Pedagogical Studies

By
Ashenafi Mihret(Asst Profesor)
 Unit-1
Teaching as a Profession and Related
Issues
There two approaches in defining

profession.

1) ‘Static approach'

2) ‘Process approach’
According to static approach,

 Profession is a form of employment or

occupation, which is respected in society as

honorable, and is only possible for an educated

person and after getting training in some special

branch of knowledge
 A profession is a an occupation that
provides a special service to the
community based on accumulated
knowledge, skills and wisdom.
 It also controls the entry
qualifications and work standards of
Characteristics of Profession:
involve intellectual (logical) operations.
Derive their material from science.
Involve definite and practical ends.
Possess an educationally communicable
technique.
Tend to self-organization.
Be altruistic (unselfish) (Cervero, 1988: 6).
The second approach for defining a profession is
known as the ‘the process approach’.
 In this approach emphasis is placed on the
circumstances by which an occupation
professionalizes’
 To understand the meaning of a profession,
the fourteen characteristics of the
professionalization process advanced by Houle.
Houle (1980) observed that the professionalization
process has the following characteristics:
1) Clarifying the function of the profession;
2) Mastery of theoretical knowledge;
3) The capacity to solve problems;
4) Use of practical knowledge;
5) Self-enhancement;
6) Formal training;
7) Credentialing;
8) Creation of subculture;
9) Legal reinforcement;
10) Public acceptance;
11) Ethical practice;
12) Penalties;
13) Relation to other vocations;
14) Relation to the users of the service.
Hamilton (2002) noted that members of a profession
must maintain high standards of performance.
Every profession: (6 properties)
1. Involves an intellectual activity/ body of subject
matter knowledge/ and system of skills;
2. is practicable/practical;
3. Requires an extended period of preparation for
entry;
4. has literature and unique languages of its members;
5. is organized
6. Performs specific functions for personal and social
purposes;
Teaching as a profession demands:
1. Commitment to the ideal service of human kind
rather than to personal gains;
2. Undergoing a relatively long-period of training to
acquire the knowledge and skills;
3. Meeting the admission qualifications (criteria) and
keeping up-to date through in-service programs;
4. A high level of intellectual energy;
5. Forming organization
6. Trying to get opportunities for advancement,
specialization and independence;
7. Ensuring permanent membership in the profession
and taking teaching as one’s life-long career.
Teachers’ Professional Code of Ethics
The teachers’ professional codes of ethics are related
to their accountability to their students, the profession,
their employers, the home and the community.
A. Teachers’ responsibility to their students
This refers to such responsibilities as respecting their
rights, providing good education that would enable
them to become productive citizens, helping them set
their future goals, etc.
B. Teachers’ commitment to the profession
Teachers are expected to perform their duties
as teachers being honest to their colleagues,
treat their colleagues as they want to be
treated, acknowledge the works of others, and
work towards the improvement of the
profession.
C. Teachers’ responsibility to their
employers
Every employee is expected to accomplish
tasks the employer wants him/her perform in
the organization faithfully and honestly with
the required quality.
D. Teachers’ responsibility to the parents and the
community
Parents have the right to say about the education of
the children. Thus, listening to them and respecting
their opinion is mandatory.
The community is the body that supports the school
financially, materially, and guards the school from
destructive activities.
A good teacher is a person who works
being guided by a slogan;
“It is my duty to turn adversity(hard ship)
into opportunity”
a good teacher is someone who
1) has breadth of interest,
2) is helpful and co-operative,
3) is considerate and kind for individuals,
4) plays good leadership,
5) takes initiative,
6) has self-confidence,
Effectiveness in teaching depends on the

teacher’s
ability to stimulate interests in learning;

 wealth of commentarial statement;

 attention to students responses;
 Giving well-developed
assignments/projects
 frequent use of illustrative materials;

