1.

An approach is a set of a correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and
learning. An approach is axiomatic.

2. A method is an overall plan of the orderly presentation of language material, it follows a clear
plan that is in line with a chosen approach. A method is procedural. It involves step-by-step
procedures.

3. A technique is implementational, that which actually takes place in the classroom. It is a particular
stratagem used to accomplish an immediate objective. Technique must be consistent with a method
and therefore with an approach as well.

technique is referred to by the term procedure, while the intermediate phase that determines
syllabus, objectives and content is termed design. Finally, method is an umbrella term referring to a
broader relationship between theory and practice.

Approach serves as the source of practice and principles in language teaching.

Within one approach there can be many methods

2. THEORIES OF LANGUAGE (theory of learning are behaviorism-constructivism-humanism-

cognitivism)

There are three different theories about the nature of language teaching:

1. Structural view: the view considers language as a system of related elements. This view claims that
proficiency in grammatical and phonological elements can help learning occur.

2. Functional view: the view considers language as a vehicle for the expression of functional
meaning. This theory emphasis on semantic and communicative aspects of language.

3. Interactional view: the view sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal
relations and for the performance of social transaction between individuals.

 The syllabus is a summary of topics or units to be taught in a course, varying

from teacher to teacher (decisions concerning the selection of language items).
“The more the student has autonomy and responsibilities and he is able to negotiate
the syllabus with teacher the more the method is learner centered.”
 The curriculum is a broader concept, referring to the overall content taught in
an educational system or course, remaining the same for all teachers.
 While the syllabus is specific to individual teachers, the curriculum provides
broader guidelines for what should be taught.


Behaviorism: A Deeper Explanation
 Major Pioneer : B.F. Skinner
 Introduction: Behaviorism is a learning theory associated with the work of B.F.
Skinner, who developed the principles of operant conditioning and
reinforcement. This theory posits that learning is an observable change in
 behavior, and it focuses on the external factors that influence behavior rather
than internal mental processes.
 Key Concepts:
 Stimulus-Response: Learning is viewed as a process of responding to external
stimuli. Behaviorists believe that behaviors can be predicted and controlled
through the manipulation of stimuli and reinforcements.
 Conditioning: Behaviorists emphasize the role of conditioning, either through
classical (associative learning through repeated pairing of stimuli) or operant
conditioning (learning through consequences of actions).
 Role of the Learner:
 Learners are considered passive recipients of information. Learning is achieved
through repetition, reinforcement, and practice.
 Teaching Strategies:
 Instruction involves clear objectives and structured, step-by-step
presentations. Reinforcement is used to strengthen desired behaviors.
 Teacher Roles:
 The teacher serves as a guide who designs and implements structured learning
experiences. Teachers need to carefully plan and sequence stimuli to evoke
desired responses.
 Syllabus Objectives:
 Clearly state specific, observable behavioral outcomes. Design assessments to
measure the mastery of targeted behaviors.
 Application:
 Behaviorism is often applied in skills training and behavior modification
programs. Drill and practice activities are common instructional methods.
 Constructivism: A Deeper Explanation
 Major Pioneer: Jean Piaget
 Introduction: Constructivism is associated with the work of Jean Piaget, a Swiss
psychologist known for his theories on cognitive development. This theory
posits that learners actively construct their own understanding of the world
through their experiences and interactions.
 Key Concepts:
 Active Construction: Learners actively build their knowledge through
experiences and interactions.
 Social Interaction: Social engagement and collaboration are vital for learning.
 Role of the Learner:
 Learners are seen as active participants and constructors of knowledge.
Personal experiences and prior knowledge shape new understanding.
 Teaching Strategies:
 Instruction involves hands-on activities, inquiry-based learning, and problem-
solving. Teachers act as facilitators, guiding learners through the learning
process.
 Teacher Roles:
 The teacher serves as a facilitator, creating an environment for exploration and
discovery. Teachers support collaborative learning experiences and encourage
dialogue.
 Syllabus Objectives:
 Emphasize the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Encourage the application of knowledge to real-world situations.
 Application:
 Constructivism is often applied in student-centered and project-based learning
environments. It aligns well with the use of educational technologies and
collaborative platforms.
 Humanism: A Deeper Explanation
 Major Pioneer: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
 Introduction: Humanism is associated with the work of Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers, who emphasized the holistic development of individuals. This
theory focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and the fulfillment of
one's potential.
 Key Concepts:
 Self-Actualization: Learning is seen as a journey towards fulfilling one's
potential.
 Personal Growth: Emphasis on emotional, social, and intellectual growth.
 Role of the Learner:
 Learners are viewed as self-directed, intrinsically motivated individuals.
Learning is personalized, addressing individual needs and interests.
 Teaching Strategies:
 Instruction involves open-ended activities, exploration, and self-discovery.
Teachers act as facilitators, providing guidance and support.
 Teacher Roles:
 The teacher serves as a mentor, supporting students in their individual
journeys. Teachers create a supportive and nurturing environment that fosters
personal growth.
 Syllabus Objectives:
 Prioritize objectives related to self-discovery, emotional intelligence, and
personal development. Encourage reflection and self-assessment as part of the
learning process.
 Application:
 Humanism is often applied in student-centered and experiential learning
settings. It aligns with approaches that foster creativity, critical thinking, and
individual expression.
 Cognitivism: A Deeper Explanation
 Major Pioneer: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
 Introduction: Cognitivism is associated with the work of Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky, who focused on mental processes such as memory, problem-
 solving, and information processing. This theory emphasizes the role of
internal mental processes in learning.
 Key Concepts:
 Information Processing: Learning involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval
of information.
 Cognitive Structures: Knowledge is organized in mental structures.
 Role of the Learner:
 Learners are active thinkers who process information, solve problems, and
make connections. Learning is influenced by individual cognitive processes.
 Teaching Strategies:
 Instruction involves presenting information, fostering cognitive skills, and
promoting critical thinking. Teachers use strategies to help learners organize
and retrieve information effectively.
 Teacher Roles:
 The teacher serves as a cognitive guide, helping students develop effective
thinking strategies. Teachers provide opportunities for learners to actively
engage with and manipulate information.
 Syllabus Objectives:
 Specify objectives related to the development of cognitive skills and critical
thinking. Include assessments that measure understanding, application, and
analysis of information.
 Application:
 Cognitivism is often applied in instructional design, e-learning, and strategies
to enhance memory and problem-solving. It aligns well with approaches that
emphasize cognitive development and metacognition.

