MODULE 1: Metacognition.

Activity 1: Explain the meaning of metacognition.

Numerous definitions and models of metacognition exist in the literature (Gascoine, Higgins, &
Wall, 2017; Panadero, 2017). For example, cognitive psychologists often define and study
metacognition in the context of executive functions. For example, executive functions play an
important role in promoting metacognition in learning, including the ability to sustain attention
and switch focus from one task to another (cognitive flexibility), the ability to retain and recall
information (working memory), and the ability to recognize and control impulses that distract
from the learning process (inhibitory control; Center on the Developing Child, 2020; Howard &
Vasseleu, 2020). Though executive functions relate to metacognition, it is beyond the scope of
this policy paper to cover that important topic, fully. Instead, we focus on the role of
metacognition within the self-regulated learning process, a concept that has been studied
extensively in primary and secondary education. In education, metacognition is most often
studied in the context of self-regulated learning, a common skill among high achieving students
(Karlen, 2016). When applied to the learning process, self-regulation entails developing a plan
to achieve a task-specific goal, monitoring and controlling one’s ongoing performance, and self-
reflection (Panadero, 2017). Self-regulated learning is an overarching construct that takes into
consideration the influence of environmental factors and is comprised of several psychological
concepts, such as motivation, emotion, and metacognition. Metacognition—broadly defined as
purposeful thinking about thinking—has been described as “the gateway to self-regulating
one’s learning” (Winne & Perry, 2000, p. 540). It is an increasingly useful mechanism to
enhance student learning, both for immediate outcomes and for helping students to
understand their own learning processes. So metacognition is a broad concept that refers to
the knowledge and thought processes regarding one’s own learning. Importantly, there is
research evidence (e.g., Moely and colleagues, 1995; Schraw, 1998) that metacognition is a
teachable skill that is central to other skills sets such as problem solving, decision making, and
critical thinking. Reflective thinking, as a component of metacognition, is the ability to reflect
critically on learning experiences and processes in order to inform future progress.
Activity 2. Explore creative learning task using prior knowledge and Metacognition (Triple Venn Diagram)

The Role of Metacognition in Self-Regulated Learning

Activity 3: Apply the Metacognitive strategies in ones own quest for learning.

Metacognitive strategies can greatly enhance learning for all students in all subject areas.
Teachers can implement metacognitive strategies to assist students to become self-regulating
learners and to develop a strong sense of agency in their learning. Meta-cognitive strategies
empower students to think about their own thinking. This awareness of the learning process
enhances their control over their own learning. It also enhances personal capacity for self-
regulation and managing one's own motivation for learning. Meta-cognitive activities can
include planning how to approach learning tasks, identifying appropriate strategies to complete
a task, evaluating progress, and monitoring comprehension.

Students who have the opportunity to exercise voice, agency and leadership in designing,
developing and assessing their own learning have a greater chance of becoming resilient and
independent learners.

Teachers co-design learning opportunities for students to exercise authentic agency in their
own learning when they:

 Assist students to take ownership of their learning by identifying strategies that support
them to attain learning goals
 Assist students to become increasingly self-directed over time, and to gain confidence in
their ability to complete learning tasks
 Provide opportunities to reflect on the effectiveness of their learning and plan for future
development
 Enable students to negotiate assessment methods and criteria matched to their learning
goals.
As part of everyday teaching, some of the most common strategies used to embed metacognitive
strategies are: Explicit Learning, Supporting students to plan, monitor, and evaluate their
work/learning, Developing rubrics (and wherever possible co-designing them with students),
Modelling of thinking, and Questioning.
Activity 4: Advocate for the use of the 14 principles in the teaching learning process (make a mini Poster
about LCP)

LEARNER-CENTERED PRINCIPLES

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

DEEPER LEARNING

TEACHING PRACTISES

DESIGN IMPLICATIONS

TEACHNOLOGY USES
Module 2: Developmental theories

Activity 1: Distinguishing the various dimension of learning using the developmental theories (Oral
Presentation)