 effective methods of appraising students

work;
 freedom from disciplinary problems;
 Use of well-established examination
procedures;
 an appreciative attitude;
 skill in asking questions;
 providing definite study help; use of
appropriate class procedures; Willingness
to experiment.
Skills and Qualities of Effective Instructor
Effective instructor can have the following
qualities, we can divide these characters under
three headings:
(a) Ability of working with students
(b) Personal Characters
(c) Other characters
(a)Ability of working with students:
•Have prior experience working with youth in alternative
education settings.
•Maintain student confidentiality as appropriate.
•Show respect for students and establish rapport with them.
•Appreciate students’ individuality.
•Practice “tough love.”.
•Accept the students where they are.
•Have high expectations of students.
(b)Personality Characteristics:
•Have a sense of humor, light-heartedness, and positive outlook
on life.
•Have patience, perspective and the ability to not take things
personally.
•Demonstrate consistency, predictability and reliability. This
means showing up on time and committing to teach for the full
quarter or semester.
•Be available to students outside of class (i.e. meet with individual
students if needed.)
 (c) In other characters, he/she would:
•Break the lesson into small steps when working with
different abilities and skill levels.
•Be passionate for the discipline.
•Be highly competent and confident in your ability in the
discipline.
•Have experience in teaching the discipline.
•Demonstrate the discipline to students to establish your
credibility and authority; it also gives them an example of
what to strive for.
 UNIT-II
TEACHING AND LEARNING
IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
1.1 Teaching:
Teaching is defined by different groups in
different ways depending on the
conceptions facilitating the individual’s
learning.
Teaching is considered by modern pedagogues
as
• “a process of facilitating individual’s learning
through motivation, coordination,
guiding/directing the activities he/she
performs and controlling/evaluating the
learning results”.
 It is also defined as “a process of
directing the interaction between the
learner and the material to be
learned”, etc.
Learning
Similar to teaching the psychologists differ in
defining learning.
1) Learning is the process of acquiring
knowledge through the mental process. It is
developing the mental caliber (ability) of the
individual.
.
 2) Learning is a relatively permanent
change/modification of the behavior of the
learner as a result of practice. Here the
change in behavior is related to the
acquisition of knowledge, the development
of skills, and the formation of value
systems
Learning can be defined as an internal process which
occurs in the learner. It is a relatively permanent
change in the behavior of a person (the learner).
Research by cognitive psychologists (Brainard, 1997)
shows that
learning takes place in three stages:
1) The motivation stage,
2) The acquisition stage and
3) The performance stage.
1) The Motivation Phase or Stage

The leaner receives a stimulus to learn.

This provides the drive (kick start) for the
learning process. He/she selects
information from the environment, which is
obtained by the sensory receptors.
 2) The Acquisition Phase or Stage

The information acquired is processed after it

entered to the short - term memory from which it
can be retrieved and exploited within a very short
time. But the capacity of the short - term memory
is very limited. The acquired information,
following rehearsal, is stored in the long-term
memory.
3) Performance Phase or Stage

When they perform the information

acquired is stored in the long-term
memory
The Teacher and the Learner
 Learning is influenced by the teacher - learner
relationship. The roles of the teacher and the
learner vary in this relationship. On the one
hand, the teacher can be a mere transmitter of
knowledge; the learner is entirely dependent on
what the instructor says or does. He or she is
then more of a "recipient" than a "learner".
 On the other hand, the teacher can play
the role of a guide, or a facilitator.
 The learner is assisted in becoming
autonomous, that is to say, in being able
to plan his/her learning.
The higher education curriculum
Curriculum is defined as the sum total of
the planned experiences of the education
level that is to be offered both inside and
outside of the institution.
Curriculum = Syllabus
+
Curricular Activities
+
Co-Curricular Activities
+
Extra-Curricular Activities
It reflects the aims of the programs,
objectives of the different courses, content
areas to be covered, activities and methods
of teaching, the assessment mechanisms,
resources required, etc.
 PROFILE (SIDE VIEW) OF THE HIGHER
EDUCATION TEACHER
1) The mastery of technical skills now takes a back
seat to the development of the teacher as a self-
reflective, ethical and continuously developing,
competent practitioner.
2) It is important that academics consider
themselves to have a dual professional allegiance:
a) To their professional (disciplinary) responsibility
as a university researcher b) the profession of
teaching.
Characteristics of a Good Researcher
The following are some of the characteristics
of a good researcher:
1)Ability to identify problems
2) Ability to design an efficient method of
solving the problem
3) Resourcefulness in implementing research
plan
4) Objectivity
Research is the pursuit of truth which
comes about as a result of an objective
quest.
5) Honesty
6) Perseverance (determination)
7) Willingness to collaborate with others
8) Ability to supervise others
A researcher should be able to effectively
supervise the research work of students and
junior colleagues.
9) Skills in writing winning grant proposals
10) Skills in reporting for publication
 Community Service

