HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

Collage of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Department of Rural Development and Agricultural

Extension

HAND OUT FOR

Adult Learning and Audio Visual Techniques

(RDAE 2092)

Haramya University, Haramaya

March 2019

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CHAPTER ONE: THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF LEARNING

1.1. Teaching and Learning: International perspective

Since the 1960s there has been an increasing trend in the growth of interest in teaching and learning in
higher education in both high- income and low-income countries. There are three main causes:
1. Growth in subject matter leading to new demands on teachers & students (Effect of scientific
research)
2. Social changes leading to an increase in number of students and new demand for higher education.
3. Advances in theories of learning and technology combining new methods of learning and greater
independence to students. e.g. Distance education - universities of the air

Generally, change in teaching - learning approaches has taken place over the last two to three decades
from teacher-centered to student-centered teaching through the introduction of participation concept. The
work of Freire (1970, 1993) has valuable contribution in this line. He gives an analogical explanation of
the ‘banking concept’ to the education of the ‘old days’. That is to say students’ mind is filled with
information and knowledge of the teacher.

1.2. Defining Teaching

Teaching: it is imparting knowledge or skill", which is intentional activity to induce learning.

Can there be teaching without students? Probably not, Philosophers may argue about whether a
tree falling in the forest makes a sound even if there is no one there to listen; but if there are no
students, there is no teaching.

Can there be teaching when there are students, but no teacher? There certainly can be learning
without a teacher. A great amount of learning goes on without teachers; but the activity is called
learning, not teaching.

Can there be teaching without a subject? Can a person swim without water? There must be a
medium, a subject, about which there can be structured and sustained dialogue. Teaching involves
a teacher and a student interacting over a subject in a setting.

1.3. Defining Learning

 Acquiring and mastering knowledge and skill to make transformations and solve social
evils.
 A relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice.

1.4. Types of learning

Learning can be classified into many ways. Some of them are presented below;

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Formal learning includes the hierarchically structured school system that runs from primary
school through the university and organized school-like programs created in business for technical
and professional training.

Informal learning describes a lifelong process whereby individuals acquire attitudes, values, skills
and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her
environment, from family and neighbors, from work and play, from the market place, the library
and the mass media.

Non-formal learning: It is any organized educational activity outside the established formal
system whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity intended to
serve identifiable learning objectives.
Intentional learning is the process whereby an individual aims to learn something and goes about
achieving that objective.
Accidental learning happens when in everyday activities an individual learns something that he or
she had not intended or expected.

1.5. Defining Education

1. It is planned learning and it is done intentionally;

2. The act or process of educating or being educated;
3. The knowledge or skill obtained or developed by a learning process;
4. A program of instruction of a specified kind or level and
5. The field of study that is concerned with the pedagogy of teaching and learning,

1.6. Theories of learning

1.6.1.Behavioral Theory

The underlying idea of these theorists is people learn to react to a stimulus. In the reaction process, there
are three elements involved:
a) Antecedent conditions - something lacking leading to new behavior
b) Required behavior - developed through learning
c) The consequences of the behavior - solution obtained through learning
Thus, we have; problem------------ behavior change---------- solution
In this approach to learning, there is always reinforcing stimulus leading to change in behavior and this
behavior positively supports the life of humans.

1.6.2.Cognitive Theory
Cognitive learning refers to understanding, applying, analyzing and interpreting information to make
necessary decisions in the learning process. They reject the behaviorists point of view by arguing that
learners do not simply react mechanically to stimuli rather they associate meaning to stimuli. Organisms
(learners) select out specific information, process it and act upon it in different ways and circumstances.
More emphasis is given to prior knowledge & information related to the new learning.
In general, cognitive theorists emphasize two important notions:

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1) Humans “reorganize” their existing knowledge to solve their problems
2) There is ‘latent/hidden learning’ - the effect of learning is realized later
Therefore, supporters of this theory contend that ‘do not teach students but create an environment in
which they learn’.

1.6.3. Motivation Theory

Another view point, contrast to the above approaches, is the “theory of motivation”. They argue that
people need to be motivated to learn. In a simple expression, motivation refers to the desire to do
something. For example, questioning students why they came to this University is important to find out
some motivating factors. Pooling opinion of students is helpful for the teacher to find out the expectation
of students from a course and act in line with it to motivate them further.

1.7. Learning Domain

The following is a brief overview of learning domains with examples of how you might represent content,
provide activities, and assess mastery of that domain. These domains include cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains.

1.7.1. Cognitive Domain

This domain focuses on knowledge or mind based. It has three practical instructional levels including fact,
understanding, and application. The fact level is a single concept and uses verbs like define, identify, and
list. The understanding level puts two or more concepts together. Typical verbs for this level include
describe, compare and contrast. The application level puts two or more concepts together to form
something new. Typical verbs at this level include explain, apply, and analyze. Delivery in this domain is
typically a lecture/presentation and the evaluation will be subjective and objective test items.

This domain focuses on intellectual skills and is familiar to educators. Bloom’s Taxonomy (knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) is frequently used to describe the
increasing complexity of cognitive skills as students move from lower to advanced level in their
knowledge of content. The cognitive domain is the core learning domain.

1.7.2.The Affective Domain

The affective domain is critical for learning but is often not specifically addressed. This is the domain
that deals with attitudes, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing what is being learned, and
ultimately incorporating the values of a discipline into a way of life. Stages in that domain are not as
sequential as the cognitive domain, but have been described as the following:

 Receiving (willing to listen)

 Responding (willing to participate)
 Valuing (willing to be involved)
 Organizing (willing to be an advocate)
 Characterization (willing to change one’s behavior, lifestyle, or way of life)

We do not necessarily expect our math students to become math instructors or mathematicians, but we
want them to be willing to “show up” for class, participate in class, and become involved with the

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content. We expect students to expend effort in their courses and sustain the effort throughout the
duration of the course. We also would like our students to take the next higher course or another course
in the curriculum because they value what they have learned.

1.7.3.Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain focuses on performing sequences of motor activities to a specified level of
accuracy, smoothness, rapidity, or force. Underlying the motor activity is cognitive understanding. In the
higher education environment, we see psychomotor learning in content including the following:
 Lab courses for science classes
 Vocational courses
 Physical education courses
 Training in using specified equipment such as computers, cameras, musical instruments etc.
 Performing arts

The stages of the psychomotor domain have been described as follows:

 Action (elementary movement)
 Coordination (synchronized movement)
 Formation (bodily movement)
 Production (combine verbal and nonverbal movement

The psychomotor domain is best assessed in a face-to-face situation. Since there is a cognitive component
underlying motor skills, these can be effectively viewed in videos, demonstrations, online text
descriptions, or with pictures of each step in the sequence. Simulations can also be used to help people
learn the steps or practice variations of a motor sequence; but ultimately, the student should perform the
skill with an instructor or designee judging if the skill was performed to a set standard. Sometimes,
simulations are used for learning without “hands on” opportunities, because the psychomotor activity is
dangerous or equipment is not readily available.

Students who are new to a content area will generally benefit more from “hands-on” learning than from
mediated learning within the psychomotor domain. As students become more expert, videos and pictures
can be used to teach the skill.
If you are still undecided and this is an occupational area, select psychomotor because that is the
predominant occupational program domain.

1.8. Learning Styles

Learning style differs from individual to individual, between friends, brothers and sisters; in the class
room. Thus Students with different learning styles understand and try to solve problems in different,
relatively stable ways. The stability of learning styles is important; it allows the teacher to identify them
and adapt instruction accordingly.

1.8.1.Definition of Learning Styles

Below are some definitions of learning style by different writers but having the same concept and
meanings about learning styles.

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  A learning style is the method of learning particular to an individual that is presumed to allow that
individual to learn best.
 Learning style (Cognitive style) is the way individuals think, perceive and remember information, or
their preferred approach to using such information to solve problems.
 Learning styles, also called cognitive styles, are the “preferred ways that different individuals have
for processing and organizing information and for responding to environmental stimuli” (Shuell, 1981,
p. 46).
 Learning styles are the cognitive, affective, and physiological ways learners perceive, interact with,
and respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1982; Schmeck, 1988).

By recognizing and understanding your own learning styles, you can use techniques better suited to you.
Doing this improves the speed and quality of your learning.

Learning Style
In adult learning theory, several approaches to learning style have been developed and are prominently
used in training and educational programs. These include learning styles based on the senses that are
involved in processing information; theories of intelligence, including emotional intelligence and
"multiple intelligences"; and preferences for learning conditions, i.e., the environment in which learning
takes place. In order to provide a framework for a discussion on adult learning style differences, each of
these approaches is briefly discussed.

Auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners. Differing aptitudes, abilities, and experiences have caused
individuals to develop a preference for sending and receiving information through one sense over another.
Most often people prefer auditory or visual input; however, some people have a preference for kinesthetic
learning, i.e. learning that involves movement. A preference for one type of learning over another may be
seen in the following ways:
 Visual learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Graphic illustrations such as bar graphs or crosstabs to
explain data; color codes to highlight salient information; maps to find their way on the subway or
while driving in a new city; written material to study new concepts; wall charts that display points to
be remembered; written outlines; drawings or designs to illustrate overhead presentations; sitting "up
close" in a presentation in order to see the presenter's face, gestures, or visuals; taking notes during a
lecture; instructors to repeat verbal directions.
 Auditory learners prefer, enjoy, or require: A verbal presentation of new information, such as a
lecture; group discussions to hear other points of view or practices; fast-paced verbal exchanges of
ideas; a good joke or story that they can repeat for others; verbal cues or pneumonic devices to help
them remember information; music at the beginning or during transitions in a training setting; words
to accompany a cartoon; oral reports of working groups.
 Kinesthetic learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Movement, such as rocking or shaking a leg during a
lecture; hands-on experience to learn a task; gestures while making a point; role play exercises over
discussion groups; shaking hands when meeting or greeting people; trying new things without a
lengthy explanation of the activity; frequent breaks; regular opportunities to change seating or room
arrangement; "just doing it" rather than talking about it

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 CHAPTER TWO: PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING

2.1. Basic Principles of adult learning

Educators and trainers who teach adults have been using the core principles outlined by adult learning
theory since the 1970s. Although adult learning principles are phrased in various ways by training
professionals, the substance is consistent. The core principles of adult learning are the following:
Principle of Active Learning: Active participation through discussion, feedback and activities creates
more learning than passive listening or reading.

Principle of Problem-Centric: Adults come to your presentation expecting to get their problems solved.
If your presentation does not help them solve their pressing issues, it will be forgotten. Adults are
problem-centric, not content-centric.

Principle of Previous Experience: New information has to be linked to previous knowledge and
experience or it will not be remembered. Allow participants time to discuss with each other how the new
information connects with what they already know.

Principle of Relevance: If the information being presented is not relevant to the listener’s life and work,
it will not get their attention.

Principle of Emotional Connection: Presentations that connect with a learner’s emotions are more likely
to be remembered, recalled and learned. Fear is not a good motivating factor for learning as it causes the
brain to react in a fight or flight syndrome.

Principle of Self-Learning: Adult learners have some strong beliefs about how they learn. These beliefs,
whether accurate or not, can interfere or enhance their learning. As a speaker, always explain why the
audience should participate in specific activity and how the process as well as content benefits their
learning.

Principle of Alignment: Adults expect that a presenter’s content, learning outcomes and activities be
aligned together. If the learning outcomes do not match the content, the learner feels disconnected and
learning is hampered. If the learning activity seems childish or forced, learning is lost.

Principle of Fun: Learning should be fun! By all means, make learning fun, enjoyable and filled with
laughter!

Incorporate adults’ prior learning and experience.

It’s important to capitalize on the rich prior experience that adult learners have when they enter the
training by incorporating that experience into the session. Also, inaccurate information that people think
is correct can be a significant impediment to new learning. By drawing out prior experience, you can
correct learners’ misinformation.
Here are a few strategies for incorporating prior knowledge and experience into your training session:
 Conduct a needs assessment to uncover group members’ experiences and expectations.

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  Ask for input on the lesson plan.
 Ask participants to share relevant experiences throughout the training session.
 Do a “K-W-L” chart on flipchart paper, asking participants to list what they know and Want to
know at the beginning of the session, and what they learned following the session.
 Create peer sharing opportunities by facilitating small group discussions.
 Carefully prepare guiding questions to draw out prior knowledge and pique interest about new
information.

Create a safe space for learners.

Adults may feel vulnerable when they’re learning something new. The trainer can support learners’
comfort levels by using low-risk activities, reassurance, and a plan for building incremental successes.
Concepts and skills should be presented in a strategic sequence, from simple to complex and from group-
supported to solo.
Here are some additional strategies to create a “safe space” for learners:
 Set feasible learning objectives.
 Thoughtfully plan sessions to start with basics and work towards complexity.
 Establish ground rules.
 Provide an outline to guide participants towards the intended outcomes.
 Facilitate discussions and peer sharing based on that outline.
 Avoid words and actions that may embarrass individuals.
 Affirm questions and ideas from individuals who speak up.
 Allow for small group interaction.

Respect participants as individuals.

Establish sound relationships with participants. Model and encourage respect and open communication.
Provide for their needs with adequate breaks and use their time effectively. It’s also helpful to solicit
learners’ input on the training schedule or process.
Here are some strategies for incorporating this adult learning principle into your training session:
 After presenting the agenda, check in with your audience.
 Provide adequate breaks.
 Offer choices and allow for self-direction.
 Be flexible and adapt to participant needs.
 Conduct frequent check-ins, asking for feedback about training content/process.
 Learn about different adult learning styles and teach to all styles

Include structured activities in your training.