Several ideas and priorities, then, affect how we teachers think about learning, including the curriculum,
the difference between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and transfer. The ideas form a
“screen” through which to understand and evaluate whatever psychology has to offer education. As it
turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas from educational psychology do make it through the
“screen” of education, meaning that they are consistent with the professional priorities of teachers and
helpful in solving important problems of classroom teaching. In the case of issues about classroom
learning, for example, educational psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that
are relevant to classrooms, in that they describe at least some of what usually happens there and offer
guidance for assisting learning. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they focus on
changes in behavior or in thinking. The distinction is rough and inexact, but a good place to begin. For
starters, therefore, consider two perspectives about learning, called behaviorism (learning as changes in
overt behavior) and constructivism, (learning as changes in thinking). The second category can be
further divided into psychological constructivism (changes in thinking resulting from individual
experiences), and social constructivism, (changes in thinking due to assistance from others).
According to UNESCO Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes, behaviour and world views. Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how this
process takes place. The scientific study of learning started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century.
The major concepts and theories of learning include behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology,
constructivism, social constructivism, experiential learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning
theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in early
20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to
the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between stimuli from the environment
and observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists are interested in measurable changes in
behaviour. Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward that (1) a response to a stimulus is
reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a stimulus becomes
stronger by exercise and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the “drill-and-practice” programmes.
Skinner, another influential behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called “operant
conditioning”. In his view, rewarding the right parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and
encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforcers control the occurrence of the desired partial
behaviours. Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended
partial behaviours through the use of reward and punishment. The best known application of Skinner’s
theory is “programmed instruction” whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviours to be learned
is specified by elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late 1950s, and contributed to the move away from
behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as collections of responses to external stimuli, as
understood by behaviourists, but information processors. Cognitive psychology paid attention to
complex mental phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was influenced by the emergence of the
computer as an information-processing device, which became analogous to the human mind. In
cognitive psychology, learning is understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an
information-processor who absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in
memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its
most extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive
recipients of information, but that they actively construct their knowledge in interaction with the
environment and through the reorganization of their mental structures. Learners are therefore viewed
as sense-makers, not simply recording given information but interpreting it. This view of learning led to
the shift from the “knowledge-acquisition” to “knowledge-construction” metaphor. The growing
evidence in support of the constructive nature of learning was also in line with and backed by the earlier
work of influential theorists such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are different versions of
constructivism, what is found in common is the learner-centred approach whereby the teacher becomes
a cognitive guide of learner’s learning and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both
cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of
learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through
concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal
determininsm” that holds the view that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all
reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from
“model” behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the
perspective of “situated cognition and learning” that emphasized the significant role of context,
particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to
cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and
ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The
essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning
as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it.
Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In
the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a
situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in
which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as “participation” and
“social negotiation”.
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories of learning, but situate
experience at the core of the learning process. They aim to understand the manners in which
experiences – whether first or second hand – motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore,
learning is about meaningful experiences – in everyday life – that lead to a change in an individual’s
knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting that
experiential learning is “self-initiated learning” as people have a natural inclination to learn; and that
they learn when they are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following insight:
(1) “learning can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person directly”, (2) “learners become
more rigid under threat”, (3) “significant learning occurs in an environment where threat to the learner
is reduced to a minimum”, (4) “learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-initiated” (Office
of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9). He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change where new
learning results in and affects learning environments. This dynamic process of change is often
considered in literatures on organizational learning.
 
Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the learning theories that learning is a universal human process
that all individuals experience according to the same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory
of ‘multiple intelligences’ in 1983. His theory also challenges the understanding of intelligence as
dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues that every person’s level of intelligence actually
consists of many distinct “intelligences”. These intelligences include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2)
linguistic, (3) spatial, (4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and (7) intrapersonal. Although
his work is speculative, his theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their conceptual framework
beyond the traditional confines of skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of multiple
intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to achieving educational goals rather than an educational goal in
and of itself.
 