It is not enough for the teacher in a higher

institution to be concerned only with his or her
teaching and research. There is the need to
serve the community in other ways.
By community we mean two
1) The community within the institution
2) The community outside it.
 UNIT-3
UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS,
LEARNING AND RELATED ISSUES
Learning Styles
 learning styles refer to individual typical
ways of processing information and seeking
meaning”.
 Learning styles also called as
1) learning modes,
2) learning style preferences,
3) cognitive styles.
Learning Tasks
Learning tasks are open questions put to a
small group who have all resources they
need to respond.
There are five types of learning tasks.
They are:
1. Inductive task
2. Input task
3. Implementation task
4. Integration task
5. Authentic (genuine) learning tasks
 1. Inductive tasks

 Invites learners to clarify where they

are, at present, in terms of new
content, where they begin their study,
and what their present conception of
the topic includes
 2. Input task
 Invites the learners to grapple (wrestle)
directly with new content/tasks. The new
content is presented, the challenge is set,
and the gauntlet (a glove with metal plates
on the back) is thrown.
 In this task Constructed knowledge is the
result.
 3. Implementation task

 It invites the learner to implement (put it

into practice) new knowledge, skills and
attitudes in the learning environment,
immediately, implementing them in the
workshop, class, or session, in a safe
environment.
 4. Integration task
 learners are invited to apply what they have
learned to their life and work.
 This may be done through a projection task
inviting the learners to imagine what
integration of such would accomplish in
their workplace or life.
5. Authentic (genuine) learning tasks

 Authentic learning tasks are whole-task

experiences based on real life tasks that
integrate skills, knowledge, attitude and
social context. Instruction is organized
around the whole task.
 Common Learning Theories

 There are two families of learning

theories. These are
 Behavioral
 Social and
 Cognitive
 1. Behavioral learning theories
John B. Watson (1849-1936) and B.F.
Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal
originators of behaviorist approach to
learning.
 Watson asserted that human behavior was
the result of specific stimuli that elicited
certain responses.
His view of learning was based partially on
experiments conducted by a Russian
psychologist Ivan Pavlov, who noticed that a
dog was working with salivated shortly before it
was given food.
 Behavioral learning theories emphasize
observable changes in behavior that result
from stimulus-response (S-R) sequence
that begins and ends outside the
individual learner, and learning is the
product of design rather than accident.
A major construct of S-R behavioral
learning theories is the reward response.
 A response must be rewarded learning to
occur
 What counts as a "reward" varies from
learner to learner.
 Rewards are often effective for certain
types of learners:
Slow learners;
Those less prepared for a learning task
 Those in need of step-by-step learning
Social learning theories which are widely endorsed by
sociologists, anthropologists, and social psychologists
– maintain that human beings have an unlimited
capacity to learn.
 2. Social Learning Theories

 Social learning theories which are widely

endorsed by sociologists, anthropologists,
and social psychologists – maintain that
human beings have an unlimited capacity
to learn.
 This capacity, however, is limited by
social expectations and by constraints on
behavior patterns that the immediate
social environment considers appropriate.
Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne, Kohler, Lewin and Piaget
are contributors of this theory..
 3) Cognitive learning theories

 Cognitive learning theories focus on

the mental processes people use as
they acquire new knowledge and
skills.
 Unlike behavioral theories, which focus
on observable behavior, cognitive
theories focus on the unobservable
processing, storage, and retrieval of
information from the brain.
 Cognitive learning theories emphasize:
1) personal meaning, generalizations,
principles, advance organizers
2) discovery learning, coding, and super
ordinate categories
 Cognitive views of learning provide the
theoretical basis for current approaches to
“authentic” pedagogy and assessment of
learning that emphasis the importance of
teaching and learning high intellectual
quality & teaching understanding.
 Gestalt-Field Views of Learning
 Gestalt is a German term meaning
“Configuration” or “pattern” or "whole", and
Gestalt theorists maintain that “wholeness” is
primary; one should start with the total
aspects of a learning situation and then more
to particulars in light of the whole.
Constructivist Learning Theories

Constructivist views of learning, therefore,

focus on how learners make sense of new
information how they construct meaning
based on what they already know
According to constructivism, “students develop
new knowledge through a process of active
constructivism.
They do not passively receive or copy input
from teachers or textbooks. Instead, they
actively mediate it by trying to make sense of it
and relate it to what they already know (or think
they know)
 UNIT-4
PRINCIPLES AND METHODS
OF TEACHING

72
 Principles of Teaching

 Teaching is a law- governed activity.