There are three aspects involved in learning: ideas (cognitive), feelings (affective), and actions
(behavioral). Adults learn best when training moves beyond ideas and feelings to incorporate actions as
well. That is, training that provides opportunities to practice new skills will increase the likelihood that
learners will apply the new knowledge and behaviors in their own environments. In addition, participants
are more likely to believe and retain the information they have learned if they arrive at the ideas
themselves. Structured activities can foster the exploration that learners need in order to make their own
connections and conclusions.
Here are a few strategies to incorporate activities into your training session:

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  Once every 10 minutes or so, give participants two minutes to discuss with a partner the concepts
you presented.
 Ask guiding questions and facilitate discussions.
 Facilitate an activity that allows participants to practice the skills or techniques you’re teaching.
 Use case studies, videos, or stories. Invite learners to describe, analyze, apply, or implement what
they’ve learned.
 Play a game that slowly presents new information and allows participants to interact with the new
information.
 Ask participants to record their new learning and create action steps to take after the training. Ask
them to share these with others to increase the likelihood that they follow up on their action plans.

2.2. Characteristics of Adult Learners

Adults are characterized by maturity, self-confidence, autonomy, solid decision-making, and are generally
more practical, multi-tasking, purposeful, self-directed, experienced, and less open-minded and receptive
to change. All these traits affect their motivation, as well as their ability to learn. So let’s see the adult
learners' cognitive and social characteristics, and what instructional designers need to know in order to
create the right course content and structure, and adjust their attitude.

1. Self-direction
Adults feel the need to take responsibility for their lives and decisions and this is why it’s important for
them to have control over their learning. Therefore, self-assessment, a peer relationship with the
instructor, multiple options and initial, yet subtle support are all imperative.

2. Practical and results-oriented

Adult learners are usually practical, resent theory, need information that can be immediately applicable
to their professional needs, and generally prefer practical knowledge that will improve their skills,
facilitate their work and boost their confidence. This is why it’s important to create a course that will
cover their individual needs and have a more utilitarian content.

3. Less open-minded and therefore more resistant to change.

Maturity and profound life experiences usually lead to rigidity, which is the enemy of learning.
Thus, instructional designers need to provide the “why” behind the change, new concepts that can be
linked to already established ones, and promote the need to explore.

4. Slower learning, yet more integrative knowledge

Aging does affect learning. Adults tend to learn less rapidly with age. However, the depth of learning
tends to increase over time, navigating knowledge and skills to unprecedented personal levels.

5. Use personal experience as a resource

Adults have lived longer, seen and done more, have the tendency to link their past experiences to
anything new and validate new concepts based on prior learning. This is why it’s crucial to form a class
with adults that have similar life experience levels, encourage discussion and sharing, and generally
create a learning community consisting of people who can profoundly interact.

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6. Motivation
Learning in adulthood is usually voluntary. Thus, it’s a personal choice to attend school, in order to
improve job skills and achieve professional growth. This motivation is the driving force behind learning
and this is why it’s crucial to tap into a learner’s intrinsic impetus with the right thought-provoking
material that will question conventional wisdom and stimulate his mind.

7. Multi-level responsibilities
Adult learners have a lot to juggle; family, friends, work, and the need for personal quality time. This is
why it’s more difficult for an adult to make room for learning, while it’s absolutely crucial to prioritize. If
his life is already demanding, then the learning outcome will be compromised. Taking that under
consideration, an instructional designer needs to create a flexible program, accommodate busy schedules,
and accept the fact that personal obligations might obstruct the learning process.

8. High expectations
Adult learners have high expectations. They want to be taught about things that will be useful to their
work, expect to have immediate results, seek for a course that will worth their while and not be a waste of
their time or money. This is why it’s important to create a course that will maximize their advantages,
meet their individual needs and address all the learning challenges.

2.3. Laws of Learning

Educational psychologists have identified several laws of learning. Edward L. Thorndike in the early
1900's postulated several "Laws of Learning," that seemed generally applicable to the learning process.
Since that time, other educational psychologists have found that the learning process is indeed more
complex than the "laws" identified. The first three are the basic laws: the law of readiness, the law of
exercise, and the most famous and still generally accepted, the law of effect. The other three laws were
added later as a result of experimental studies: the law of Primacy, the law of intensity and the law of
recency.

2.3.1. Law of Readiness

The Law of Readiness means a person can learn when physically and mentally adjusted (ready) to receive
stimuli. This law states that learning can only take place when a student is ready to learn. For instance,
when an individual is ready to act or to learn, he/she acts or learns more effectively and with greater
satisfaction than when not ready."
It is your job as a developer to design a course that helps create this readiness to learn. This can be done
by making a course that keeps a student motivated, interested and wanting more. Students need to know
why it is important to learn a subject and what their ultimate goal is to be.

2.3.2. Law of Exercise

This law stresses the idea that repetition is basic to the development of adequate responses; things most
often repeated are easiest remembered. The mind can rarely recall new concepts or practices after a single
exposure, but every time it is practiced, learning continues and is enforced. The instructor must provide
opportunities for trainees to practice or repeat the task. Repetition consists of many types of activities,
including recall, review, restatement, manual drill and physical application. Remember that practice

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makes permanent, not perfect unless the task is taught correctly. Examples of this case include learning to
drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc.
need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

2.3.3. Law of Effect

Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction,
annoyance or pain leads to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’
signifies that if the response satisfies the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those which are not
satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and
interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus,
intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.

In simple terms, this law states three things:

 Learning is strengthened when associated with a pleasant or satisfying feeling. Learning is more
likely to happen again in the future.
 Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling, becoming less likely for
learning to occur again in the future. Learners will try to avoid it.
 Learning occurs when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
Therefore, we can say students are more likely to learn when they are feel satisfied or are rewarded for
learning, rather than punished for not learning. They need to feel good in order to retain motivation.

2.3.4. Law of Primacy

This law states that the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakeable impression. For the
instructor, this means that what they teach the first time must be correct. If a subject is incorrectly taught,
it must be corrected. It is more difficult to un-teach a subject than to teach it correctly the first time. For
the trainees' first learning experience should be positive and functionally related to training.

Think back to the time when it was proven that the Earth was round and not flat. The concept was nearly
impossible for the majority of those alive to accept. This is because once a person learns something, it is
nearly impossible to tell them that it is actually different. That is the law of primacy. It is nearly
impossible to unlearn the first thing you have been taught. Make sure any information you include is
correct, but show special care at the beginning

2.3.5. Law of Recency

This law reminds us that we remember the most recent (last) material covered. For this reason,
learning designers should make a point of including chapter or unit reviews and building on previous
knowledge. This gives a student the chance to return to earlier material that may have gotten pushed aside
by information near the end of the unit. By creating a review exercise that includes both the older and
newer information, it makes it more likely that all the information will be remembered.

2.3.6. Law of Intensity

The principle of intensity states that if the stimulus (experience) is real, the more likely there is to be a
change in behavior (learning). A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience teaches more than a
routine or boring experience. A trainee will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.

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Demonstrations, skits, and models do much to intensify the learning experiences of trainees.
The more excitement a lesson creates, the more likely it will be remembered. Creating a hands-on
experience or one that causes the student to feel strong emotion will make the lesson more easily
remembered.
Develop problems that place the students in real-life situations where they can practice the material. If
Accounting for a small business is the goal, create a fictional small business and allow the students to
keep records for the business, including year-end reconciling. By doing the actual work, the students will
see how each part of what they have learned relates to the others, and to real-life situations.

2.4. Stages of Learning

There are three important stages in learning and developing skills

Stage 1: Planning / Preparation / Cognitive stage

 During the planning stage you begin to find out exactly what is involved in the skill you are
learning.
 You begin to break the skill down into Preparation, Action and Recovery and make an attempt at
learning each stage. At this stage mistakes are common and lots of feedback is required.
 Shadow the movement.
 Slow the skill down.
 Compare your performance with a 'model'.
Stage 2: Practice / Associative stage
 During the practice stage you combine the subroutines of the skill.
 Repeat practice, so that you become more consistent in performing the skill or technique
successfully.
 Use the help of an accurate 'feeder'.
 Pressure gradually increases as you improve.
 Target/Combination/Co-operative drills.
Your ability, experience and the type of skill involved will determine how long you need to practice.
Gradually the number of mistakes will reduce.
Stage 3: Automatic / Autonomous stage
 During the automatic stage you are able to perform the skill naturally and without conscious
thought.
 Errors are not likely at this stage but when they are made the performer will be able to identify
what went wrong.
 The skill is performed with flair, control and accuracy.

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  Opportunity to play conditioned games.
 Pressure/Decision Making drills.
 Put the skill/technique you have learned into a full game situation.
The stages of learning are a progressive process and each stage merges into the next. As your skill level
develops you will gradually progress from the planning stage to the practice stage to the automatic stage.
During your training programme you may move back a stage if you have progressed too quickly, and are
practicing an incorrect technique.

2.5. Learning Environments for Adults

2.5.1. The physical environment
Often effective teaching is held back because of purely physical factors. It is important to ensure that the
students are warm enough, that the ventilation of the class room is adequate etc. The teacher must help the
students by providing as good a working area as the resources will permit. The class room must be
checked by the teacher before it is used.

2.5.2. The Social Environment

A majority of adult students have a wish for social contact within the class. In this the teacher can act as a
catalyst in order that the class members may get to know each other. Good relations among class
members will go a long way towards predicting a good working environment in which education can take
place.

Not only must there be student involvement within the group but also teacher involvement with the
students. As student social needs have to be served within the class it is preferable to aim at processes of
group learning rather than a two-way relationship between teacher and individual.

With increasing success in the matter of social environment of the class, the group may well need
expression of its existence as an entity. This can usually he achieved by shared tea breaks or class parties
or outings. Joint ventures as projects or exhibitions or instruction given by team teaching can provide an
environment in which students from different classes get to know each other.
Giving responsibilities for students proves the most successful way of achieving a feeling of personal
commitment and sense of belonging. In most instances the students should elect a council from among
themselves to act on their behalf.

2.6. Difference Between Pedagogy and Andragogy

Today, pedagogy refers to the theories and methods used in teaching. Andragogy was coined to focus
on the practices used to teach adults.
In the traditional sense of the word, pedagogy is authority-focused, "top-down," in that a teacher has
complete or nearly complete control over a child's learning experience. The teaching methods employed
in pedagogy are very much about transferring foundational knowledge, not about critical discourse. It is a
formal process, and usually grades are involved as a means of documenting children's progress.
Meanwhile, andragogy is focused on the learning experience of adults and which methods work best in
adult education. It is much more self-directed, in that adults must often set their own schedules for
learning and be motivated to commit to study or practice. In many adult education courses, learning is

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 somewhat informal/non-formal, and grades may not be important or may be absent altogether.

Comparison chart

Andragogy Pedagogy
Definition The methods and practices used in The methods and practices used in teaching,
teaching adults. especially of children.
Focus On independent, self-directed, and/or On a teacher's methods of transferring knowledge
cooperative learning among adults. to a student, who is dependent on the teacher's
methods and understanding?
Authority Adults have control over much of their Teacher controls the learning experience for
learning experience and must be children, and much of what is taught is based on
motivated to learn. Can often seek out rigid curricula.
new or different learning experience, at
will.
Importance of May be very low High
Grades
Instructors Facilitators, trainers Instructors,
objectives Flexible Fixed
Training Active Passive
methods
Learner's The learner brings greater volume and The learner comes to the activity with little
experience quality of experience experience
Orientation to Learners want to perform a task, solve a Learning is a process of acquiring prescribed
learning problem, live in a more satisfying way, subject matter, content units are sequenced
learning must have relevance to real life according to the logic of subject matter
tasks, and learning is organized around
life/work situations rather than subject
matter units.
Motivation for Internal motivators: self-esteem, Primarily motivated by external pressure,
learning recognition, better quality of learning, competition for grades, and the consequences of
self-confidence, self-actualization failure

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CHAPTER 3: NATURE AND LEARNING STYLES OF ADULTS

3.1. Levels of learning

Knowing levels of learning helps to set teaching objectives. In general, there are three levels of learning
in formal system.
a. Elementary / primary Lower levels
b. High school /secondary
c. University / tertiary higher level
Basic differences between lower and higher levels of learning in terms of the following parameters.
Parameter Lower Higher
Materials Required for Cheaper Expensive
teaching
Lesson objective students recall e.g. parts of a students analyze, evaluate,
plant or human body interpret & criticize
Lesson Presentation more of directive highly interactive
Timing less time for a session more time for a session
Knowledge level simple& basic e.g. abstract & applied e.g.
measuring something Problem-Solving

3.2. Characteristics of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ teaching

The term ‘good teaching’ contrasts the notion of ‘bad teaching’. Many educational research findings
confirm that most intelligent teachers do not satisfy the interest of students, i.e. there is ‘bad teaching.’

Teaching is the profession of imparting knowledge to a particular group. It requires artistic way of
presenting information. Thus, we can make distinction between the art of presenting information or
knowledge and the knowledge itself. In teaching, more emphasis is given to the art than the knowledge
because knowledge is not adequate unless it is revealed properly. Good teaching is thus realized when
knowledge imparted by the teacher produces desirable effect on the skills of the target groups. There are
several characteristics of good teaching. Let us consider situations before and during teaching.
A. Before teaching
A teacher keeps the logical sequence of topics within and across chapters. A teacher moves from very
simple to most complex concepts to take students through imperceptible levels to apply these concepts for
problem solving.
 Teach about soil science before soil conservation techniques
 Teach about livestock diseases before they practice how to treat
 Introducing students with the objectives of the course. So that they know what is expected from them
or how to behave in the class.
 Informing students the assessment criteria to be used. This motivates students to work towards the
requirements for evaluation.
 Identifying relevant course materials e.g. literature, video cassette, slides, etc.