Situated learning theory and community of practice
“Situated learning theory” and “community of practice” draw many of the ideas of the learning theories
considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory
recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated, and emphasizes the relational and negotiated
character of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals
involved. According to the theory, it is within communities that learning occurs most effectively.
Interactions taking place within a community of practice – e.g. cooperation, problem solving, building
trust, understanding and relations – have the potential to foster community social capital that enhances
the community members’ wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is most
effective when it takes place in communities. He argues that academic and social outcomes will improve
only when classrooms become learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-centered.
Communities of practice are of course not confined to schools but cover other settings such as
workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has emerged from the concern about transforming the
goals and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands of the 21st century, which is characterized
as knowledge- and technologically driven. The current discussion about 21st century skills leads
classrooms and other learning environments to encourage the development of core subject knowledge
as well as new media literacies, critical and systems thinking, interpersonal and self-directional skills. For
example, the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the following as key: core subjects (e.g.
English, math, geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes (global awareness, civic literacy,
health literacy, environmental literacy, financial, business and entrepreneurial literacy); learning and
innovation skills (creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem solving, communication and
collaboration); information, media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media literacy); and life and
career skills (flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills,
productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility). One main learning method that supports
the learning of such skills and knowledge is group learning or thematic projects, which involves an
inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-world issues and questions.
Activity 2. Understand Principles and how it is applied to a certain task (Reflection)

Teacher can post problems or homework online (create an active learning environment) to be submitted
prior to a traditional or online class session (help students manage their time.) The answers can be
derived from reading course materials and studying narrated PowerPoint slides (focus attention and
connect knowledge.) During a virtual classroom session the teacher can call on various students to give
their answers (enhance motivation to learn.) Immediate feedback (provide timely feedback and faculty-
student interaction) can be given. If correction is needed, a private message asking "are you in need of
additional help" can be sent to the student (balance high expectations with necessary support.) The
instructor could ask the student to explain how the answer was derived (connect knowledge.) Further,
the teacher could pose a question to all students, such as "Why is the information relevant?" (help
students organize their knowledge.) In order for students to gain knowledge from the presentation of
information, they should actively participate in their learning. According to (Lubawy, 2003) "Active
learning provides opportunities for students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach
course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role
playing, in-class questions and other activities, all of which require students to apply what they are
learning and/or think about what they are learning as they are learning"
Module 3: Student Diversity
Activity 1: Identify the different factors that bring about
diversity in the classroom.
Diversity is everything that makes people different from each other. This includes many
different factors: race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic status, ability, age,
religious belief, or political conviction. All these factors work together to inform how students
(and teachers, and everyone else) encounter the world.
The University of Rhode Island defines diversity in the classroom as “understanding each
student brings unique experiences, strengths, and ideas to our classroom … Diversity is the
exploration and incorporation of these differences to enrich learning in our classroom.’’
Diversity in the classroom helps students develop social awareness which helps them
appreciate different perspectives and draw stronger conclusions. Challenging students to
consider different perspectives can also teach them how to interact with their peers on a social
level, and equip them with skills they’ll use for the rest of their life. Diversity in the classroom
doesn’t just improve social skills, it can also have an impact on academic results. It improves
critical thinking skills and encourages academic confidence. It helps students feel represented
and included.
According to OISE professor Ann Lopez, diversity can “disrupt narratives and stereotypes in the
classroom that position diverse people as lacking invaluable knowledge or unqualified.”

Activity 2: Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity 

as an enriching element in the learning environment,

Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.

Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves
to help students focus on their awareness of themselves.

Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.

When they see how others are different, students are given reference point or
comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes,
values and behaviors.
Student diversity contributes to cognitive development
The opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from
other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially important for
promoting the cognitive development of learners.

Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

The classroom is peculiarly the marketplace of ideas. (William J. Brennan)

Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

The depth and breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others
from diverse backgrounds.

Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

Student diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied
approaches to the learning process.

Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different
eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this
thing, our objectivity be. (Nietzsche)

Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of

society.
One competency that has strong implications for instructional strategies that
capitalize on diversity: The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all
perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity. (Suzanne Morse)

Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of

society.
The classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a
lecture. (Suzanne Morse)

Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of

society.
With student diversity, the classroom becomes a public place where community
can be practiced.

Student diversity can promote harmony.

When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning
process, it can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations.

Student diversity can promote harmony.

Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be
encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on learning tasks that
emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of backgrounds.