 It usually involves a two-way
communication, which is guided by
specific principle
 Teachers are expected to observe certain
principles in their planning, organizing,
directing and checking activities. In
addition they need to develop the skills of
selecting and applying specific principles
of teaching.
 The Main Principles of Teaching are:

 The principle of planning lessons in line

with the curriculum;
 The principle of linking / connecting
school learning activities to social life;
 The principle of verbalization in
instruction;
The principle advocates making students verbalize (express)
of what they are learning in their own words.
For instance,
10% of what is read; 20% of what is heard;
30% of what is seen; 50% of what is heard and seen;
70% of what is articulated (spoken, expressed – clearly); and
90% of what is participated in (worked or done) is retained for
a certain period of time.
 The principle of making instruction clear
by using different instructional media that
appeal (attraction) to the different senses;
 The principle of recognizing individual
differences in teaching:
 The principle of uniting instruction with
scientific findings and procedures
 The principle of integrating
(coordinating) different subject areas;
 The principle of the leading role of the
teacher and the independent activities of
the learner
 The principle of making lessons
understandable
Involves presenting lessons from:
 Known to the unknown.
 Simple and to complex
 Easy and difficult
 Concrete and to abstract;
 Whole to parts (specific)
 Immediate and to remote
 The principle of applicability and durability of

the results of learning;

 The principle of seeking economy of effort;
 The principle of defining the objectives of the

lesson
 The principle that knowledge is acquired but

not inherited
 Methods of teaching

 are ways or means by which teachers

import or convey a given subject matter
content to the learner and enable him or
her to acquire knowledge develop skills,
and form attitudes, habits, convictions,
characters, and value systems
 Techniques of teaching

 refers to how will and effectively the

teacher applies and follows specific steps,
procedures, ways and manner in teaching
or performing specific teaching acts
 Methods of teaching depending on:
• the nature of the involvement of
students and teachers;
• the consideration of educational /
teaching objectives and
• their modernity (time in use)
Classification of Methods of Teaching
Classification-1: There are different kinds of
classifications of methods of teaching.
1) traditional and
2) modern methods.
Methods of teaching are traditional if the
objectives of teaching are taken as, “Filling in
the minds of the learner with knowledge”.
 The modern methods attempt to involve the
students actively and develop skills and
values in addition to the acquisition of
knowledge. The students’ participation in the
teaching – learning process, especially in
planning, organizing and performing the
different tasks under the guidance of their
instructor(s) is very high.
 Classification-2
The classifications of methods of teaching also include
classifying methods of teaching as:
1) teacher’s presentation methods (Teacher-Centred
Methods)
2) teacher – students’ conversation methods (Subject-
Centred Methods)
3) student’s independent work methods (Stdent-Centred
Methods)
The Major Methods of Teaching are:

1. Lecture Method
2. Lecture- Demonstration Method
3. The Group Discussion Method
4. Role –playing Method
5. The Questioning and Answering Method
6. The project Method
7. The Problem Solving Method
8. The Field Trip Method
9.The student Independent study method
10. Team Teaching method
11. Active Learning Methods
 1. The Lecture Method

 It is the oldest teaching method,

which is identified as a method of
explanation or clarification of
contents to students verbally
The Advantages of the Lecture Method
The lecture method benefits the teacher for the
teacher is the one who selects, refers, plans, or
outlines, organizes and presents the material. It is
a method which is usually used to:
•Introduce new topics;
•Revise the already taught material
•Help students integrate the new lesson with the
earlier;
•Make correction on common errors;
•Arouse (stimulate) interests of the learners; etc.
 Disadvantages of the Lecture Method
•It is less effective in stimulating students’
interests;
•It is sometimes a boring approach for it doesn’t
combine mental and physical activities;
•It gives no real social experience by giving
emphasis to facts, principles and theories being too
formal;
•It is an approach where skill learning is so
minimal
•It doesn’t encourage students’ activities
that demand efforts from the students
•It doesn’t promote creativity o help
students to develop responsibility
 2. The Demonstration Method
The Demonstration /performance/ method is a
visualized presentation that involves showing how
to perform an act or to use a procedure, or showing
an experimentation of important processes, events
and procedures of work.
The method uses real objects, natural phenomena,
models and processes to show and tell.
 Advantages of the Demonstration Method
 makes individuals more likely to believe

what they see than what they hear or read

 makes use of real objects or models;
 makes pacing flexible and the demonstrator

can move at a pace desired by the students;