Grammar Translation Method: A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: The Grammar Translation Method is a traditional approach that

emerged in the 19th century, focusing on the explicit teaching of grammar rules and
translation exercises.
Theory of Language: This method views language as a set of rules to be memorized.
Language is often treated as a set of static structures, and the emphasis is on
accurate translation between the target language and the native language.

Theory of Learning: Learning is seen as a process of memorization and application of

grammatical rules. The method relies on rote learning and repetition to internalize
language structures.

Design: The design of the Grammar Translation Method revolves around grammar
instruction, translation exercises, and reading of literary texts. Vocabulary and
grammar rules are presented explicitly, and translation is used as a tool for
understanding.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in this method include translating

sentences, memorizing vocabulary lists, and analyzing grammatical structures. The
focus is on written language rather than spoken communication.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners play a passive role in receiving and memorizing
information. The teacher acts as an authority figure, explaining grammar rules and
guiding translation exercises.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials include textbooks with

grammar explanations, vocabulary lists, and literary texts for translation exercises.

Procedures: Procedures involve presenting grammar rules, providing examples, and

having learners practice through translation exercises. The emphasis is on accuracy
and understanding of grammatical structures.

Direct Method: A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: The Direct Method, also known as the Natural Method, emerged as a
response to the limitations of the Grammar Translation Method. It emphasizes
teaching language through direct use and immersion.

Theory of Language: Language is viewed as a means of communication, and the focus

is on spoken language rather than written forms. Vocabulary and structures are
introduced inductively through context.