B. During teaching
 Introducing the topic. This is however becoming very controversial as it causes repetition
 Motivating students to practice and appreciate group work

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 Formulating a continuous evaluation component on attitude, knowledge and methods in use to
make necessary adjustments.
 Theoretical concepts followed by exercises whenever deemed necessary to equip students with
required skills. e.g. teaching how to use OHP (Over Head Projector) followed by exercises.
 Selecting appropriate examples for clarification

In general, there are five competency areas for a teacher to effect in ‘good’ teaching. The teacher is then
seen as:
 Communicator
 Expert on the theory of learning & instruction
 Instructional designer
 Expert in teaching methodology
 User of instructional media & materials

3.3. Teacher centered and students centered teaching

In the old system of teaching, the influence of theories in the content of courses made students passive
learners expecting more information from the teacher.

When teaching is teacher centered, more information is expected from the teacher. He is considered as the
sole source of knowledge and information. Students’ ideas are less important. The teacher does not create
good opportunity in which students criticize or evaluate the whole teaching system.

In the new system of teaching, the optimal integration of practical (problem - based learning) into the
content is making students active learners in the class. This is because the idea of students is important for
the teacher to deal with concrete problem-based learning. If we compare the formal and non-formal
setting, the latter system of education favors the new teaching method much more than the former since
the content of the course in the latter case is directly connected with daily life problem of farmers.

3.4. Self-directed learning

In self-directed learning (SDL), the individual takes the initiative and the responsibility for what occurs.
Individuals select, manage, and assess their own learning activities, which can be pursued at any time, in
any place, through any means, at any age. In schools, teachers can work toward SDL a stage at a time.
Teaching emphasizes SDL skills, processes, and systems rather than content coverage and tests. For the
individual, SDL involves initiating personal challenge activities and developing the personal qualities to
pursue them successfully.

Self-directed learning is the method used when a learner, rather than an institution, controls both the
learning objectives and the means of learning. It is a continuous process, often informal, and an important
factor in lifelong learning. Many adults engage in self-directed learning to improve their work
performance. Others carry on self-directed learning in recreational arts and hobbies, matters of health,
family and community, or simply to increase their intellectual resources.

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CHAPTER FOUR: TEACHING PLANNING PROCESS

4.1. Identifying target groups

Students need to understand that the characteristics of a target group determine:
 The content of the lesson
 The objectives
 The media to be used
 The method
 The depth of the lesson and its level of abstraction
 The overall organization of the teaching situation
Some of these characteristics include: age, sex, educational level, occupation, etc. Generally, these
features could help us to estimate their needs.

4.2. Formulating objectives

It is important to formulate clear objectives in order to:
 have guidelines and criteria to make decisions about the next steps in the planning process
(subject matter, methods, media, and assessment)
 have a clear idea about what has to be assessed and evaluated at the end
of the course
 inform students about what is expected in terms of learning outcomes; this can help them to
organize their work
 have a clear idea about the teachers’ skills, knowledge and attitudes

4.2.1. Distinction among aims, goals and objectives

Aims: very general objectives of the whole program of the faculty or University
Goals: objectives of a particular study-program (e.g. for Irrigation/water management)
Objectives: objectives of one course (unit) of lessons (e.g. irrigation/water management)
Concrete Objectives: objectives of one lesson (one teaching unit)

There is distinction among aims, goals and objectives. Aims are broad general statements of intent. Goals
are more specific intent. Goals explain how aims are to be achieved. Although goals are more specific
than aims, they are still general statements. Objectives provide specific statements of what students will
be able to do at the end of instruction. So, if aims are general statements of intent, and goals state how that
intent may be realized, then objectives provide statements which enable one to assess whether or not that
intent has been realized. To conclude, aims, goals and objectives are therefore highly interlinked.
Objectives contain four elements (ABCD):
1. A description of the type of the learners (A-Audience)
2. A description of what the student should be able to do or produce after instruction (B
Behavior)
3. A statement of situations under which students should be able to do this. (C-Condition)
4. A statement of the criteria or standards of performance that will be used to judge what has been done.
(D-Degree)
Generally, objectives describe what students will be able to do to demonstrate mastery of their topic.

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 4.2.2. Stating objectives
Defining teaching objectives is a somewhat difficult and frustrating task. Use the following suggestions as
a guide:
 begin each objective with a verb (explain, analyze, identify, apply, Categorize, compare, define,
demonstrate, describe, design, and distinguish, Operate, organize, specify, state, suggest, verify, etc)
 state each objective in terms of student performance (rather than teacher performance)
 State each objective as a learning product.
 state each objective so that it includes only one learning outcome
 state each objective in terms of student behavior, preferably in Observable behavior
 consult reference materials for help in identifying the specific types of behavior

4.3. Selecting and Sequencing the Subject Matter

For both formal and non-formal settings, the effectiveness in selecting subject matter is determined by:
a. Availability of relevant materials
b. Experience in teaching - less experienced teachers hardly select relevant topics
Generally, the following conceptual model reflects how a teacher plans his/her instruction.

Fig. A systematic approach to planning classroom instruction in teaching

As indicated in the above model, objectives are set with the level of knowledge of the target groups in
mind. The teacher should consider the task of students in the class and estimate the behavior expected
from students. On the basis of these expectations, he/she constructs the course indicating the sequences,
the teaching methods to be used in various parts of the course and the teaching strategies to be employed
as means to achieve the predetermined objectives. Simultaneously, the teacher develops some guidelines
highlighting measures of proficiency to work on the validity of the lesson in relation to students’
capability and level of knowledge.
Implementation of teaching and revision go side by side by introducing students’ evaluation as a
component of the course. The model works for both formal and non-formal system. Selecting and

18
sequencing subject matter can be seen in terms of three dimensions: familiarity, difficulty and
development.

I. Familiarity:
 start teaching about students own experiences before teaching
 ask about own experiences on the subject before starting a course on the subject
II. Difficulty:
 teach the less difficult before the more difficult
 teach difficult subjects slowly and speed up later on
III. Development:
 introduce subjects’ at the most appropriate time in the personal development of students
 teach problem solving techniques before how to do research independently

Generally, the nature of the target group largely determines the selection of subject matter but the
sequence is more or less independent of the target group. In order to fulfill the above conditions revising
the content of the lesson is helpful.
Content is always revised:
 in relation to the objective of a lesson
 in relation to forthcoming lessons
 the time available to handle the course effectively but this is usually difficult to estimate; even most
teachers find this difficult
 in relation to experiences of previous years of teaching

Time of revision can be:

1) before the start of teaching
2) during teaching
3) at the end of teaching

4.4. Select Methods, Media and Materials

The ASSURE model assists you in systematically planning a presentation.
A Analyze learners
 For heterogeneous group: use audiovisual media to create common understanding.
 For poor readers: use non print media

S State objective
 You must know your objectives to make a correct selection media and methods.
 Not a statement of what the instructor plans to put in the lesson, but what the learner ought to get out
of the lesson.
 ABCD's of well stated objectives
 Audience (educated or not; learner/facilitator)
 Behavior (define/translate, install, better than: know, understand)
 Conditions (the conditions under which the performance is expected.)
 Degree (standard, criterion, time and accuracy)

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S Select media and materials
 Survey of sources
 Selection criteria(do objectives match my own, updated, technical, quality etc)
 Modifying available materials
 Designing new materials
U Utilize media and materials
 Preview the material prior screening of material
 Practice the presentation-rehearsing
 Prepare the environment-prepare sitting arrangement, ventilation
 Prepare the audience- help or motivate learner to involved in learning
 Present the material
R Require learner participation
E Evaluate and revise
 Evaluation of learner achievement
 Evaluation of media and methods
 Evaluation of the instructional process

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CHAPTER FIVE: METHODS AND EVALUATION OF TEACHING

5.1. Teaching Methods

A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction to be implemented by
teachers to achieve the desired learning by students. These strategies are determined partly on subject
matter to be taught and partly by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be
appropriate and efficient it has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of
learning it is supposed to bring about. Suggestions are there to design and selection of teaching methods
must take into account not only the nature of the subject matter but also how students learn. Some of the
extension teaching methods are: lecturing, group discussion, practical teaching and individual supervision
by the teacher.

5.1.1. Lecturing
Lecturing is more than dictating. The lecture method is convenient and usually makes the most sense,
especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the standard for most university and
college courses, when there can be several hundred students in the classroom at once; lecturing lets
teachers address the most people at once, in the most general manner, while still conveying the
information that he or she feels is most important, according to the lesson plan. While the lecture method
gives the instructor or teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material,
the students plays a passive role which may hinder learning.

When to use the lecturing method

 To introduce new subject
 To put a subject into its context
 To explain difficult concepts
 To distinguish between main-issues and side –issues

Advantages of lecture
 Useable with large groups of audience
 Easy to organize as compared to other teaching methods
 Within a short time many subjects can be taught
 Can be used just almost everywhere

Disadvantages of lecture
 Minimal contact between the teacher and participants, no participation, no feedback
 Not effective to reach higher level objectives (e.g. synthesis, valuing, analysis)

5.1.2. Group Discussion

It is a verbal interaction between two and more participants in a learning situation. Discussions may form
part of forum (discussion combining experts and laymen), panel (discussion among experts), question and
answer session, syndicate, etc. The role of the lecturer is changing in group discussion from imparting
knowledge or information to facilitation of the discussion process. During facilitation he/she will not take

21
a dominant position but act as a mediator among members to keep on the discussion going.

Advantages of Group Discussion

Sharing knowledge and experience

Merging many viewpoints
Involving in the learning process
Improves communication skills
Students get clarity on confusing principles and theoretical concepts from lectures

In non-formal setting where discussion is taking place outside of formal training institutions group
discussion is applicable in problem solving, planning and strategy formulation. Moreover, it is helpful
extension teaching method in technology transfer process during which farmers and stakeholders evaluate
the performance of agricultural technologies. It is an effective method in pooling the opinion of farmers to
know better on their traditional criteria for assessment. Generally, the effectiveness of group discussion in
problem-solving as well as technology evaluation is highly determined by the skills of the facilitator in
motivating discussants to contribute.

In order to make teaching effective through group discussion, the teacher and students can have certain
roles. These are initiating, seeking information, giving information, elaboration, controlling, encouraging,
setting standards, harmonizing, coordination and consensus testing.

Research indicates that the most frequent speakers tend to be popular and are almost universally accepted
as being more influential in getting a solution than the less frequent speakers. Even the best solution
obtained by less frequent speakers (taciturn) will not be accepted unless supported by the talkative. This is
usually true irrespective of the target groups in teaching.

Role of the facilitator in group discussion

 Keep the groups working productively
 Distribute and control materials
 Act as judge in disagreements between group members
 Give advice or comments where required
 Check that the groups are not getting lost or diverging from the planned activities
 Check during the course of activities that the objectives and rules of work have been understood

Brainstorming in group discussion

Brainstorming can be done in two ways.
1) Asking individuals by making roundabouts if the group size is small
2) Asking for volunteers if the size is large.

The problem solving skills of participants can be improved by introducing brainstorming at the first stage
of discussion. Brainstorming involves the free flow of ideas from the participants about the problem
posed in an attempt to generate the greatest possible number of diverse ideas and views, some of which
may lead to new solutions. It encourages this diversity. In a brainstorming exercise it is always necessary

22
to avoid commenting or criticizing the ideas of the other participants which you think are irrelevant in
relation to the topic. Make a list of ideas on the blackboard so that other members will be stimulated to
contribute to the list.

The stages of grouping, organizing and evaluation of the ideas generated will follow the brainstorming
exercise. During these three stages, comments and critics are important to encourage the groups to value
the ideas to solve the problem posed. Dialogue and arguments are inherent in group discussions.

Debriefing in group discussion

At the end of a session the facilitator may need to do debriefing. Debriefing is done based on the results
of the group work to ensure that new concepts have come out of the discussion. The debriefing can also
lead the facilitator to make a sort of evaluation whether the exercise has to be repeated to deepen the
learners’ understanding or has already produced the desired result.

To conclude, teachers use group discussion in higher education teaching for the following reasons.
1. Promoting understanding
2. Developing intellectual skills
3. Teaching problem-solving
4. Making diagnosis and decisions
5. Developing critical thinking
6. Changing attitudes

5.1.3. Practical Teaching

Practical teaching stresses training of skills. It connotes a teaching situation in which the learning capacity
of students can be directly or indirectly measured. In extension teaching, practical is emphasizing on
developing and improving the research capabilities of students.
Advantages of Practical Teaching
The acquisition and development of practical skills (e.g. how to apply chemicals on the farm)
To teach students how to interpret data (e.g. reporting fieldwork)
Developing skills of problem solving strategies (e.g. exercising on how to organize thoughts for
action).
Students will relate theory to real-world and test its validity (e.g. applying concepts)

Practical teaching involves learning by doing.

Look at the differences between the three concepts of learning
* Learning for knowing- theoretical concepts
* Learning by doing- developing a technology or a solution
* Learning for being – applying the solution
Practical teaching is organized for learning by doing (self-directed) and for being (to master skills and
demonstrate to others).
In practical teaching, the interaction of three developmental processes (physical development, societal
influences and development of personality) leads to individual growth.