 makes repetition possible until students

learn the skill completely;

 involves students in the actual activities and

make them learn from their own practice

 motivates students when performed well;
 links theory and practice and fosters creative thinking;
 makes supervision and prevention of errors possible;
 gives opportunities to students to make use of the same
equipment / tools as their teachers;
 helps students to see developments / progress and
fixing facts and principles
 3.The Group Discussion Method
In-group discussions, students usually:
 discuss on a topic,
 make a review,
 clarify points,
 make corrections,
 apply their earlier knowledge and skills and
 reinforce their learning
Forms of Group Discussions
There are different forms of groups for group
discussions. They are
1) Buzz group
2) Panel discussion group
3) Seminar group and
4) Brains Storming group
1) The buzz – group Discussion
It is a discussion situation whereby the
class students are divided into small groups
of three to six students for a brief
discussion. Then, the whole class later
reforms for reporting the results.
2) The Panel Group Discussion
Panel group discussion is a discussion
between a group of three to six people
who have a special knowledge and
interest in the topic to be discussed.
A panel discussion group has a chairperson,
panel members, and audience.
3) Seminar Group Discussion
A discussion after a student or group of students is
made to prepare original paper(s) on different
topic(s) and is made to present it/them. It is a
method where the discussion will be conducted
after the presentation.
The method is common in teaching at higher
learning institutions where the students are more
4) The Brainstorming Session (or) The
Brainstorming Group Discussion
A discussion session by the whole group of a
class to forward solution to a problem creatively.
 It is a conference technique whereby a group
seeks as many answers to a problem posed as
possible by collecting all the ideas contributed
spontaneously by its members.
4. Role –playing Method
The role playing method is an approach,
which is carried out by the guidance of the
teacher, and it is presented before observers.
 It involves the spontaneous acting out of a
prescribed role in a given realistic situation by
two or more actors.
5. The Questioning and Answering
Method
It is a method of posing a series of
questions to students in order to promote
thinking and understanding. As a method,
it is an informal assessment technique,
which is used with large groups of students.
6. The project Method
 It is a method where students are usually
given an individual topic for an in depth
analysis.
 They often have to work independently done
a kind of research and report either in writing or
verbally to a group..
7. The Problem Solving Method
It is an instructional method whereby the
teacher and students attempt in a conscious,
planned and purposeful effort to arrive at some
solution to same educationally significant
difficulty.
8. The Field Trip, Method
Field trip method is a planned visit to places
outside of the regular classroom to obtain
information directly and study real situations.
The visits can be used to develop critical
thinking and broaden the horizons of the
learners as they see different things and
activities.
9. The student Independent study method
It is a method of teaching where the student is
allowed to work independently according to
hi/her ability, plan time and pace.
The method is established on the assumption
that learning is best achieved when it is
individualized
10. Team Teaching method
Team teaching is any plan where two or
more teachers plan, organize and teach the
same group of students cooperatively.
 UNIT - V
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF THE
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
 Definitions and purposes of classroom
organization
 Classroom organization is a deliberate
creation of the learning environment by
considering the instructional objectives and the
specific activities to be done by each student to
achieve the desired end results.
Classroom organization can be seen in
terms of:
1) Patterns for arranging participants (small
group versus whole class presentation);
2) Resources used or resources of information;
3) The roles and responsibilities for carrying out
immediate actions and events;
4) Rules of appropriateness
The major patterns of the classroom
seating arrangement include:
1) Making students sit in rows facing the teacher
and the blackboard
2) The clusters pattern Arrangement
3) The Horse – Shoe Pattern Arrangement
4) The Round – table pattern Arrangement
 Classroom Management

 Classroom management is a process of

organizing and conducting a class so as to
make instruction effective and efficient. It
is a process of managing the teaching and
learning activities to get maximum
students’ learning.
Effective classroom management requires:

1) good planning;
2) Conducting the class;
3) Monitoring
Purposes of Classroom Management
1) promoting an environment (physical and emotional)
to be conducive to effective learning;
2) guaranteeing class time to be used for learning
effectively;
3) securing the support and co-operation of students in
classroom activities; and
4) ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of
students to the learning task at hand.
 Areas of Classroom Management
Classroom management involves managing:
1) Contents of the lesson(s)
2) Methods of teaching;
3) time allocated to a given lesson
4) materials and space;
5) managing students’ behavior and their social
relationships through a democratic way
Misbehavior means Any act of a student
that violates the established or implied
classroom rules or any act of a student that
disrupts the normal teaching and learning
process is misbehavior
Causes of classroom misbehavior
1. Teacher –related causes
The teacher / becomes the cause of classroom
misbehavior because of one or many of the
following factors.
1.Poor teaching
2.failure to set the right task;
3.failure to enforce the rules set
2) Student – related causes