Theory of Learning: Learning is seen as an interactive and communicative process. The

method aligns with the natural way of acquiring language skills through immersion
and practice.
Design: The design of the Direct Method involves teaching language inductively
through conversation, everyday situations, and context. Grammar is taught implicitly,
and vocabulary is acquired through exposure.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities include dialogues, role-playing, and

interactive exercises. Learners engage in conversations, and the emphasis is on oral
communication.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners take an active role in communication, with the
teacher facilitating discussions and guiding activities. The teacher provides a
language-rich environment.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials include real-life objects,

pictures, and audio resources that facilitate immersion and communication.

Procedures: Procedures involve introducing new vocabulary and structures through

contextualized situations. Learners practice through dialogues, role-playing, and
interactive exercises.

Natural Method: A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: The Natural Method, also known as the Direct Method, emerged in the
late 19th century and focuses on teaching language inductively, similar to the way
one acquires a first language.

Theory of Language: Language is seen as a natural expression of thought, and the

focus is on spoken language. The method believes in teaching language in a way that
mirrors natural language acquisition.

Theory of Learning: Learning is seen as a natural process, similar to how children

acquire their first language. The method emphasizes immersion, context, and
meaningful communication.

Design: The design of the Natural Method involves creating an immersive language
environment. Vocabulary and grammar are acquired through exposure to
contextualized situations.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities include conversations, storytelling, and

games. Learners engage in activities that mimic real-life language use, focusing on
natural communication.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners take an active role in using language for
communication, and the teacher serves as a facilitator. The teacher provides a rich
language environment and encourages natural expression.
Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials include real-life objects,
pictures, and audio resources that create an authentic language environment.

Procedures: Procedures involve creating situations where learners can naturally use
language for communication. Activities focus on meaningful interaction and the
application of language in practical contexts.

Total Physical Response (TPR): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Total Physical Response (TPR) originated from the idea of connecting language with
physical movement. It draws its roots from James Asher's approach, especially in emphasizing the
link between language and bodily actions. TPR was developed with a focus on simulating the
natural process of language acquisition in infancy.

Theory of Language: TPR is grounded in the belief that language learning is facilitated through
physical actions. It reflects the understanding that actions can serve as a bridge between
language input and comprehension. In TPR, language is not just heard; it is experienced through
the body.

Theory of Learning: The method aligns with the idea that language learning is a holistic
experience. By associating words with actions, TPR capitalizes on the brain's natural ability to link
motor skills with language comprehension. Learners respond to commands, creating a direct
connection between language input and physical response.

Design: TPR's design is centered on the integration of language and movement. The primary
objective is to make learners internalize language through physical actions. The approach places
importance on imitating and responding to commands as a means of language acquisition.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in TPR involve the use of commands and physical
responses. Learners may act out verbs, follow instructions, and engage in activities that require
them to respond physically to language input. The emphasis is on creating an immersive and
interactive language-learning experience.

Learner and Teacher Roles: In TPR, learners are active participants who respond physically to
language input. The teacher takes on the role of a commander or director, guiding learners
through actions and ensuring a clear understanding of language through movement.

Role of Instrumental Materials: TPR relies on the use of instructional materials that facilitate
physical engagement. Teachers may use visual aids, props, and other resources to enhance the
connection between language and movement.

Procedures: Procedures involve the teacher giving commands, and learners responding with
corresponding physical actions. This process is repeated to reinforce vocabulary and language
patterns.

Community Language Learning (CLL): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Community Language Learning (CLL) arose from the need for a group-oriented,
supportive language learning environment. It evolved as a reaction against traditional methods,
emphasizing collaboration and emotional connections in the language learning process.

Theory of Language: CLL views language as a means of expressing thoughts and feelings. It
emphasizes the social nature of language and how it evolves through interaction within a
community. The method values the personal and emotional aspects of language.

Theory of Learning: The approach is rooted in counseling-learning theories, acknowledging the

emotional component of language learning. Learners are seen as individuals with unique
perspectives, and the learning process is facilitated through shared experiences and mutual
support.

Design: The design of CLL centers around creating a community of learners where emotional
connections play a crucial role. It integrates language learning with a counseling-like approach,
allowing learners to express themselves in a supportive environment.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in CLL involve group discussions, storytelling, and
shared experiences. Learners express their thoughts and feelings in the target language, and the
teacher serves as a facilitator or counselor, helping learners articulate their ideas effectively.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners in CLL take on active roles in expressing themselves and
supporting each other. The teacher becomes a guide and counselor, fostering a positive and
collaborative learning atmosphere.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials in CLL are tools for expression and
communication. Visual aids, storytelling props, and other resources are used to enhance the
learning experience within the community.