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 Individual growth Physical development
Societal influences

Development of personality

Preparing practical teaching

The following are some of the guidelines for practical teaching.
 Identifying what students already know
 Preparing guidelines for students (e.g. procedures to be followed)
 Explaining the main activities in the guidelines (e.g. what to do when)
 Stating the main question students should answer at the end of practical (e.g. preparation from
students side)

Steps in practical teaching

a) Closed nature-the teacher initiates and demonstrates the different phases
b) Open nature-students will handle the different phases independently

5.1.4. Supervision
Classroom supervision
Supervising in higher education concerns the students study process: research writing, homework,
practical and study of literature. Supervision implies that students greatly value the importance of self-
study and independent learning.
With regard to independent learning, supervision enables students:
 To search for literature as part of research writing and problem solving projects
 To discover the main lines or topics in a text, a book or an article
 To evaluate and value facts and results

Since most students in higher education will have higher level jobs in the future, it is important for them
to learn how to solve problems, to write reports, to make decisions, to work independently, to handle
difficulties and cope up with disappointments and delicate questions and to organize their activities. A
supervisor as a facilitator or a resource person should be approachable by students for asking questions
and explaining difficult concepts.

Disadvantages of individual supervision

 Time consuming
 Danger of personality clashes
 More timid and shy students can fail to take benefits
 Inadequate supervising disrupts teaching system and frustrates students’ learning

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 Some features of effective supervision

The following point’s worth important to use supervision as an effective teaching method
 Giving adequate feedback
 Adjusting to student’s study habits, learning needs, and capabilities
 Giving clear ideas about expectations from the student’s work
 Having regular meeting and talks to monitor the student’s progress and difficulties
 Motivating students and showing interest about the topic or theme

Field supervision
Individual or face-to-face methods are probably the most universally used extension teaching methods in
both developed and developing countries. The extension agent meets a farmer at home or on the farm and
discusses issues of mutual interest, giving information and advice to the farmer. Individual supervision is
the most important in all extension work although group discussion is a useful method in enabling
farmers to exchange knowledge and experiences on certain newly introduced innovations.

The personal influence of the extension agent can be critical in helping a farmer through difficult
decisions, and can also be instrumental in getting the farmer to participate in extension activities. A
farmer is often likely to listen to the advice of the extension agent and will be grateful for this individual
attention.

Farm visits as one of supervision techniques has the following benefits:

 Familiarize the extension agent with the farmer and his family
 Enable him/her to give advice or information to the farmer
 Build up the agent’s knowledge of the area, and of the kinds of problems which farmers face
 Permit him/her to explain a new recommended practice or follow up and observe results to date
 Arouse general interest among farmers and stimulate their involvement in extension activities

In supervising a farmer, methods of establishing rapport and of initiating conversation differ from culture
to culture. Small talk in order to break the ice is often an important first step, and gives both sides a
chance to relax and to get to know each other a little before more serious matters and discussed. Time
must be spent in greeting the farmer and his/her family and an informal chat will not be wasted. Similarly
local customs should be followed as regards accepting hospitality. Supervision will be sound if these
preconditions are well handled. In supervision, preparing a checklist largely supports the process by
indication the plan to be followed and stating the activities to be done in a logical order. In this case
supervision is synonymous to practical teaching in which you use guidelines for tracing the process.
Generally, supervision as extension teaching method is employed to monitor innovation processes and
thereby evaluate the application of newly introduced technologies by the farming community. It also
provides the extension agents a good opportunity to explore and document information on the existing
agricultural knowledge systems.

In addition to checklist, field notes and diary (farm recording if possible) are important to assess new
knowledge, information and experiences and to state difficulties from the real field situation.

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 5.1.5. Micro - Teaching
Here the students are going to practice micro-teaching. The lessons covered in the previous chapters on
lesson planning and methods of teaching will be helpful.

Use the following format to plan your micro teaching exercise.

Lesson matrix for your micro teaching
Topic What you want to teach
Venue The place where teaching is to be organized
Date
Duration For how long (your micro teaching can form part of an assumed training
program)
Target groups Whom do you want to teach (extension agents, farmers, women’s group,
etc…)
Starting situation What do you think or assume about the knowledge and skill level of your
target group
Objectives What you want your target groups to do after an instruction or a lesson
Knowledge …you will be able to:
Skills …you will be able
Attitude …you will be able to:
Time Outline the content Select teaching methods Choose teaching aids

Example of Micro-Teaching
Target group........................ Women at Tuji Gebisa
Topic.................................... Improved Practices in Potato Production
Objective...............................By the end of the lesson, you (women at Tuji Gebisa) will be able to describe
improved ways of producing potato.
Content.................................Land preparation, sowing/input application, weeding, harvesting, marketing
(grading, storage, transport, price)
Media.................................... Poster, video show (if access to light)
Method..................................Brainstorming, lecture, discussion
Time...................................... 30 minutes

Steps in Micro Teaching

 Identifying targets  Choosing media
 Choosing a topic  Choosing methods
 Setting objectives  Revising the plan
 Defining and sequencing content  Estimate time required roughly

26
Teaching is like cooking, putting the ingredients together in a specific order to give the real test. The
following points should be kept in mind while observing and commenting on the micro-teaching
performance of each group.
a. Subject-matter (the content)
 Clarity
 Sequence
 Inter-relatedness of objective (s) and content
 Assumptions about the target group

b. Presentation skills

 Clarity of language/verbal behavior

 Eye contact
 Mimic
 Ability to attract the audience
 Enthusiasm
 Non-verbal behavior/gesture
 Motivating the audience
 Inviting questions
 Responding questions

5.2. Evaluation of Teaching

Evaluation is a very broad concept. We can talk of evaluation of programs, development projects, policies
(impact assessment) and performance of people in different circumstances and work conditions. The
purpose is similar in each case. It is to improve situations but not to blame or punish or insult people for
their poor performance. Leaders in almost all situations are responsible for assessing and evaluating the
people whom they work with. So too are teachers responsible for the assessment and evaluation of
students in their classrooms & an aspect of their work that some find unpleasant. Nonetheless, assessment
& evaluation are of utmost importance to students and parents as well. How well students perform on
tests, the grades they receive and the judgments their teachers make about their potential have important
long-term consequences. Enduring perceptions about self-worth and self-esteem can also result from the
evaluation of students

5.2.1. Concepts of assessment of evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are functions carried out by teacher to gather information needed to make
wise discussions that are important for student lives. The term assessment usually refers to the full range
of information gathered and synthesized by teachers about their students and their classrooms.
Information can be gathered on students in informal ways such as observation and verbal exchange. It can
also be gathered formally through homework, tests and written reports. Generally, the range of
information can vary from informal feedback provided by students about a particular lesson to more
formal reports resulting from course evaluations and standardized tests.

1
Whereas assessment focuses on gathering and synthesizing information, the term evaluation usually refers
to the process of making judgments, assigning value, or deciding on worth. A test, for example, is an
assessment technique to collect information about how much do students know on a particular topic.
Assigning a grade, however, is an evaluative act because the teacher is placing a value on the information
gathered on the test. In light with this explanation, assessment and evaluation are in most cases used
interchangeably. They do not have exactly the same meaning; nevertheless, evaluation takes place after
assessment because one cannot assign a value without gathering and analyzing necessary information. In
short, assessment helps to generate information for evaluation.

5.2.2. Evaluation Types

Under different situations, evaluations can vary. In teaching, we distinguish two types of evaluation.

A. Formative (process) Evaluations

This takes place prior to or during instruction. The intention is to inform teachers about their students’
prior knowledge and skills in order to assist with planning, information from this evaluation is not used to
make judgments about a student’s work; it is used for grouping students during instruction lesson
planning (modifying or changing objectives) and formulating instructional strategies. Colleagues as well
as students are sources of information for such evaluation. The results from this evaluation are used to
improve performance.

B. Summative (output) Evaluations

In this case, efforts are made to use information about students’ feeling after a set of instructional
activities has occurred. Its purpose is to summarize how well a particular student or group of student has
performed on a set of learning goals or objectives. Summative evaluations are made to make judgments
about accomplishments of students’ task.

Teachers use information from summative evaluation to determine grades. In fact, good evaluation to a
large extent depends on the quality of information. In non-formal teaching situation, summative
evaluation reveals the impact of a particular teaching program on the performance of farmers on the field.
The principles and practices of assessment in classroom teaching also work in non-formal teaching where
the extension can assess and/or evaluate the farm level performance of farmers who, let us say, have been
participating in a particular training program. Both forms of evaluation would provide information to (re)
design objectives, instructional methods and aids, and the overall teaching (training) environment.

5.2.3. Evaluation Techniques

Technique refers to how we are doing the evaluation itself. Evaluation techniques of students can be done
in the form of observing their participation, giving individual or group assignments, continuous feedback
from students, asking testing questions and the final examination. Each technique has different purposes.
For instance, in a large sized class assigning value to students’ participation may be unfair; however,
different teachers continue to do so. Others can use participation as a means of encouraging or motivating
students to learn effectively. In this case, participation may not have a weighted value.
Getting feedback from students formally (using standardized formats) or informally (through colleagues)

2
cannot also have a weighted value for the students but rather helps the teacher to improve teaching by
identifying his/her weak points and build on the strong points. From this, you can realize that evaluation
serves multiple purposes: It has a value for the teacher as well as for the students. As far as the benefit
goes to both parties, genuine evaluation is highly invaluable, as there are ethical and moral effects on the
person to be evaluated. The behavior of students during instruction (teaching), the personal behavior of
the teacher and the purpose of evaluation altogether affect the effectiveness of each technique of
evaluation

5.2.4. Format for Evaluation

Different formats are used to collect data from students for evaluation. In that sense evaluation in itself is
a research because its findings are used to improve teaching. Most teachers prepare standardized formats
for evaluating their teaching the content of the course and the teaching methods used. Evaluation also
involves gathering of information on the feelings of the students, their attitude towards the course and the
knowledge level acquired. This can be expressed qualitatively and/or quantitatively. In each case the
purpose is different. Examples:

Example one: Quantitative process evaluation format

Suppose a teacher wants to know the opinion of students about the steps of identifying community
problems using PRA, she/he may develop the following format.

Criteria Level of agreement (1 - 5)

1. The techniques in PRA are complex to understand

2. PRA is a helpful research method
3. Steps in PRA are clear but the methods need modification
4. Understanding the steps would have involved intensive discussion
5. Social mapping in PRA requires further explanation
6. Applying PRA techniques in Ethiopia is difficult

In the above case, students can give a fixed value to each statement expressing their level of agreement
where 1 stands for strong disagreement and 5 for strong agreement on the continuum. The teacher can
now calculate to find out the percentage of students showing specific level of agreement. In most
situations, such analysis in evaluation is easy and simple. It is also easy for one to fill in the form. Due to
this reason teachers tend to use such kinds of format.
Nevertheless, more important question of evaluation specialists is ‘Can quantitative evaluation reveal
clear evidence for improving the process?’ The answer to this question is ‘no’ validating the significance
of qualitative evaluation. With little modification the above format can be reused as follows (See example
two).

Example two: quantitative evaluation

For same purpose mentioned above, it is possible to prepare qualitative format by introducing a new
element justifying the reason why a student chooses for specific level of agreement including the
suggestion they may give.

3
Criteria for evaluation Level of reason Suggestion
agreement (1-5) to improve
The techniques in PRA are complex to understand
PRA is helpful method
Steps in PRA are clear but the methods need
modification
Understanding the steps would have involved
intensive discussion
Social mapping in PRA requires further
explanation
Applying PRA techniques in Ethiopia is difficult

Using qualitative format has advantages in exploring the opinion of students for evaluation. However,
certain disadvantages such as time required to prepare and analyze the information gathered as well as the
time and skill for students to fill in the form with patience restrain teachers from conducting such kinds of
evaluation.
The Context - Input Process Product (CIPP) Model as Evaluation Techniques
Shortly, the elements of CIPP are:
a) Contexts - the environment in which the teaching takes place
b) Inputs - the available resources to carryout teaching
c) Process - the manner in which the plan is put to action
d) Product - results of teaching

Evaluation of content comes with the initial decisions that the instructional designer (the teacher) must
take into consideration whether the course is necessary in relation the future career of students. This
evaluation is often termed as front end analysis.

Evaluation of lesson inputs is concerned with the lesson design and execution level. There are three types
of input to a lesson:
a. The lesson plan, its structure & content and the methods used
b. The resources to be used during the lesson
c. The human resources to be employed - teacher/tutor/ assistants

The third element in CIPP is the process aspects of evaluation. The technique of valuation the
teaching/learning process is approached from different angles. You can use one or a combination of the
following styles to evaluate teaching processes:
i. Free observation and later debriefing style of evaluation
ii. Free observation, with the aid of videotape
iii. Relying on a prepared questionnaire to be filled by the evaluator
iv. Interaction - analysis technique in which the students will critically analyze
v. Different steps in teaching through active group interaction.

The fourth element of the CIPP model is evaluating the products of instruction. Whereas during the steps
of the lesson the teacher is evaluating progress towards the lesson objectives, at the end of the lesson

4
he/she evaluates to what extent the objective have been achieved, at the end of the lesson he evaluates to
what extent the objectives have been achieved. This evaluation may serve summative as well as formative
purposes in which you adjust the current lesson or make modification in the future.

5
CHAPTER SIX: COMMUNICATION MEDIA AND AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

6.1. Introduction to Communication Media

Communication media are used by organizations or individuals to convey messages to individuals or to
large audiences. The information can be timely and the cost relatively cheap per person contact.
Communication media are normally used in programs to support the change agents efforts, by reaching
audiences he cannot reach.

As part of their training, change agents should know how to operate all the media equipment which could
be useful to them. Even more important agents should receive training in producing low cost media. Then
some media will always be available and having been produced locally will be more appropriate to the
community. The agent will need the support of his organization, as materials for producing media may be
difficult for him/her to obtain by himself.