1.antipathy (aversion) to school or disinterest

in learning in general;
2.lack of interest in a particular subject
3.dislike to a teacher or hostility towards a
teacher;
4.attention seeking;
3) Home Environment Related Causes
1.unsettled or disruptive home
environment
2.unpleasant peer relations;
3.emotional upset
4. bad physical condition
4) School – Environment Related Causes
1) The absence of sufficient materials for the
classes, laboratories the workshops and fields.
2) Conflicting rules of the school and the home;
3) The class size;
Classification of Classroom Misbehaviors
1. Minor misbehaviors of a passing kind
2. Repeated minor misbehavior
3. Persistent and serious problems
The specific classroom management
techniques that teachers employ to
maintain classroom misbehaviors can be
classified as:
1) Preventive techniques
2) Curative / remedial techniques
 UNIT SIX

EDUCATIONAL
ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES
AND
CURRENT PRACTICE
 The concepts of Measurement,
Assessment and Evaluation
A. Measurement
measurement refers to a systematic
description of students’ performance in
terms of numbers
B. Assessment
Assessment refers to the process of
gathering, interpreting, and synthesizing
information for making inferences about
the learning and development of students,
curricular, programs, policy, etc.
Evaluation includes both quantitative and
qualitative description of students’ behaviors
and value judgments concerning the desirability
of that behavior.
Evaluation = quantitative description of students
behavior (measurement) and/or qualitative
description of students behavior (non-
measurement)+value judgments.
 Types of Evaluation
Evaluation is of four types
1) Placement Evaluation
2) Diagnostic Evaluation
3) Formative Evaluation
4) Summative Evaluation
Evaluation is an integral part of learning
teaching process that aims at providing
information that serves as a basis for various
educational decisions like:
•Instructional management decision
•Selection decision
•Placement decision
•Counseling and guidance decision
•Classification decision
•Credentialing and certification decisions
•Educational Diagnostic and Remedial
decisions
 UNIT SEVEN

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
.
 The concept of instructional
planning
 Instructional planning can be defined as
“the process by which teachers decide
how best to select and organize a learning
experience to maximize both teacher and
students achievement and satisfaction
The Importance of instructional planning
1) Planning leads to shared understanding of
instructional goals or objectives
2) Planning processes initiated by teachers can give
both students and teachers a sense of direction
3) It produces a smoothly running classroom
4) It gives teachers greater confidence, security and
enthusiasm
The planning process will be effective only if teachers give
sufficient answers for the following basic questions.
 Basic Questions of instructional planning
1.Why to teach?
2.What to teach?
3.How to teach?
4.Whom to teach?
5.When to teach?
6.Where to teach?
7.How much to teach?
8.With what to teach?
9.How to a check the results of teaching and
learning (Evaluation)?
 Types of instructional planning
There are three instructional planning levels: long-
range, intermediate-range, and short range planning.
A. Long-range instructional planning or Year/
Semester Plan:
B. Intermediate, middle range or Unit Planning
C. Short-range planning or Lesson Plan
 Basic elements in instructional planning
The principal elements of any plan of instruction
include the following activities
1.Formation of precise objectives
2.Selection and organization of instructional
contents
3.Selection of appropriate instructional methods
4.Selection of relevant instructional materials or
medias
5.Determining instructional evaluation
procedures
 Bases to Objectives
There are 5 Bases to objectives
1. Needs and abilities of the student
2. Needs of the society
3. Available resources
4. Nature of the course
5. Nature of educational system (formal, In-
formal and Non-formal)
  Educational Objectives are divided into
three domains or three fields.
They are:
1.Cognitive domain (explained in 1956)
2.Affective domain (explained in 1964)
3.Psychomotor or domain (explained in1972).
The three domains (fields) of educational
objectives related with three parts of our body:
1) Cognitive Domain (Related to “HEAD”)
2) Affective Domain (or) Conitive Domain
(Related to “HEART”)
3) Psychomotor Domain (Related to “HAND”)
1.The Cognitive Domain: There are six
objectives in this domain
Most Evaluation
Complex Syntheses
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
Least
Complex
2. Affective Domain: There are five objectives in
this domain