Activity 3: Plan activities that match learners ‘learning/

thinking styles and multiple intelligences.
Start with this checklist. Use it to refresh your memory on each of the intelligences and
pinpoint learning activities that will appeal to your students based on their particular
strengths. To involve students in identifying their multiple intelligences.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

Description: Verbal-linguistic students love words and use them as a primary way of thinking and
solving problems. They are good writers, speakers, or both. They use words to persuade, argue,
entertain, and/or teach.
Learning Activities and Project Ideas

 Completing crossword puzzles with vocabulary words

 Playing games like Scrabble, Scrabble Junior, or Boggle
 Writing short stories for a classroom newsletter
 Writing feature articles for the school newspaper
 Writing a letter to the editor in response to articles
 Writing to state representatives about local issues
 Using digital resources such as electronic libraries, desktop publishing, word games, and
word processing
 Creating poems for a class poetry book
 Entering their original poems in a poetry contest
 Listening to a storyteller
 Studying the habits of good speakers
 Telling a story to the class
 Participating in debates
Activity 4: Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners.
The Education Act identifies five categories of exceptionalities for exceptional students:
• behavioural,
• communicational,
• intellectual,
• physical, and
• multiple.
These broad categories are designed to address the wide range of conditions that may affect a
student’s ability to learn, and are meant to be inclusive of all medical conditions, whether
diagnosed or not, that can lead to particular types of learning difficulties.
The five categories are a useful tool for the identification of students with special education
needs.
However, a student may present learning needs in many ways in the school setting and may be
identified as exceptional within one or more of the categories. The determining factor for the
provision of special education programs or services is not any specific diagnosed or
undiagnosed
medical condition, but rather the need of the individual student based on an individual
assessment of strengths and needs. The definitions accepted by the Ministry of Education for
the five categories of exceptionalities and their subcategories are provided in the chart below.
Note that the ministry’s definition of the term learning disability was revised, in Policy/Program
Memorandum No. 8, “Identification of and Program Planning for Students with Learning
Disabilities” (2014); the new definition is provided below.

Categories and Definitions of Exceptionalities

BEHAVIOURAL
• Behavioural Exceptionality: A learning disorder characterized by specific behaviour problems
over such a period of time, and to such a marked degree, and of such a nature, as to adversely
affect educational performance and that may be accompanied by one or more of the following:
a. an inability to build or to maintain interpersonal relationships;
b. excessive fears or anxieties;
c. a tendency to compulsive reaction;
d. an inability to learn that cannot be traced to intellectual, sensory, or other health
factors, or any combination thereof.
COMMUNICATIONAL
• Autism: A severe learning disorder that is characterized by:
a. disturbances in: rate of educational development; ability to relate to the environment;
mobility; perception, speech, and language;
b. lack of the representational symbolic behaviour that precedes language.
Updated
• Deaf and Hard of Hearing: An impairment characterized by deficits in language and speech
development because of a diminished or non-existent auditory response to sound.
• Language Impairment: A learning disorder characterized by an impairment in comprehension
and/or the use of verbal communication or the written or other symbol system of
communication,
which may be associated with neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors, and
which
may:
a. involve one or more of the form, content, and function of language in communication;
and
b. include one or more of: language delay; dysfluency; voice and articulation development,
which may or may not be organically or functionally based.
• Speech Impairment: A disorder in language formulation that may be associated with
neurological, psychological, physical, or sensory factors; that involves perceptual motor aspects
of transmitting oral messages; and that may be characterized by impairment in articulation,
rhythm, and stress.
• Learning Disability: One of a number of neurodevelopmental disorders that persistently and
significantly has an impact on the ability to learn and use academic and other skills and that:
a. affects the ability to perceive or process verbal or non-verbal information in an
effective and accurate manner in students who have assessed intellectual abilities that
are at least in the average range;
b. results in (a) academic underachievement that is inconsistent with the intellectual
abilities of the student (which are at least in the average range), and/or (b) academic
achievement that can be maintained by the student only with extremely high levels of
effort and/or with additional support;
c. results in difficulties in the development and use of skills in one or more of the
following areas: reading, writing, mathematics, and work habits and learning skills;
d. may typically be associated with difficulties in one or more cognitive processes, such
as phonological processing; memory and attention; processing speed; perceptual
motor processing; visual-spatial processing; executive functions (e.g., self-regulation of
behaviour and emotions, planning, organizing of thoughts and activities, prioritizing,
decision making);
e. may be associated with difficulties in social interaction (e.g., difficulty in understanding
social norms or the point of view of others); with various other conditions or disorders,
diagnosed or undiagnosed; or with other exceptionalities;
f. is not the result of a lack of acuity in hearing and/or vision that has not been
corrected; intellectual disabilities; socio-economic factors; cultural differences; lack of
proficiency in the language of instruction; lack of motivation or effort; gaps in school
attendance or inadequate opportunity to benefit from instruction.