New learning mainly depends on taking in new information (transmission of information). Thus, effective
instruction cannot take place unless communication takes place. It is therefore helpful to know the
communication process to use instructional media effectively. Instruction is the arrangement of
information and environment to facilitate learning; and media refer to the channels of communication
(anything that carries information between a source and a receiver). In any communication activity there
is the creation, transmission reception and interpretation of message between a source and a receiver.

6.2. Communication process

Communication process refers to the creating, transmitting, receiving and interpreting of messages
between a source and a receiver. Like any process, communication process has steps or stages. First there
should be a reason (stimulus) and interest (motivation) to create a message and transmit it from the
senders' side. The sender then encodes the message, that is, the sender incorporates the message into a
signal (spoken work, a drawing on the chalkboard, or printed materials) to convey it to the receiver. The
sender puts the message into transmittal form (signal) and sends it via a communication medium. To
achieve the desired results, the sender must first get the attention of the receiver. The sender must send the
message in such a way that the receiver can understand it, accept it and do or act accordingly. The
receiver upon receiving the signal tries to make sense out of it. That is the receiver decodes the message.
Decoding is the interpretation activity by the receiver of the message received. In the process there are
various distorting factors referred as noise that act on the signal as it is being transmitted.

Noise is interference or barrier in the communication process. It can happen from any one the elements of
the communication process or from the environment. Example of noise in the classroom setting include
background sounds, glare on the chalkboard, and flickering lights. Other noises like semantic noise (e.g.
difficult words), written material too small to be read; and difference in field of experience between the
sender and the receiver creates barrier in the communication process.
It is important to remember the meaning as such cannot be transmitted. What are actually transmitted are
the symbols of meaning, such as words or pictures. The sender can only transmit verbal or pictorial
symbols from which the receiver constructs his/her own meanings. The communication process is the
interaction between the elements of communication. Thus, to understand the communication process
better, it is worthwhile to look at the elements of communication, which can be depicted by models.

1
S - M - C - R - Model
Source Message Channel Receiver
Communication skills Elements Seeing Communication skills
Attitudes Contents Hearing Attitudes
Knowledge Structure Listening Knowledge
Social system Treatments Touching Social system
Culture Codes Smelling Culture

6.3. Elements of Communication

The elements of communication include the source (sender or communicator), the message, the channel
or medium, and the receiver. Some add noise and feedback to the list. For communication to happen,
these four basic components must operate together. There should be common understanding of the
symbols used to channel the idea. Communication cannot take place unless the person receiving the
message has also understood it. The receiver of the message must show the sender of the message that
he/she understood, either by something appropriate or by sending back another message indicating that
he/she understood what the original communicator has in mind.

1. The source: All communication comes from a source or sender. The source could be one person, a
group of people or an institution.

2. The message: Message is a symbol or collection of symbols initiated by a source and capable of
interpretation by a receiver. It is the transmission of coded information, idea, knowledge or skill. The
code is the symbols that carry the message. There are three basic communication codes.
1) Non-verbal - all intended or unintentional means other than writing or speaking, by which a person
sends a message such as facial expression, gestures, appearance.
2) Language - either written or spoken words to communicate thoughts and emotions.
3) Paralanguage - the verbal elements that go along with spoken language, including such qualities of
the voice as tone, pitch, rate, volume and emphasis.
Content selection organization of message:
• Ideas to be presented have to be selected
• Ideas have to be tested
• Support has to be selected
• The ideas and supports have to be arranged

3. The channel or medium: Media are bridges connecting the source and the receiver of a message.
They are avenues between a communicator and an audience on which messages travel to and for
They are transmission lines used for carrying messages to their destination. Common channels in
learning include lectures, chalkboard, radio, books, bulletins, charts, drawings, newspapers, organized
tours, personal contacts, handouts, television etc. All these make it possible for an instructor to
transmit messages to the intended audience.

Oral messages are carried out sound waves supported by the air. In vision, the light waves carry
messages. When the audience is small and at hand, one can talk to them face. But when the audience

2
 is large or physically separate from the communicator, then careful selection of media is required.
Sometimes availability of media and audience capability help to determine what media to use. For
example, where there is no overhead projector one does not depend on overhead projector as a
medium.

There are many ways that we can look at channels. The simplest is to list the five senses that can be
used to receive the message i.e. presenting the message so that it can be seen, heard, touched, smelled
or tested. Generally, communication is more effective when more channels are used to stimulate more
senses directly and immediately.

4. The Receiver or Audience: The final link in the communication process is the receiver, the person
on whom a behavioral change is required or expected. The facts that affect the operation of the source
affect the operation of the receiver. These are:
a) His communication skill
b) His attitude towards the source, the subject, himself etc.
c) His knowledge
d) The social situation
e) Resources

5. Feedback: is the response a receiver gives to the message received. It is the action-reaction
interdependence in communication. The communicator can use the reaction of the receiver as a check
of his/her own effectiveness and a guide to his own future action. When a source receives feedback
that is rewarding, he/she continues to produce the same kind of message. When he/she gets non-
rewarding feedback, he/she eventually will change his/her message. Each person in the
communication process is both an encoder receiving and transmitting. Feedback plays an important
part in communication because it tells both the source and the receiver, how their messages are being
interpreted.

6. Noise: In any communication, there is noise or barriers. A conscious communicator tries to identify
the noises that make him/her less effective. There are psychological and physiological barriers of
communication. Perceptual differences, knowledge and skill discrepancies, attitude, past experience,
expectations etc., are some of the noises that prevail between a source and a receiver.

6.4. Effective communication

Communication that results in action or change of behavior is a complicated process. Although there is
not clear cut answer and one way only as to how to communicate effectively, there is a general procedure
that one can follow to help him improve his communication skills and results. These are:
 Understand your audience: the source should have clear answers to the following questions:
o What are my audience’s background experiences (knowledge)?
o What are their attitudes?
o What economic factors affect their action?
o What social and cultural factors inhibit or facilitate their taking action?
o What factors affect their learning?
o What are their expectations? etc.

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  Having good knowledge of the subject matter.
 Organize the ideas into meaningful logical units.

6.5. Importance of Audio-visual Aids in Teaching and Learning

Teaching is a reciprocal communication between and among pupils and teachers. Learning is essentially a
social process. Teaching is only instrumental to learning and it uses everything for the guidance of the
learner into profitable educational experiences.

Audio-visual aids influence the effectiveness of teaching by lessening some of the learners’ difficulties,
eliminating some hindrance in the communication process and expediting teaching. Thus creative use of a
variety of media increases the probability that the audience will learn more, retain better, recall lessons
learned and improve their performance of the skills they are expected to develop. This is because
audiovisual materials evoke the maximum response of the whole organism to the situations in which the
learning is done.

Audio visual aids are resources for learning. Research findings indicate that human beings learn more
easily and faster by audio-visual processes than by verbal explanation alone. This is because audio-visual
materials permit teachers and students to interact and to use their environment to their own best
advantage. But audio-visual devices misused will contribute less to education than to confusion. Before
using audio-visual materials, analysis of the audience is necessary in order to know their needs,
capabilities, their special interests and motivation, and their styles of learning. One has to evaluate also
the strengths and weaknesses of the instructional media to see whether the media match with the
instructional objective. From among alternative learning experiences (e.g. learning by doing, learning by
observing) one chooses that offering best promise to achieve for the students the sought outcome, and the
audio-visual materials that can perform better that particular learning experience chosen.

In short if appropriate media are used teaching and learning can be simplified with a best result and fast
concept building on the subject matter or idea taught or communicated.

Moreover, several studies also indicate that the human brain has a power to decipher visual imagery,
much faster than language, and hence, such communications have a far- reaching impact on the human
mind.

Power of Visual Communication

The use of visual resources plays a significant role in establishing an effective and fruitful
communication. Here's why visual aids prove to be powerful tools:

Enhancing the Presentation

Visual aids help to add an extra element of interest to the presentation. The subjects, which may seem to
be extremely boring, can be made more interesting. This helps to grab the attention of the listeners as they
can now see colorful representations of otherwise boring, black and white text.

Memorizing
we remember what we see, more than what we do not. Visual images always make a long-lasting impact

4
on our minds. Moreover, it is common human tendency to get attracted towards colorful imagery and
pictures. Most of the time, an individual tends to remember what he/she has seen during his/her
childhood, for a lifetime. Such is the power of visuals. It is always easier to remember them than plain
text, and hence, the use of visual resource is vital.

Concentration
every individual has a certain limit for his/her concentration. In other words, a person tends to lose his/her
concentration after a certain period of time, after which the capacity of that person to grasp information
decreases. Use of visual aids helps a person to concentrate on a given object for a longer span of time, as
they keep the human mind engaged and entertained, at the same time.

Repetition of Information
The power to grasp information varies from person to person. While some people can grasp faster via
verbal communication, some others may need the help of visuals in order to comprehend information.
The use of visual resources in communication helps to repeat, with more clarity, the information that is
being conveyed verbally, thus enhancing the chances of better understanding.

Avoiding Distractions
The use of aids concentrates the attention of the listeners on one particular object, which becomes a focal
point. These results in more attentive listeners as there are lesser possibilities of distractions. The more
attentive the audience, the better are the chances of putting the point across.

Systematizing Communication
Visual resources enable the speaker to systematically organize large chunks of information into smaller,
more interactive bits. By doing this, the speaker can also design his/her presentation in a way that he/she
effectively communicates with the audience who not only pay attention, but gain a fruitful experience.

6.6. Advantages and disadvantages of media

Communication media

Advantages
 Can reach large audiences.
 Relatively inexpensive per person reached
 Can reach the isolated.
 Only a small staff required.
 Can give out timely news.
 Can reach people every day in their own homes.

Disadvantages
 Maintenance and repairs may be expensive and difficult
 Not easy to obtain good feedback from the audience
 The cost of equipment is initially high

5
Personal visits
Advantages
 Personal contact can sometimes be very effective in motivating farmers
 Good feedback can be obtained

Disadvantages:
 Often only the more advanced farmers are visited
 Many staffs are required to give good coverage
 Visits to farmers can be very expensive and can only be done at intervals

Every personal visit should always be backed up by using communications media as it makes the visits
more cost-effective. However as farmers become more motivated and as the communications media
improve face-to-face communications can be reduced. In situations where the farming community is well
motivated the use of media alone is effective.

Sometimes farming people rely almost exclusively on media for their information. The radio or television
gives them weather or market news and also information about outbreak of insect pests. The commercial
media inform them of good buys in machinery, fertilizer, stock, seed, buildings etc. The farming press
and magazines provide more detailed information and articles about farming enterprises. The radio may
even broadcast farm family serial programs, which creates interest and may provide some knowledge and
motivation.

6.7. Relative Effectiveness of Various Aids

Visual media are particularly important since research suggests that most of what we learn is through our
eyes, rather than through our ears touch or sense of smell. Thus as the Chinese apparently said one picture
is worth a thousand words. What people remember some days after being presented with a message is
much more important than what they recall immediately afterwards. Research shows that a combination
of words and visuals after a three-day time lapse is some six times more effective just words.

Recall after 3 hours recall after 3 days

Words only 70% 10%
Visuals only 72% 20%
Words and Visuals 85% 65%

The theoretical effectiveness of various learning aids is shown in the Figure below. The real experience is
most effective, followed by viewing, while the spoken word tends to be least effective. Yet, in spite of
these facts, much of our reaching and extension is still done by lecture and talk.

Figure: Theoretical effectiveness of various aids in learning

Most effective
 Practical work
 Demonstration
 Television or slides
 Still pictures

1
  Books and print
 Least effective __ __ Lecture
The quality of the teaching of course, is of vital importance for example an interesting lecture may be
more effective than a poorly run demonstration.

2
CHAPTER 7: PLANNING FOR THE USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS

7.1. Classification of Instructional Media

Audiovisual materials are classified in a number of ways by different authors. Among these are:
1. Audio, visual and audiovisual
2. Printed and non-printed
3. Projected and non-projected
4. Hardware and software
Others classify audiovisual materials based on the three major modes of learning or gaining experience.
i. Doing; through direct contact of reality
ii. Observation
iii. Listening and reading using abstract symbols.

7.2. Principles of Selection of Media

Selection and utilization of media materials should meet the particular requirements of the learning
domain and the need of particular student(s). Thus, the selection and utilization of media should be guided
by:
1. The content of the subject under treatment
2. The purpose of the lesson
3. The cost of the media
4. The appropriateness of the media to the particular content
5. The technical quality of the media
6. The circumstance under which the media will be utilized
7. The usefulness of the media in transmitting the desired skill to the audience under consideration.
In order to capture and hold the attention and interest of the audience and to increase their involvement in
learning, the communicator or teacher has to use better inventive approaches in the selection and use of
media. There are general principles that one should follow to achieve the desired results when using any
kind of medium, whether print, audio, audio-visual or real. These are:

1. One has to recognize that no one medium or procedure is necessarily best for learning a particular
subject, for acquiring a particular skill or for developing a specified desirable attitude or level of
appreciation. Some subjects appear to be better suited for presentation by one medium rather than
another. e.g. foreign language could be better presented by audio recording; while history could be
presented better by the use of a variety of media like books, films, maps etc. yet, it may be that not all
students (audience ) need such a variety of media. Some may prefer books or another medium only.