Most
Complex CHARACTERIZATION

ORGANIZATION
VALUING
RESPONDING
RECEIVING

Least
Complex
3. Psychomotor Domain: There are five objectives
in this domain
Most
Complex
Naturalization
Articulation
Precision
Manipulation
Least Imitation
Complex
 UNIT EIGHT

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
 The concept of curriculum

 The word curriculum has come from

a Latin term “currire”. It means a
“running course” or a “race-course”
 Definitions of Curriculum
Here are some of the definitions of
curriculum given by some scholars in its
broader sense:
•Ralph Tyler (1949): All of the learning of
students which are planned and directed by
the school to attain its educational goals
•D.K. wheeler (1967): By curriculum we
mean the planned experiences offered to
the learner under the guidance of the
school.
Curriculum = Syllabus
+
Curricular Activities
+
Co- Curricular Activities
+
Extra Curricular Activities
 Layers of Curriculum

There are four layers of Curriculum

1)The Intended curriculum
2) The Expressed Curriculum
3) Hidden curriculum
4) The experienced curriculum
 1) The Intended curriculum

 It is the written curriculum

document in the form of syllabus,
curriculum guide or teacher’s guide,
textbook manuals, or even teacher’s
plan.
 2) The Expressed Curriculum
 It is actual curriculum in which teachers
interact with students and contents. It has been
also called the enacted (manifested) or
(Visible) curriculum. It is said to be expressed
curriculum Because teachers express
themselves through the enactment of the
curriculum in their teaching
 3) Hidden curriculum

 It is the layer of curriculum, which might

not be included in the planned curriculum
(Singing of National Song, Moral stories
etc.), but cannot be ignored during
curriculum implementation an evaluation.
4) The experienced curriculum
 Is the sum total of the Intended,
expressed and hidden curriculum. It is the
students’ actual experience in and outside
of the classroom. Students would be given
the opportunities to release their own
experiences developed from different
background.
Curriculum foundations may be defined as those basic
forces that influence and shape the minds of
curriculum developers in there consideration of
curriculum; and hence the content and structure of the
subsequent curriculum.
However, as the definitions given to a curriculum
varies so does to foundations of curriculum.
1) Philosophical Foundation,
2)Psychological foundation,
3) Sociological foundation,
4) Science and Technology Foundation, and
5) Historical Foundation
 2. Foundations of Curriculum
1) Philosophical foundation of curriculum
Philosophical foundation of curriculum refers to the
philosophies, values, ideals, and ideologies. It provides
• The goals of education
• The content and its organization
• What methods and materials to use
• How students learn
• What subjects are of value
 2) Sociological Foundation
Society and culture exert enormous influences on
the formation of the school curriculum.
Knowledge of social foundations has the following
importance in developing the curriculum
•It helps us to consider the national and global
cultural values.
•It helps us to understand and use the available
resources existing in the society
•It helps us to identify the useful and harmful
traditions that the harmful ones would be replaced
by scientific or modern one
 3) Psychological Foundation

 Curriculum, can draw upon psychology,

particularly educational objectives,
student characteristics, learning processes,
teaching methods and evaluation
procedures.
 4) Historical Foundation
 Historical foundations refer to a systematic
analysis of curriculum developments during a
given period of time. Historical foundation of
curriculum requires understanding about the
past, concrete current situations and the trends
for the future at national, local, as well as school
level, Therefore, knowledge of historical
5) Scientific and Technological Foundation
 Science and technological advancement has
implication to curriculum development that:
•Updating the curriculum to satisfy the increasing
demand of skilled many power.
•Securing knowledge about what is going on around
the world and making it part and parcel of one’s life
with respect to science and technology
 Models of curriculum Development

 Curriculum development model refers to

structures/ patterns which serve as
frameworks or guidelines to a certain
action required while developing the
curriculum.
 Types of Models curriculum Development

I) The objective model

a) Tyler’s Rationale Model
b) The Taba Model
c) Wheeler’s Model
II The process Model.
III) The situation Analysis Model
 I) The objective model
 is also named as Tyler’s model, Tyler’s

Rationale and End-means model.

 This model follows the following curriculum

development steps

1) Stating aims, goal and objectives of education

2) Selection of contents (facts, ideas, principles,

theories)
3) Selection of learning experiences (efforts
made by the students in learning)
4) Organizing and matching contents and
learning experiences with context.
5) Evaluation (checking the effectiveness of
the curriculum implementation and adjust it
if necessary).
 II The process Model.