Procedures: Procedures involve group discussions, storytelling circles, and activities that
encourage learners to share their experiences. The teacher facilitates the process by providing
guidance and support.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emerged as a response to the limitations

of traditional methods. It focuses on communication as the core goal of language learning,
emphasizing real-life situations and meaningful interactions.

Theory of Language: CLT sees language as a tool for communication rather than a set of
isolated structures. It emphasizes the functional use of language in various contexts, allowing
learners to engage in authentic communication.

Theory of Learning: The theory behind CLT is influenced by sociocultural and constructivist
perspectives. Learning is seen as a social activity, and the emphasis is on collaborative and
interactive language use. Learners actively construct their knowledge through
communication.
Design: The design of CLT revolves around creating opportunities for learners to
communicate authentically. It prioritizes activities that mirror real-life language use and
fosters the development of communicative competence.

Sylabus: notional syllabus: semantic, grammaratical categories plus communicative

functions.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in CLT include role-playing, problem-solving

tasks, and collaborative projects. Learners engage in conversations, negotiations, and other
real-life language situations to develop their communicative skills.

Learner and Teacher Roles: In CLT, learners take on active roles as communicators. The teacher
becomes a facilitator, guiding learners through activities that promote meaningful interaction
and language use. (independent participant within the learner teacher group-organizing of
recources and guide , teacher as a reasercher and learner)

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials in CLT support communication.

Multimedia resources, authentic texts, and real-life artifacts are used to expose learners to
diverse language inputs and contexts.

Procedures: Procedures involve interactive tasks and activities that require learners to use
language for real communication. The teacher facilitates discussions, monitors communication,
and provides feedback to enhance language development.

Content-Based Instruction (CBI): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Content-Based Instruction (CBI) emerged from the recognition that language
learning is more effective when integrated with meaningful content. It involves teaching language
through the exploration of subject matter, such as science, math, or social studies.

Theory of Language: CBI views language as a tool for understanding and expressing ideas within
specific content areas. Language is integrated with the content, making the learning experience
more contextualized and meaningful.

Theory of Learning: CBI aligns with constructivist theories, emphasizing the importance of
connecting new knowledge with prior experiences. Learners actively construct meaning by
engaging with content, promoting a deeper understanding of both language and subject matter.

Design: The design of CBI involves selecting subject matter that aligns with language learning
objectives. It aims to provide learners with opportunities to acquire language skills while exploring
meaningful content in various disciplines.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in CBI include reading and discussing content-related
texts, conducting experiments, and creating projects. Learners use language as a means to
explore and express ideas within the chosen content areas.
Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners in CBI take on the role of investigators and creators, actively
engaging with content to build language skills. The teacher serves as a guide, facilitating
language development through content exploration.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials in CBI include textbooks, articles, and
resources related to the chosen content areas. Multimedia and real-world artifacts enhance the
integration of language and content.

Procedures: Procedures involve lessons that integrate language and content. Learners read,
discuss, and create projects related to the chosen subject matter, promoting language
development within a meaningful context.

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is centered around the idea of using language
as a tool for accomplishing specific tasks. It shifts the focus from language forms to language
functions and real-world language use.

Theory of Language: TBLT views language as a tool for communication and problem-solving.
Language is learned through the process of engaging in meaningful tasks, allowing learners to
develop both linguistic and pragmatic competence.

Theory of Learning: TBLT aligns with constructivist and experiential learning theories. Learning
occurs through active engagement in tasks that require the use of language for real-world
purposes. Learners acquire language as they work towards task completion.

Design: The design of TBLT involves creating tasks that serve as the context for language learning.
Tasks are designed to be communicative, challenging, and relevant to learners' needs, fostering
language development in authentic situations.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in TBLT include problem-solving tasks, projects, and
role-playing scenarios. Learners use language to accomplish specific goals, and the focus is on the
process of communication rather than isolated language forms.