2. Media selection and utilization should be consistent with the objectives of the lesson.
3. In selecting and using media one has to know them thoroughly; how they may be used to the best
advantage, whether they fit to the level of the audience and to their ability and whether they can be
used properly to the size of the group one is going to present to.
4. Media must fit audience capabilities and learning styles. Experiences, preferences, individual interests
and capabilities determine the results of the media used. Thus, one has to identify his/her audience's
capabilities and learning styles before starting to use any medium.
5. Media are neither good nor bad simply because they are either concrete or abstract; thus, their
selection and utilization should not be based on whether they are concrete or abstract. Rather their
selection and utilization should be based on the special advantages they provide in transmitting the
desired knowledge, idea or skill.
6. Media should be selected objectively rather than because of personal preference or bias.
7. Physical conditions where media are used, significantly affect the results obtained. Some excellent
media resources may become second rate in their effects when they are used in inappropriate
environment. Poor lighting, overheated, rooms, noise pollution, stale air etc. can distract the
effectiveness of a medium. Thus, when selecting media one has also to be careful with the condition
and environment under which they will be used.
To get successful results, the selection and utilization of media should be guided by the goals and
objectives of the teaching-learning process. Many educators recommend that if an objective is in the
cognitive domain (at the knowledge level), among the media that can be used are print (duplicated
handouts, work sheets, short readings), slide sets (narrated live or combined with audio tape),
transparencies, and individualized instruction (computer programs, workbook, filmstrips). In the affective
domain (feelings and attitudes) live instruction, film and/or videotape, audio tape, print as if books and
magazines are among the recommended media that should be utilized. In the psychomotor domain
(performance), audio tape (for instruction step by step), film and/or television (for demonstration of
processes), real objects and models, live instruction (for demonstration), and print (for stepwise
procedures that learners follow) are among media that can be used.

7.2.1. Systematic Planning for the Use of Media

The ASSURE model assists you in systematically planning a presentation and choosing effective media.

A: Analyze learners
General characteristics: apathy towards a subject - use highly stimulating instructional approach;
heterogeneous group – audiovisual media to create common understanding; poor readers – non-print
media:
 specific entry competencies: already available (or assumed) knowledge/experience about the subject,
analyzing what your audience already knows
 learning styles: "how an individual perceives, interacts with and responds to learning environments"
 perceptual preferences and strengths
 information-processing habits (audio, visual, tactile, kinesthetic)
 motivational factors
 psychological factors (sex, health, environment)

S: state objectives
 not a statement of what the instructor plans to put in the lesson, but what the learner ought to get out
of the lesson
 should be specific: 'my students will improve their mathematical skills' is too general, specific
objective 'the 2nd grade students will be able to solve correctly any single addition problem'
 Why? You must know your objectives to make a correct selection of media and methods. And,
knowing your objectives will force you to create a learning environment in which the objectives can
be reached. And, evaluation. And, audience knows what is expected of them
  ABCD's of well stated objectives
 Audience (Learner/you)
 Behavior (define/translate/compare/install, better than: know, understand)
 Conditions (the conditions under which this performance is to be observed; without notes, given a
map of …)
 Degree (standard, criterion; time and accuracy)

S: select media and materials

survey of sources
selection criteria (do objectives match my own, updated, technical; quality, etc)
modifying available materials
designing new materials

U: utilize media and materials

 preview the materials
 practice the presentation
 prepare the environment
 prepare the audience
 present the material

R: require learner participation

E: evaluates and revises

 evaluation of learner achievement
 evaluation of media and methods
 evaluation of the instructional process
 revision

7.3. Planning / Designing Lay-Out of Visuals

Visual design has 4 main goals:
1. To ensure legibility
2. To reduce the effort required to interpret the message
3. To increase the viewer’s active engagement with the message
4. To focus the attention on the most important part of the message

Careful arrangement of visual materials can focus the attention of the audience on the element to be
learned. The factors that should be considered when designing visual materials are:-

1. Simplicity: - pictures that are not related to the ideas being communicated or that do not contribute to
better understanding should be eliminated. They have to be as simple as possible so that they can
communicate the idea to the audience easily.

2. Pattern: - The parts of visual materials should be arranged in a pleasing way. The layout can be
based on geometric shape, a letter or any other attractive shape.
3. Balance: is the relationship between the various parts of a visual. It is the sense of equilibrium in a
visual, meaning no single element dominates the display. Balance can be achieved by using similar
materials in rows or materials of various sizes, shapes or colors. A word is seen as a word because of
space between the letters as compared with the space around the group of letters. Sentences are seen
as sentences and paragraphs as paragraphs because of the balance of space around them as compared
with the space within them. Generally, there would be more space at the bottom of a page or an
illustration than at the top.

4. Emphasis: Important elements of a visual can be emphasized by making them standout from their
surroundings. This can be done by making such elements different in size, shape, color or position. A
well designed layout will emphasize a central idea.

5. Harmony: This means that all elements or visual must work together to support the basic idea
presented.

6. Contrast: If the visual of displays are to communicate the desired message, they must be noticed
(seen). This can be done, for instance, by using dark paper as a background for mounting light
pictures or vice versa.

7. Lettering: The selection and making of legible and attractive captions, labels and titles creates
effective displays.

8. Color: is an important element in any successful display. To make color effective in displays, it
should be kept simple. One should also use a minimum of different colors in any one display to avoid
confusion or loss of harmony. Color is used to visualize an object realistically, or to vividly
differentiate it from some other objects.

If you think you cannot draw, then there are some other techniques to use:
a. Photographs and illustrations: Use photographs and illustrations from newspapers, company
advertisements, tin labels, etc. Cut them out and stick them on the poster. These pictures can be
outlined to make them clearer.

b. Tracing: Using thin paper, place it over the picture which you want to copy. You should be able to
see the picture through the paper. If you cannot see the picture through the paper, place both on the
window. The picture will show up more clearly because of the light shining through it.

c. Templates: Templates are shapes cut out of plywood or cardboard, around which the teacher draws
the outline. This will enable you to draw a quick and satisfactory drawing of an object which is
normally difficult to draw. Templates are only worth making if you will use them several times.

d. Enlarging: Draw equal sized squares over the picture you want to copy. Then, on a larger piece of
paper, draw the same number of squares, but with bigger spaces between the lines. Copy the drawing,
square by square.
7.4. Preservation Methods
When you have spent time, money and effort to develop media, you might want to keep them in such a
way that they can be re-used again and again. This holds true both for class room teachers, as well as for
field agents involved in facilitating field days for farmers.
Several methods are possible:
1. Mounting. A photo, picture or poster is 'stuck' onto a piece of card board or wood. The background
material should be of a primary color, and should not be more colorful than the picture itself. It will
distract the attention otherwise. Before you paste the picture onto the board, try out different layouts.
Do not make it too full. Usually, effective display requires certain harmony. This is achieved by
ensuring that the space on the left and right side of the picture is of equal size. The space below the
picture should be a bit larger - text can be written here.
2. Laminating. This involves covering the visual aid with clear plastic, in a similar way as is done with
ID cards. This method can be very useful for example, for a set of small cards with drawings (flash
cards) to facilitate PRA exercises in the rural community. The pictures will be touched by many
people, and therefore need to be both strong and easy to clean.

7.5. Pre-testing
Proof reading
This consists of checking the grammar and spelling and ensuring that nothing has been left out by the
typist. Proof reading must be done before finally printing or duplicating your leaflet.

Pre-testing audio-visual materials

There are two reasons why pre-testing is very important. The first is that you must know whether your
message is understood and accepted by your audience. The second reason is that production of audio-
visual aids is expensive, and if aids are produced which people do not understand, then money will have
been wasted. In addition, you will have lost credibility with your audience.

Pre-testing attempts to find out:

 if the message is attractive so that people will want to see or read it, and how it could be made more
attractive;
 whether the target audience understands or comprehends it and how it should be altered;
 Whether the target audience accepts the idea in the message, or the reasons why she/he does not
accept the idea.

Doing the pre-test:

1. Introduce yourself to the chosen sample of your audience. Explain that you would like to answer
some questions about the pictures you have. You must give the feeling that you are interested in their
views.
2. Ask about each part of the picture separately. Do not laugh if people give strange answers.
3. Do not ask leading question, e.g., "Is this a cow?" Instead ask "What do you think this is?" or "What
do you see in this picture?"
4. If someone replies vaguely, press for a more definite answer, e.g. what is this? An animal. What sort
of an animal do you think it is? A cow. Once you have a definite answer, even a wrong one, go on to
the next part.
5. Ask what people think the whole picture is trying to say (what in the message?), e.g., "What do you
think the whole picture is trying to tell you?" or "Is this picture trying to tell you anything?"
6. Record the answers on your response sheet.
7. Also, ask how much schooling your test audience has had. This will help you to decide if their
opinion is representative of the target audience.
8. Ask them if they have any suggestions for improving the visual aid. You will get some excellent
suggestions from some of your audience, and these are important, as merely to know that the picture
is unsatisfactory is not very helpful.

When testing:
 Divide the visual aid parts, testing each part separately. To do this you may need to hide parts of
the poster, or make separate drafts.
 Number each part you are going to test.
 Produce a response sheet for recording peoples comments (see below).

Name Approx. Age Sex Number of What does What does Suggestion
years of the picture the writing for
education show? show? improvement
CHAPTER EIGHT: NON-PROJECTED VISUALS

Non projected visuals include all aids which are seen, or can be used without the help of a projector. They do not
require electrical power. They are simple and direct, and can be prepared by you yourself quite easily. In addition,
they are generally relatively inexpensive and can be made from locally available materials.

Non projected aids can help to translate ideas into a more realistic format. For example, you can draw on a
flipchart the different stages in the lifecycle of an insect.
Caution remains necessary, as when using any aid:
 some visuals may require special attention, a cartoon is symbolic rather than a direct representation
 Does the audience indeed get the same idea as you meant them to get?
 Some visual aids are too small to use for large groups. You may have to use the method of circulation or
distribution. Or, you can decide to use a projected visual aid such as the overhead transparency.
Next, several non-projected visual aids will be introduced and discussed.

8.1. Posters
Posters help to focus attention on a particular message. They are commonly used in extension (agriculture, health,
education, social issues, etc). A principle of developing and using posters, displays and calendars, is that all
pictures, drawings and illustrations must be checked to make sure their message is clearly understood by the
intended target group. Posters can be divided in to 2 main categories: motivational and instructional
Motivational
 "behave like this- do this- this is good for you/ your family/ your land"
 This can be done by showing a comparison. For example to motivate people to practice family planning: a
large family with lots of kids who are thin and have old clothes and look unhappy and a family with 2-
children who are nicely dressed, carry school books in their hand the whole family looks happy. This
poster should already show-visual not verbally- some reference to a family planning method.
Instructional
This is the kind of poster that shows the step-by-step process of performing some task or activity. (E.g. steps in
building a pit latrine).

Important questions to answer in preparing posters

 Who is the target group?
 What are their characteristics?
 Can they read? Are they familiar with the topic you are showing?
 Do they already have a favorable attitude towards the innovation?
 Are they men or women or children or the elderly?
 Why do you want to reach with this message/poster?
 How will the poster reach the target group?
 Will it be introduced?
 Will it be explained?
 Where will it be posted?
 How understandable are the drawings/illustrations without any text?
 Who, among the target audience, can read?
  Who tests how the message of the poster is actually interpreted?
 Whom do they check with?
 Who can draft and draw the posters?
 How can the target group take part in the production of posters?
 What material is available locally?
 What printing methods allow the posters to be produced locally?
 What are the advantages of using a poster (compared to other media) for the particular situation?
 What other extension methods must be included in the planning?

When you design a poster

It is important to include the logo of your organization or project in the posters you are producing. This is
important because people can then identify the poster as belonging to a certain project. If you have several posters
(or other media such as flip-books, leaflets, and wall charts) people will be able to understand that they belong
together. The message will be more coherent.

Make the poster attractive. This can be done by using colors, and interesting pictures (drawings or photos). The
target group should feel that the poster is addressing them and their lives.
Steps in poster development
1. idea about a topic
2. research topic and target group
3. decide on objective of the medium (what message should it carry)
4. draft poster
5. pre-test on colleagues
6. pre-test on (part of) intended target group
7. revise poster
8. again pre-test on (part of) target group (not the same group as before)
9. revise poster
10. produce

8.2. Extension folders

What are extension folders?
 simple publications in extensions, education, and advertising
 single sheet of paper, folded in 1 or more places (creating 4, 6 or 8 panels)
 used to present (agricultural) information to farmers and other extension clientele

Characteristics of an effective extension folder

 simple language
 written in personal tone ('you' and 'we')
 brief and concise, using as few words as possible to convey the message clearly
 well illustrated
 simple and attractive design
 stimulates action
 Producing an extension folder
1. Identify audience: to enable you to present the information in the folder at the appropriate level
2. State the objectives of the folder clearly
3. prepare the design
 use an attractive design format
 give the folder a simple but catchy title. Examples "better Rice Farming
 use large type and bold print for the titles
 use an illustration on the cover that helps to carry your message
 use illustration in the inner panels where they relate to the text
 present information that will be of interest to the target group
4. Write the message simply and clearly
 use everyday language, active verbs, personal language such as 'you' and 'we', short sentences, few
words as possible
 make sure that steps, heading, processes or procedures follow a logical sequence (Number them if
appropriate)
 Summaries the main points, or end with a statement that will keep the issue in the mind of the target
group.
5. Edit the message for clarity
6. Provide illustrations to reinforce or facilitate transmission of the message
7. Provide a contact address at the end of the last panel form which further information can be obtained,
8. Include a logo of your organization or the project on the first panel of the folder (the front) so people
can link this folder to other distributed materials (e.g. poster).
9. Prepare a dummy copy
10. Fold the sheet into folders (panels) as designed
11. Pre-test the folder with several people who represent the intended target group (they should have similar
characteristics)
12. Revise the folder
13. Pre-test the folder with other representatives of the target group.
14. Revise again, if needed
15. Copy or print the folder.