INTELLECTUAL
• Giftedness: An unusually advanced degree of general intellectual ability that requires
differentiated learning experiences of a depth and breadth beyond those normally provided in
the
regular school program to satisfy the level of educational potential indicated.
• Mild Intellectual Disability: A learning disorder characterized by:
a. an ability to profit educationally within a regular class with the aid of considerable
curriculum modification and support services;
b. an inability to profit educationally within a regular class because of slow intellectual
development;
c. a potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment, and economic self
support.
• Developmental Disability: A severe learning disorder characterized by:
a. an inability to profit from a special education program for students with mild intellectual
disabilities because of slow intellectual development;
b. an ability to profit from a special education program that is designed to accommodate
slow intellectual development;
c. a limited potential for academic learning, independent social adjustment, and economic
self-support.
PHYSICAL
• Physical Disability: A condition of such severe physical limitation or deficiency as to require
special assistance in learning situations to provide the opportunity for educational achievement
equivalent to that of students without exceptionalities who are of the same age or
development
level.
• Blind and Low Vision: A condition of partial or total impairment of sight or vision that even with
correction affects educational performance adversely.
M U LT I P L E
• Multiple Exceptionalities: A combination of learning or other disorders, impairments, or
physical
disabilities that is of such a nature as to require, for educational achievement, the services of
one
or more teachers holding qualifications in special education and the provision of support
services
appropriate for such disorders, impairments, or disabilities.
Module: 4 Behaviorism
1.Differentiate behaviorism from neo behaviorism. (Venn diagram)

2.  Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning. (Concept Mapping)
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively. (Triple Venn Diagram)

4. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching. (Concept Map)

Module 5: Cognitive Perspective

1.List ways of applying the different Cognitive Perspective.

Cognitive Learning Theory uses metacognition—“thinking about thinking”—to

understand how thought processes influence learning. It’s often contrasted
against—or complemented by—Behavioral Learning Theory, which focuses on the
outside environment’s influences on learning.

Here’s how Cognitive Learning Theory applies in a practical context: By

understanding the role of thought processes during learning, we can guide those
thoughts to help us gain knowledge more effectively. We can manipulate the
internal and external factors that impact our thinking to improve learning in
ourselves and others.

In the traditional classroom, teachers apply Cognitive Learning Theory by

encouraging self-reflection and explaining their reasoning. Using Cognitive
Learning Theory in the workplace requires a somewhat similar approach, but with
different execution.

2.Cite educational implications of the theory on information

processing.
Ashcraft,(1994) contends that, information processing is a cognitive process which attempts to
explain how the mind functions in the learning process. With this theory more emphasis is on
how the information is processed than, how learning happens. The theory has three basic
components which are;

- Sensory register(SR)

- Short term memory (STM) or working memory

- Long term memory (LTM)

Sensory register

This is a stage, where the learner receives the information through senses and stores it in a short
tem memory. At this point the information stays for only a fraction of a second; this is because
this region is continuously bombarded by information which tends to replace the first
information (Shunk,1994).

Short term memory

The information registered at (SR) is then shunted to the short term memory, where its storage at
this region is facilitated by process called chunking and rehearsal. Information here stays for not
more than twenty seconds. If chunking and rehearsing does not occur within 20 seconds then the
information will lapse. This region has an ability of storing seven plus or minus two units of
information.

Long term memory

In order for the information to be available in a long term memory it must be transferred from
short term memory to long term memory by a process called encoding. At this point the new
knowledge is related to the prior knowledge stored in long term memory resulting into
persistence and meaningful learning by a process called spreading activation. Mental structures
called schema are involved in storage, organization and aiding of retrieval of information. Met
cognition is an awareness of structures and the process involved (Bigus, 2011).

3.Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

DepEd's current approach to reforming the basic educational system in the Philippines is an
example of a spiral approach. DepEd tries to cover too many things at one time, without
focus and prioritization. DepEd does not see the importance of "First Things First", the
importance of prerequisites, the essence of mastery. In a layered reform, as opposed to
spiral, the roots of the problems are first addressed: shortages, before boldly taking
ambitious programs that are not going to be supported properly. In this spiral approach,
DepEd is more likely to take a vicious circle or a downward spiral.

