skills.

• To bring desired changes in pupils.

Four Modern Concepts of Teaching

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

Different Variables of Teaching

Basic Requirements of Teaching

1.All the three variables of teaching

(iv) Attitudes and Habits

(v) Absence of anger and jealousy among learners

(vi) Slow Beginning and Gradual Development

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

Factors Affecting Teaching

6.Social Psychology Theories

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

Methods of Teaching as recommended by Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)

Some Specific Methods of Teaching

Steps in Inductive Method

(ii)Searching for data

(iv)Framing tentative solutions

(ii)Searching for data

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

(ii) Demonstrating the skill

(iii)Planning the lesson

(iv)Teaching the lesson

4. Question-Answer technique in teaching

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

(i)To test the knowledge

(ii)To locate the difficulty

(iii)To arouse motivation

(iv)To secure active participation of students.

(v)To apply knowledge

(vi)To recapitulate the lesson learnt.

(vii)To promote thinking and originality

(viii)To increase self confidence

(ix)To maintain discipline

(x) To promote intellectual and social development.

There are several types of teaching aids to be utilized in a classroom.

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

Chart showing Human Skeleton System

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

(ii)They make learning easy

(iii)They make use of more sensory organs.

(iv)They create interest and motivate students

TEACHING APTITUDE PROFESSORS STUDY CIRCLE. 9447382057

(a) The Rorschach Test.

Most psychologists base their interpretations on an impressionistic evaluation of the response