8.3. Flipcharts
Flipcharts are a very simple and effective training media. They can be made and used in various ways and for
different sorts of training sessions or number of trainees. Flipcharts consist of a series of large paper sheets
fastened at the top end so that they can be flipped over each other. Sometimes these sheets are blank pages on
which instructional materials are written during the training. However, they can also be designed in advance and
be arranged sequentially to communicate a message.

While everyone seems to be interested in creating high-tech computer generated presentations, the flip chart still
continues to be the most effective presentation media of all. One should not assume that investing a lot of money
in high tech visual aids & equipment will "make" your presentation. The best visuals have been and still are the
simplest. Remember, the purpose of using visual aids is to enhance your presentation, not upstage it. Since most
presentations are delivered before small groups of 35 people or less, the flip chart is the perfect media.
Advantages of flipcharts:
 useful for instructions which involve sequential steps
 they complement, or provide a substitute for, projected media such as slides and overhead transparencies
 they are relatively cheap to produce (economical)
 they are easy to use
 suitable for formal and informal settings
 They facilitate presentations in an organized and logical manner because they are sequentially arranged
 they do not require projection equipment
 parts of the flipchart can be updated without changing the entire document
 they are easy to carry and store away

The limitations of flipcharts include:

 they are not particularly effective with large groups, as people cannot see what is being presented from a large
distance
 the paper is easily damaged

Tips to enhance the effectiveness of flip charts

1. The best flip chart stands have clamps at the top and will hold most type of flip chart pads. Most allow you to
hang your flip charts while some stands will only allow you to prop them up.
2. Flip chart pads are usually sold in packages of two and come either plain or with grid lines on them. Using
the pad with grid lines makes your job easier for drawing straight lines and keeps your text aligned. Also,
make sure the pad has perforations at the top to allow easier removal of sheets. I have seen many presenters
struggle to tear off a sheet evenly.
3. When preparing your charts, it is best to first design your charts on paper first before drawing them on the
actual flip chart pad.
4. Lightly write your text in pencil first before using the actual flip chart markers. This will allow you to make
any adjustments with text spacing and any figures you will be drawing. Do NOT use all block letters (UPPER
CASE). Using upper and lower case letters makes it easier to read. I like to use the 7 x 7 rule. Have no more
than 7 words on each line and no more than 7 lines to a sheet. Using a 6 x 6 rule is even better.
5. Use flip chart markers and not regular magic markers. Flip chart markers will not "bleed" through the paper.
Also, they do not have as strong a smell as regular markers. You can also find "scented" markers. They
usually come in various fruit scents.
6. Avoid using the colors yellow, pink, or orange. These are extremely difficult for the audience to see. Don't
make your audience have to strain their eyes to see your points. Avoid using too many colors. Using one dark
color and one accent color works best.
7. You can write "lightly in pencil" any notes next to key points you need. The audience won't be able to see
them. You may also write what is on the next sheet. Knowing this will allow you to properly introduce your
next sheet.
8. If you make any mistakes you can use "white out" to correct any small errors. For larger areas, cover the
mistake with a double layer of flip chart paper and correct the error.
9. Have a blank sheet of paper between each of your text sheets. This will prevent the written material from
other sheets to "peek" through.
10. Properly store and transport your flip charts in a case or the cardboard box that some come in. This will
protect your flip charts and keep them fresh and ready to use each time. Take great care of your flip charts.

Making "prepared" flip charts can take a considerable amount of time. Make sure you start preparing your charts
early enough so you can review them and make any changes or corrections beforehand. It takes practice to learn
how to print neatly. If you do not have neat printing, ask someone who does prepare them for you. A poorly
prepared flip chart can be very distracting. The most important point to remember in preparing your flip
charts is to start preparing them early.

8.4. Display
The words 'display' and 'bulletin board' are sometime used to indicate the same media. Indeed sometimes, they
are the same. A bulletin board is a type of display. However, a display can be many other things, and show both
printed and real objects and models. Displays are media that are often overlooked. When used well, they can be
very effective in training. They can be made for all kinds of visual and written subjects. They can be printed and
distributed widely, or they can be one only (e.g. product made by trainer or the trainees).
'To display' means: to show, place or spread out so that there is no difficulty in seeing. An extension agent may
display different seeds and varieties to effectively teach about the different morphologies. A display is used
intentional and deliberately.

Places for a display

All kinds of places can be used for a display; a wall, a table, the ground. The training room will often be the most
effective for display to support a particular training session. They can also be useful in meeting spaces or in the
work area where the training is implemented. The main point is to find a good, prominent place that is appropriate
for the context.

For example, you could produce a small display about a machine's basic controls. This can be either done by
showing the real object and its parts in a cupboard with a glass window (or on the table), or by producing a piece
of printed material that could be put up next to the machine to remind the operator of the vital comments.

It can be useful to equip the training room with display boards. These can be used to put up the displays and other
materials such as flipcharts easily. A soft wood or chip board such as; 'partex' can covered with cloth or it can be
painted. This will be soft enough to pin things up on easily. Having a board will avoid having glue or tape on the
walls, which will ruin the walls and also not hold up things very long.
If there is no, wall, there are many other ways of putting up a display. You can use a table, either in its normal
way (placing things on it) or by turning it on its side so that things can be taped onto the front. You can wind rope
or strings around trees and then clip the display to these ropes. This can be a very simple way of putting up
displays inside as well as outside.

Village displays
Poster as well as handouts can be displayed by the trainees on their return to the village. In this way the materials
and the training can reach a far wider audience than just the trainees. The display can help to pass the message and
new skills gained to the rest of the village, neighbors and families of the ex-trainees. Such displays for village-use
could be made by the trainees during the training. This could help them to act upon the message. If the village
people cannot read, the display will have to be visually strong and easily understood.
The trainees will have to be clear how to display the material in their village. Discuss with them how to tape, glue
or fix the display. Will it be used more than once or will it be kept for a long time? If necessary, distribute board
pins as well as the displays. Discuss where would be a good place to put up a display in the village. The villager
people cannot read, the display will have to be visually strong and easily understood.

How to develop a display

1. Decide upon an objective. Limit the display to one topic or objective. Presenting more than one main idea
usually results in confusion on part of the viewers
2. Generate a theme and incorporate it into a headline. It is a challenge to work out a catchy theme that will
enthuse the viewer to further examine the display.
3. Work out a rough layout
4. Gather the materials. Obtain or make the illustrations, photographs, or other revisal materials. Select
background materials, such as cloth, wrapping paper, aluminum foil, sand, etc, Lines on the display can be
made of string, wire or paper strips
5. Put, up the display. Setting up the display should be easy if all the previous steps were carried out. Step back
and appraise the display form a technical point of view.
6. Observe the reactions of the viewers to evaluate its instructional effectiveness

8.5. Chalk boards

The most common display surface in the classroom is, of course, the chalkboard. Once called black boards, they
like chalk, now come in a variety of colors.

Tips to effectively utilize chalkboard

 Put extensive drawing or writing in the board before class/the presentation
 Organize in advance what you plan to write on the board and where to write it.
 Cover materials such as text or extensive lesson materials with paper, newspaper, or a pull down/sliding
board, till you are ready to use it.
 Eye-contact with the target group is important. Face the audience when you race talking. Do not talk to
the board. Do not turn your back to the audience any more than absolutely necessary
 Vary your presentation techniques. Do not over use or entirely rely on the chalkboard.
 Use handouts, the overhead projector, flip charts and other media when appropriate
 Print the letters, rather than using script. For a room of 10 meters length, the letters should be 4
centimeters high. The lines forming the words should be 1/3 cm thick.
 Check the visibility of the board from several positions around the room, to make sure there is no glare on
the surface. In case of glare, move the board (if portable) or pull the curtains.
 Use color for emphasis, but do not overuse color. Two or three colors work best.
 Move around, so that you do not block what you have written on the board. Do not stand in front of what
you have just written
 Use drawing aids such as rulers and templates (patterns) to save time and improve the quality of your
drawings
 For frequently drawn shapes, use a template cut from wood or heavy cardboard. A knob mounted on the
template makes it easier to hold in position while tracing around it.
8.6. Real Objects
The best visual aid is the real object and this should be used whenever possible. The audience should be allowed
to see and feel the object, e.g. seeds, fertilizer, a piece of equipment, etc.

Specimens can be placed in bottles. This is particularly useful with pests and diseases, so that farmers and
extension agents can recognize them. Grasses and plant samples can be dried and pressed by putting them
between absorbent papers under a brick. After a few days they can be stuck onto a piece of cardboard, or be
placed on a display board.
Concrete objects are the instructional aids most closely associated with the experiences at the bottom of Dale's
Cone of Experience; direct purposeful experiences. As such, they are ideal media for introducing learners to a
new concept.

8.7. Models
Models are three dimensional representations of the real thing. A model may be larger, smaller, or the same size
as the object it represents. It may be complete in detail or simplified for instructional purpose.

Models can provide learning experiences that real things cannot. Important details can, for example, be accented
with color. Some models can be disassembled to provide interior views, not possible with the real thing. Models
are useful when describing things which are difficult to bring into the trainings room as real objects. This can be
because the real object is too large, too small to be seen effectively, potentially dangerous, or hard to get. E.g. a
model of a building such as a dairy parlor, a model of the planetary system, a model of a cow's stomach, etc.

Models can take a lot of time to make by you. They are more often used in exhibitions. The scale of the model
should be shown, and you must make sure that things which are small in reality are not shown too large on the
model. If they are out or proportion, they might not be recognized.

Models and real objects are the recommended media when realism is essential for learning with concepts that
involve three dimensions; tasks that require identification by size, shape, color, and hands on or laboratory
practice.

When considering students learning styles, teachers often give models and real objects a high priority. Most
learners, including adults, when given a choice express a preference for hands on experiences rather than a
passive listening. 'Please touch' is a welcome invitation.

8.8. Photographs (Pictures, Slides and Digital Images)

The use of photographs in training is popular because they fulfill several important functions:
 They are used to illustrate objects
 They make publications interesting and attractive
 They can be enlarged to show detail of what otherwise cannot be seen clearly

Characteristics of good photographs

 The picture is correctly exposed (not to dark and not too light)
 the picture is sharply focused and clear
 The picture conveys a message
  There is balance in the picture (the picture elements are arrange in an appealing way)
 the main element of interest should reflect the subject of instruction
 The picture is free of unnecessary distractions

Producing photographs
There are four stages in the production of good photographs. These are; selecting the camera, selecting the film,
taking the photographs and processing the film.

Stage 1: Selecting the camera

A camera is a closed back box with a lens opening (aperture) through which light enters to expose a light sensitive
film. The amount of light can be regulated by varying the aperture or regulating the length of time during which
light is allowed to reach the film (exposure or shutter speed)
Cameras range from simple, automatic to complex, and adjustable. The choice of camera usually depends on:
 the purpose of the pictures to be taken
 the user's experience with cameras
 cost

If you are a beginner, choose a good automatic camera. If you acquire some experience and can afford it, you
should obtain a good camera, which allows you to adjust the settings. Cameras may also be classified according to
their viewing systems
 The twin lens reflex system has two lenses, one directly above the other. The top lens is for viewing while the
lower lens is for taking the photographs. The viewfinder uses a system build into the top of the camera to
compose pictures. It is good for taking pictures of sconces and people, but is less reliable for extreme close-
ups.
 The single lens reflex system allows you to views the image directly through the camera lens.

Stage 2: Selecting the film

Select an appropriate film, depending on whether you want prints or slides, color or black and white pictures.
Color print film gives negatives, from which prints (positives) are made. Slide films give positives, which are
placed in a card board or plastic frame. Black and white film produces grey negatives from which black and white
prints are made.

Film selection must also take account of film speed. Film speed describes the rate at which the film reacts to light
(its sensitivity). These speeds are given as an ISO or DIN number. ISO (International Standards Organization) is
used mainly in America. DIN (Deutsche Industries Norm) is used mainly in Europe. The higher the number: the
faster the speed. If you wish to take picture without a flash under conditions of low light, select a fast film (400
ISO or more). Pictures taken under conditions of very bright light require slow films (e.g. 100 or 200 ISO).

Stage 3: Taking picture

Before taking pictures, it is important to understand some of the basic principles of photography that affect the
quality of photographs. These principles relate to aperture, exposure, depth of field and light source.

The aperture (opening or hole) of cameras is known as f-stops, and is usually stated as 1,4,2,2,8,4,5,6,8,11,16,
and 22 on the lens body of a camera. The smaller the number; the larger the aperture; and the larger the number,
the smaller the aperture. The smaller the aperture, the less light reaches the film, and vice versa. So, for example,
if you are taking picture under poor lighting conditions, you need to select small f-stops, which give large
apertures.

The exposure (shutter speed) refers to the length of time light allowed to reach the film. If too much light is
allowed, you will get over exposed pictures (too light). If too little light is allowed, you will get under exposed
pictures (too dark). The shutter controls the light reaching the film. When the shutter is closed no light reaches the
film. If may be opened to allow light to reach the film at different speeds. These speeds are marked in fractions of
a second. Thus 15 mean 1/15 of a second and 250 means 1/250 of a second.

Depth of fields describes the distance (or area) between the nearest and farthest objects in focus of a picture.
When an object is focused, some other objects in front of and behind the object may also be in focus. Depth of
field is affected by the distance of the camera from the object, and the size of lens opening. For example, to obtain
great depths of field, you can stand further from the object and use small lens openings (about f-2.8). To obtain
small depth of field, stand close to the object and use a large f-stop.

The light source can affect the quality of photographs, especially color photographs. Black and white film can be
used under any sort of lighting without adverse effect on the picture quality. Color film is available for 2 different
light sources, day light and artificial light. If day light film is used in artificial light, on overall orange appearance
occurs on the slides. If an artificial light film is used in daylight, the slides will have a blue appearance. These can
be modified by using correction filters.