This is a model of curriculum development

in which content as well as procedures are
specified rather than anticipated outcomes
in terms of objectives.
This model follows the following curriculum
development steps:
A)Selection of contents
B) Devising teaching methods and materials
C) Selection of principles of procedures
(learning strategies)
D) Evaluation by criteria inherent in the field
of knowledge.
 III) The situation Analysis Model
According to this model, curriculum development
is the process of examining the context which a
curriculum is to be developed and the application
of situational analysis to curriculum planning.
The school situations are can divided into two
situations:
1) External situations/factors
2) Internal factors
 Process of Curriculum Development

I) Need Assessment/Diagnosis in curriculum

Development
II) Collecting Data/ Information about different
issues
III) Formulating Educational Aims, Goals, and
Objectives
IV) Selection of contents and Learning experiences
 Formulating Educational Goals,
Aims, and Objectives
 The Goals, Aims and Objectives,
should be according to nature of
course and type of educational
system
 Selection of contents and Learning
experiences
 Once educational objectives are
identified, the next logical phase in the
process of curriculum development is the
selection of contents and learning
experiences
 Selection of contents
 Contents are elements of a subject matter,
which help the learner in the acquisition
of knowledge, the development of skills,
habits, attitudes, values,
 Criteria of Content selection
1) Validity of the content- is the relevance of
contents to achieve the objectives.
2) Significance of the content- Refers to the
importance or the capacity of the contents
3) Balance between scope and depth:- scope is
related to coverage or breadth while depth is related
to the level of understanding how deep the subject
is to be treated.
4) Appropriateness to the needs and
interests of the learners
5) The durability of the subject Matter
6) The logical relationship of the contents
to main ideas, concepts, principles,
7) Learnability of the content
8) Feasibility of the content
 ORGANIZATION OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum organization is a systematic

arrangement of objectives, contents, learning
experiences and materials in unified and
consolidated manner.
It a process of putting contents and learning
experiences together to form some kind of
coherent program.
The two relationships in Curriculum Organization
are:
A) Vertical organization (or) Vertical integration is
an expression of relationships that exists within a course
at different grade levels.
B) Horizontal organization (or) Horizontal
integration is the relationship of different subjects at
the same grade level.
 Criteria for curriculum organization
1) Scope- is concerned with the latitude or breadth
of the curriculum.
2) Continuity:- is the vertical recurrence or
repetition of the concepts, skill and values at
different grade levels of the same subject over
period of time.
3) Integration:- in concerned with the horizontal
4) Sequence:- refers to the successive or progressive
nature of contents and learning experiences (logical
arrangement). Sequence includes:
A) Logical sequence:- is putting curriculum
elements into some order of succession in answering the
question “what is to follow what”?
B) Psychological sequence:- is arranging
curriculum elements based on principles of psychology
by considering the learner’s abilities, interests,
 Principles of Curriculum Organization
1) Starting from simple and preceding to the
complex ones
2) The whole to the part
3) Chronological order (approach
4) Sequence on the basis of concentric cycle
5) Sequence on the basis of spiral approach:
6) Sequencing based on prerequisite teaching:
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

 Curriculum implementation is the effort

made to put what has been planned to use
in practice
CURRICULUM EVALUATION
 Curriculum evaluation is a systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of
the relevant data necessary to promote
the improvement of the curriculum and
analyze its effectiveness within the
context of a particular institution
 Curriculum evaluation is used to:
•To get feedback about the effectiveness of the program
•To improve the curriculum continuously
•To identify factors which influence the teaching-
learning processes
•To add different innovations to the existing program
•To have continuous professional development and so
forth.
Types of curriculum evaluation

1) Formative evaluation:- is undertaken

to improve an existing curriculum. It
provides frequent, detailed, and specific
information to guide the program
developing.
2) Summative evaluation:- is the process
of evaluating the overall program after it is
in operation.
 Criteria of curriculum Evaluation
1) Consistency:- There should be relation
between the chief intentions of educational
objectives and the intonations of the curriculum
evaluation
2) Comprehensiveness:- Curriculum evaluation
programs are required to be as comprehensive in
scope as are educational objectives of the
3) Validity:- the evaluation is said to be
valid, if it has the capacity to describe what
it is designed to describe.
4) Continuity:- education is being a
continuous process; curriculum evaluation
is also required to be continuous.
THE END