"If we do not think spirally, why do we have to learn or teach spirally? And this is what
makes it so difficult. There are many right words in the quote and the right intentions. But,
as long as the fundamentals are wrong, the pedagogy behind the spiral approach is not
viable.
Concepts - classes - are not organized in a single hierarchy. Rather there is a web of
related classes in which a variety of hierarchies can be distinguished. Recognizing
individual hierarchies is as important as discerning relationships between the classes. But
spirals?"
Studies from the US and Canada:
"American schools follow a "spiral curriculum" in mathematics; that is, they spend such a
substantial proportion of time on review each year that only limited progress can be made with
new material…. American students who perform poorly in arithmetic are subject to a special
form of the spiral curriculum, which might be termed the circular curriculum": they repeat
arithmetic over and over until they stop studying math" (Gamoran, 2001, p. 138)"

4.Describe strategies to promote and facilitate knowledge

construction and concept learning.
5.Articulate the benefits of using Gagnes’s principles in
Teaching.

Gagne's theories provide a great deal of valuable information to

teachers. Applying Gagne's nine-step model is an excellent way to
ensure an effective and systematic learning program as it gives
structure to the lesson plans and a holistic view to the teaching. We
need to keep in mind that the exact form of these events is not
something that can be specified in general for all lessons, but rather
must be decided for each learning objective.
The performance most frequently required of students is to remember,
while our intent is most often to help them understand, and by putting
more structure into the objectives of the lesson plans we will be able to
achieve this aim. As Gagne himself says, “organisation is the hallmark of
effective instructional materials.
Module 6: Motivation

1. Justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation comes from within, while extrinsic motivation arises from outside. When
you’re intrinsically motivated, you engage in an activity solely because you enjoy it and get
personal satisfaction from it.

When you’re extrinsically motivated, you do something in order to gain an external reward.
This can mean getting something in return, such as money, or avoiding getting into trouble,
such as losing your job.

Motivation Goals

Goals come from within and the

You do the activity because it’s
outcomes satisfy your basic
internally rewarding. You may do it
Intrinsic psychological needs for
because it’s fun, enjoyable, and
autonomy, competence, and
satisfying.
relatedness.

Goals are focused on an

Extrinsi You do the activity in order to get an
c external reward in return.
outcome and don’t satisfy your
basic psychological needs.
Goals involve external gains,
such as money, fame, power, or
avoiding consequences.

2. Reflect on the different theories on Factors Affecting

Motivation.
Here we present two key theories of motivation, which have been used to understand how
people are motivated:
 need achievement theory (McClelland, 1961; Atkinson, 1974)
 Weiner’s model of attribution (Weiner, 1985).
Need achievement theory (McClelland, 1961; Atkinson, 1974)
The aim of need achievement theory is to explain why certain individuals are more motivated
to achieve than others. It is based on two psychological principles: the motive of an individual
to achieve success and the motive of an individual to avoid failure. This theory is described as
an approach-avoidance model because an individual will be motivated either (a) to take part in
(approach) or (b) to withdraw from (avoid) a situation, based on the strength of the two forces
in relation to each other. If an individual’s intrinsic motivation to take part is stronger than their
fear of failure, they will engage in a task. However, if their fear of failure is stronger than their
intrinsic motivation to take part, they will either avoid or withdraw from the task. This theory
can be said to be a trait-centred approach because achievement motivation is a personality
trait (a relatively consistent way of behaving). However, this personality trait may not be the
only factor affecting motivation. Another important factor is the role the situation plays in
terms of the ‘probability of success’ and the ‘incentive for success’. An individual who has low
intrinsic motivation may become motivated to be successful if the probability of success is high
and the reward on offer for success is great.
This theory is able to explain why individuals who are ‘high achievers’ choose difficult or
challenging tasks (they will see value in their success in difficult challenges). It also explains that
a ‘low achiever’ will choose easier tasks because they are less likely to fail and are therefore
usually guaranteed success. For example, a high achiever may choose a task such as assessing
the success of their organisation’s marketing and then developing a new strategy to increase
income by 10 per cent. A low achiever would avoid a high-risk activity like this and might just
settle for leaving things as they are.
Weiner’s attribution theory (Weiner, 1985)
Attribution theory focuses on how people explain their success or failure. Humans seek to
understand the reasons for why things happen and an attribution is the reason we give for a
particular outcome. We may also make an attribution to the behaviour we see in people or
teams around us. Attributions can be categorised in two ways: firstly, whether they are stable
(permanent) or unstable (constantly changing); and secondly, whether they are internal (inside
us) or external (outside us). An internal factor is seen as being within our control and an
external factor as outside of our control. These factors combined mean that a success or a
failure can be attributed to either ability or effort, or task difficulty or luck. In Table 3 these are
presented as four quadrants, with an example of each attribution.
2. State and explain two principles on the social and cultural
influences on motivation.
Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation are:

 Students are more likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to their situation.
 Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see other themselves performing the task
successfully. (Ormrod, 2004)
Our students' motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural, socioeconomic
background, and special education needs. Our class is a conglomerate of students
with varying ages, and gender and most especially cultural background and socioeconomic
status. Students with special educational needs show the greatest diversity in motivation, Some
students who are gifted may have high intrinsic motivation to learn classroom subject matter,
yet they may be come easily bored if class activities don't challenge their abilities.
Young children often want to gain teacher's approval to be motivated while the older ones are
typically more interested in gaining approval of peers. (Juvonen and Weir, 1993 quoted by
Ormrod, 2004.) Students from low-income families are among those most likely to be at risk for
failing and dropping out of school. Females are more likely than males to have a high need for
affiliation (Block, 1983 quoted Ormrod, p.508) Students of Asian background are more likely to
attribute academic achievement to unstable factors like effort and attribute appropriate and
inappropriate behaviors temporary situational factors than students brought up in main stream
Western culture. (Lillard, 1997; Peak, 1993 quoted Ormsrod, 2004) Elementary students tend to
attribute their successes to effort and hard work By adolescence, however, students attribute
success and failure more to an ability that is fairly stable and uncontrollable. Effort becomes a
sign of low ability; (Nicholls, 1990; Paris Cunningham, 1996 quoted by Ormrod, 2004.)

3.Describe the classroom climate that is conductive for

learning.
Ideal Classroom Climate Conductive To Learning: The ideal classroom is a positive place where a
student can come to work toward specific goals set before them in the class objectives. The
teacher is to be positive, organized, outgoing, confident, and compassionate. The instructor
often sets the tone for the entire classroom. For example: If the teacher approaches her day
with dread, is not prepared, and often seems overwhelmed then her students will play off of
her attitude and disposition. Teachers often have very hectic schedules, however they should
not let their anxiety bleed over into their classrooms. Feelings About Classroom Communities:
Classroom behavior and classroom communities are very cohesive components of classroom
management. Positive classroom behavior has a positive effect on having positive classroom
communities. Classroom communities are subsets of the classroom population. If these groups
are encouraged to be positive and work together to complete a task, then classroom behavior
becomes more positive. The classroom community gives the students the opportunity to get to
know their fellow students. The idea of classroom communities fosters positive and productive
classroom behavior.

4. Report some incidences on bullying.

The ability to report and record incidents of bullying behaviour is a crucial part of
any anti-bullying strategy. Schools and other settings need to encourage and
make it as easy as possible for children and young people to report bullying
incidents. Having a ‘one size fits all’ approach is unhelpful when supporting
children and young people who experience bullying behaviour. Therefore having a
range of reporting and recording mechanisms is important. In all cases of bullying
behaviour it is necessary to act quickly, but even more so if you have a child who
may have difficulty communicating what has happened. Keeping records of
bullying incidents will enable you to:  Manage individual cases effectively. 
Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of strategies.  Demonstrate decision
making processes The aims of this resource are to:  Help staff gain a better
understanding of the bullying behaviour before talking to those involved  To
establish what led up to the incident as this may be useful in exposing deeper
causes of the conflict which can be followed up later.  To find out what
happened during the incident and everyone’s role in it  To enable each
individual to think about their role in the incident, and begin the process of
reflection so that the young person/people who have exhibited the bullying
behaviours realise the impact of their behavior.
5.Design a favorable physical learning for your students.