Stage 4: Processing
Processing is the operation of developing films into photographs. Commercial laboratories exist to do this, but the
choice of a laboratory should be based on reputation for delivery of good quality products. You should add clear
specifications such as size and number of prints required

Film that has been exposed should be processed as early as possible. Once film has been exposed, it undergoes
chemical changes and gives poor results if it is processed after a long period. This is particularly true of color
film. If film cannot be processed immediately, it should be placed in an airtight container and stored in a
refrigerator. This will slow down the chemical changes

Digital cameras
Characteristics
A digital camera transfers the image it captures to a digital memory card, unlike traditional camera where the
image is places on a chemical photosynthesis film.

Advantages
 Images do not have to be processed like film; the photo taken can be viewed immediately at the back of the
camera
 The camera can be hooked up to a computer or a televising for viewing the photographs taken
 Photographs can be loaded and stored in a computer and subsequently edited by special computer software
 Photographs can be imported in all computer produced media (sideshows, texts, worksheets, e-mail
 The memory card (used to store the photographs) can be emptied by deletion the photographs and be used
repeatedly.

Disadvantages
 the availability of a computer is required to store, edit or print images
 To obtain a good quality print, one needs a quality printer and special (expensive) paper.
 the size of the image is usually limited when printed in high quality
 Color prints made by an inkjet-print usually fade ultimately when exposed to day ling
 the price of the camera is rather high
 Because of the relative low resolution, editors of magazines or books usually refuse image.

Photography in practice
How to define good photographs?
A good photograph only shows what the intention of the photographer was when she or he took the photograph.
In other words, show what you want to show in the photograph and leave out everything not relevant for our aim
with the photograph.

It is important to realize that while one is taking a photograph one is tempted to just aim at the subject and
subsequently take the photograph. The human eye with the brains attached to it is far superior to a camera. One is
also able to select its vision. A camera however, is a very neutral device, which does not record the subject in
your mind, but everything visible in the viewfinder.

How to achieve this?

Very often in photography, one is dealing with a subject (a plant, a person, a situation, etc) and its background. If
the background is not important, then make sure it does not draw attention
 Make sure your subject appears large/dominant on the photograph. Close in on your subject, so that the
viewfinder of the camera is filled with your subject.
 Be sure the background is out focus, by focusing on the subject and making sure that there is a large distance
between the subject and the background. With this particular camera is only works when you are tier very
close to your subject (less than one meter) or the available light is weak.
 Choose an angle by walking around your subject and select an angle from which the photograph is to be
taken, so that any irrelevant from the back ground will not be included in the photograph.
 Choose for a neutral background without many colors. Be aware that especially red draws a too of attention.
 Try to get the background underexposed, either by using a flash (the enlightened for ground with our subject
will receive more light) or by placing the subject in the sun while the background is in the shade.
CHAPTER NINE: PROJECTED VISUALS

9.1. Introduction to Projected Visuals

Projection equipment is different kinds of mechanical devices that can be used to project visuals. They are
important bridges that enable us to bring a wealth of visual materials of many types into the experience of an
audience.

With a general knowledge about projection equipment, one can make needed adjustments and minor repairs
which will often yield greatly improved feature on the screen. Hence, knowledge of the following principles of
projection equipment is essential to all who try to improve the teaching- learning or any communication situation.
All projectors operate on similar fundamental principles.
Example, each has:
1. a light source (lamp)
2. a cooling system (fan)
3. a lens system (optics)
4. a surface on which images are projected (screen)
5. holder of material to be projected (reel of cartridge)
6. Materials carrying the image to be projected (opaque or transparent materials).
7. A case to contain and support component elements as a unit and accommodate controls and accessories
(box).

For better understanding projection equipment can be classified according to their projection system:
1. Direct projection system
2. Indirect projection system
3. Reflected projection system

The difference between these projection systems is the method by which light is directed from the source through,
or reflected from, the object to the screen.

9.2. Direct Projection System

This is the most commonly used system. By this method, the light passed directly from the projector through the
condense lenses to the screen. For instance slide projectors and film strip projectors.

Slide Projector: A slide is a small piece of transparent material on which a single pictorial image or scene or
graphic image has been photographed or reproduced otherwise. Slides are small individually framed photographic
positives, which are projected on to a screen as visual aids. They may be used alone, or in combination with
spoken script or documentary tape.

Slides can be made from photographs and pictures by teachers and pupils taking photographs and snapshots when
they go on fieldtrips for historical, geographical, literacy or scientific excursions. The arrangement of slides in
proper sequence, according to the topic discussed, is an important aspect of teaching with them.

Advantages:
o Requires only filming, processing and mounting by self or laboratory.
o Results in colorful, realistic, reproduction original subject.
o Easy to revise and up-date.
o Easily handled, stored and re-arranged for various uses.
o Can be combined with tape narration or can control time for discussion.
o May be adapted to group or individual use

Film Strips Projectors: Filmstrips are sequence of transparent still pictures with individual frames on 35mm
film. A tap-recorded narration can be synchronized with filmstrip. Each strip contains from 12 to 18 or more
pictures.

Principles
a. Preview filmstrips before using them and selected carefully to meet the needs of the topic to be taught.
b. Show again any part of the filmstrip needing more specific study.
c. Use filmstrip to stimulate emotions, build attitudes and to point up problems.
d. It should be introduced appropriately and its relationship to the topic of the study brought out.
e. Use a pointer to direct attention, to specific details on the screen.

Advantages:
1. Are compact, easily handled and always in proper sequence.
2. Can be supplemented with recordings.
3. Are inexpensive when quantity reproduction is required.
4. Are useful for group or individual study at projection rate are controlled by instructor or user.
5. Are projected with simple light weight equipment.

9.3. Indirect Projection System

In this system light passes indirectly from the projector lamp through the condenser lenses on to a mirror,
reflected light from the mirror passes through the frenzel lens(converges the lights). The converged light passes
through the objective lens and on to the screen. An example is overhead transparency projector with an indirect
light source and using mirror.

Over Head Transparencies (OHT) and Over Head Projector (OHP): Over Head Projector projects
transparencies with brilliant screen images suitable for use in a lighted room. The teacher can write or draw
diagrams on the transparency while he/she teaches; these are projected simultaneously on the screen by the OHP.

A transparency is a single plastic sheet where by picture or illustrations can be projected over the head of the
presenter. Overhead transparencies can be stored for future lesson. They are simple and easy to prepare and easy
to operate with the overhead projector which is light weight. A sheet with printed, written or drawn material is
placed on the platform of the projector and a large image is projected on a screen behind you. The projector is
used from near to the front of the room with the teacher standing or sitting beside, facing the student.

Guidelines for making effective transparencies:

 Have one main idea an each transparency.
 Include only related figures and diagrams.
 Use simple lettering style in writing.
 Use diagrams in proposition to its lettering.
 Keep the message clear and simple.
 Emphasize the key messages.

Advantages:
 Permits face to face interaction with the students.
 Can be used in daylight conditions.
 Can present information in systemic developmental sequences.
 Requires limited planning and can be prepared in variety of inexpensive methods.
 Easily available.

9.4. Reflection Projection System

It is only found in the opaque projector. Opaque materials such as pictures, book pages, objects and other types of
flat or semi flat objects can be projected by reflected method.

The Opaque Projector: Opaque projector is the only projector on which you can project a variety of materials.
For example, book pages, objects, coins, postcards, plant leaves, insect specimens or any other similar flat
material that is non-transparent. It is method of enlarging and displaying non-transparent materials (small three
dimensional objects) on a screen. The opaque projector will project and simultaneously enlarge, directly from the
originals, printed matter, all kinds of written or pictorial matter in any sequence derived by the teacher. It requires
a dark room, as projector is large and not reality movables.

Advantages:
 Stimulates attention and arouses interest.
 Can project a wide range of materials like stamps, coins, specimen, when one copy is available.
 Can be used for enlarging drawings, pictures and maps.
 Does not require any written or typed materials, hand-written material can be used.
 Helps students to retain knowledge for longer period.
 Review instructional problems.
 Test knowledge and ability.
 Simple operation.

Disadvantages:
 Costly equipment
 Needs to use it with care
 Needs a dark room for projection

9.5. PowerPoint
PowerPoint presentations can be an extremely useful visual aid, especially for longer presentations. For longer
presentations, however, Power Points can be a great way to keep the audience engaged and keep the speaker on
track. A potential drawback of using a PowerPoint is that it usually takes a lot of time and energy to put together.
There is also the possibility of a computer malfunction, which can mess up the flow of a presentation.
The following gives you a quick overview of what you can do in PowerPoint:
 When you create a presentation using PowerPoint, the presentation is made up of a series of slide.
 In addition to slides, you can print audience handouts, outlines, and speaker's notes.
 You can format all the slides in a presentation using the powerful Slide Master.
 You can keep your entire presentation in a single file- all your slides, speaker's notes, and audience handouts.
 You can import what you have created in other Microsoft products, such as Word and Excel into any of your
slides.

The Key to Creating an Effective Presentation

What does it take to create an effective presentation? Is it the beautiful colors and pictures? Is it the animations
and transitions? "No", you say. "It is the content".

Planning is probably the most important step in creating a successful presentation of any kind. Planning helps
you decide on the content and the order in which the information will be presented. Whether you are using
PowerPoint, Open Office Impress or any other presentation software, use the following steps as a guide in
planning the presentation.

1. Determine the Purpose of the Presentation

 Is this presentation about a product for a client?
 Is it a business presentation about the latest sales figures?
 Is it about a new idea you are introducing?

2. Determine the Presentation’s Audience:

 your staff
 a new prospective client
 a group of small children
 a convention for people in the same line of work -- for example; a group of dentists
3. Gather Your Information
 Remember the KISS principle (Keep It Silly & Simple) when designing your presentation.
 Know everything about the topic so you are ready for questions after the presentation.
4. Sketch Out the Slides on Paper
 Make sure the slides emphasize the main points to be made in the presentation.
 Try to have only one main idea on each slide.
 List no more than four points per slide.
5. Determine the Order Of Your Slides
 Although this can be changed later, having an idea of the order of your topic points will help you plan
the order of your slides.
6. Create the Presentation
 When creating the slides, be consistent in your choice of background colors, fonts, transitions, and
animations.
7. Limit the Number of Slides
 Too many slides in a presentation will cause you to be rushing to get through them, and your audience
might end up paying more attention to the changing slide than to what you are saying. On average, one
slide per minute is about right in a classroom presentation.
8. Layout of Your Slide is Important
 Make your slides easy to follow. Put the title at the top where your audience expects to find it. Phrases
should read left to right and top to bottom. Keep important information near the top of the slide. Often the
bottom portions of slides cannot be seen from the back rows because heads are in the way.
9. Avoid Fancy Fonts
 Choose a font that is simple and easy to read such as Arial, Times New Roman or Verdana. You may
have a cool font on your computer, but save it for other uses. Do not use more than two different fonts –
one for headings and another for content. Keep all fonts large enough (at least 18 pt and preferably 24 pt)
so that people at the back of the room will be able to read them easily.

10. Use Animations and Transitions Sparingly in Classroom Presentations

 Let's face it. Students love to apply animations and transition every place they can. This will certainly be
entertaining, but rarely will the audience be paying attention to the message of the presentation. Apply
animations to graphics to make a point, not to entertain. Using preset animation schemes will apply action
to titles and bullet points, keeping the slide show consistent and interesting. Remember, the slide show is
a visual aid and not the objective of the classroom presentation.
CHAPTER TEN: AUDIO MATERIALS

Audio materials are widely available and are relatively cheap. They are widely used in transmitting information.
Audio materials provide a sense of immediacy. Radio shows, dramatizations, and concerts capture the attention of
people.

10.1. Video excerpts

A video can be a great visual aid and attention grabber, however, a video is not a replacement for an actual
speech. There are several potential drawbacks to playing a video during a speech or lecture. First, if a video is
playing that includes audio; the speaker will not be able to talk. Also, if the video is very exciting and interesting,
it can make what the speaker is saying appear boring and uninteresting. The key to showing a video during a
presentation is to make sure to transition smoothly into the video and to only show very short clips.

10.2. Tape Recorder

A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce, erase and re-record sound on a magnetic tape.
This device can be used without much fuss by anybody by operating the following press buttons attached to the
recorder, viz, stop, play, wind, rewind, record, pause, and eject. It is used to learn foreign languages, rhymes, and
songs with clarity.

Recordings eliminate the scheduling problem of radio and provide more opportunity for two- way
communication. They can be reheard, edited and valuated. Appropriate ideas for a particular audience can be
chosen and recorded; and can be used anytime convenient to the audience. Thus, they are invaluable in the
transmission of ideas or information required by an audience.

10.3. Radio
Radio is a particularly useful mass medium for extension. Information can reach households directly and instantly
throughout a region or country. Urgent news or warnings can be communicated far more quickly than through
posters, extension agents or newspapers. Radio is one of the best media for spreading awareness of new ideas to
large numbers of people and can be used to publicize extension activities. It can also enable one community or
group to share its experiences with others. Radio, like television, can apply live and recorded broadcasts.
Advantages of radio
a. It is inexpensive compared to films and television
b. Can reach wide range of population at one time. Radio helps to overcome time and space limitations.
c. Up-to-datedness and immediacy. Radio can bring fresh information from all over the world and bring
people in action.
d. Can reach those who cannot read (too young or illiterate people)
e. Audio can present verbal messages more dramatically than print can
Limitations of radio
a. It is one way communication
b. It needs concentrated attention
c. Timing of the broadcast may not be the appropriate time of the audience to listen.
d. No possibility for repetition (cannot be re-used) unless recorded on tapes.