Learner and Teacher Roles: In TBLT, learners actively engage in tasks, taking on roles that require
language use for practical purposes. The teacher becomes a facilitator, guiding learners through
the task process and providing support as needed.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials in TBLT support the completion of tasks.
Multimedia resources, real-world artifacts, and relevant texts provide the necessary information
and context for task accomplishment.

Procedures: Procedures involve introducing a task, allowing learners to plan and execute their
language use, and reflecting on the outcomes. The teacher guides the process, providing
language support and feedback to enhance learning.
These methods represent diverse approaches to language teaching, each emphasizing unique
principles and strategies. Choosing the most suitable method often depends on factors such as
learner preferences, goals, and the learning context.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an approach that

involves teaching both language and content simultaneously. It integrates language
learning with the study of a specific subject matter.

Theory of Language: Language is seen as a tool for understanding and expressing

ideas within the context of a particular content area. CLIL emphasizes the integration
of language and content.

Theory of Learning: CLIL aligns with constructivist theories, emphasizing the

importance of connecting language learning with meaningful content. Learners
actively construct knowledge through engagement with both language and subject
matter.

Design: The design of CLIL involves selecting subject matter that aligns with language
learning objectives. It aims to provide learners with opportunities to acquire language
skills while exploring meaningful content in various disciplines.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities in CLIL include reading and discussing
content-related texts, conducting experiments, and creating projects. Learners use
language as a means to explore and express ideas within the chosen content areas.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners in CLIL take on the role of investigators and
creators, actively engaging with content to build language skills. The teacher serves
as a guide, facilitating language development through content exploration.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials in CLIL include textbooks,

articles, and resources related to the chosen content areas. Multimedia and real-
world artifacts enhance the integration of language and content.

Procedures: Procedures involve lessons that integrate language and content. Learners
read, discuss, and create projects related to the chosen subject matter, promoting
language development within a meaningful context.

These methods represent diverse approaches to language teaching, each

emphasizing unique principles and strategies. Choosing the most suitable method
often depends on factors such as learner preferences, goals, and the learning context.
Critical Pedagogy in the Post-Method Era: A Deeper Explanation

Introduction: Critical pedagogy is a perspective that goes beyond language learning

methodologies to address broader issues of power, social justice, and equity within
education.

Theory of Language: Language is viewed not only as a means of communication but

as a social construct that reflects and perpetuates power dynamics. Critical pedagogy
emphasizes the importance of analyzing and challenging language use in relation to
social structures.

Theory of Learning: Learning is seen as a transformative process that involves raising

learners' awareness of societal issues. In the post-method era, critical pedagogy calls
for a more socially conscious and justice-oriented approach to language teaching.

Design: The design of language teaching with critical pedagogy involves creating
lessons that encourage learners to critically examine language use, cultural
representations, and societal norms. This design aims to empower learners to
become critical thinkers and agents of change.

Teaching and Learning Activities: Activities incorporate critical thinking and reflection.
Learners are encouraged to analyze texts, challenge stereotypes, and engage in
discussions that promote awareness of social issues and language as a tool for
advocacy.

Learner and Teacher Roles: Learners take on an active role as critical thinkers and
agents of change. Teachers facilitate discussions that encourage learners to question
and challenge societal norms, fostering a sense of social responsibility.

Role of Instrumental Materials: Instrumental materials include texts, media, and

resources that encourage critical analysis. Teachers select materials that provide
diverse perspectives, challenge stereotypes, and promote social awareness.

Procedures: Procedures involve incorporating critical thinking into lessons. Teachers

create opportunities for learners to question, analyze, and reflect on language use in
the context of societal power structures.

In the post-method era, critical pedagogy adds a layer of social consciousness and
justice-oriented perspectives to language teaching. It encourages educators to go
beyond teaching language skills and consider the broader impact of language
education on learners' awareness, empowerment, and societal contributions.
"Praxis" refers to the process of putting theory into practice or applying knowledge
and skills in real-world situations. It's a concept that emphasizes the integration of
theory and practice, highlighting the reciprocal relationship between thinking and
doing.

In educational contexts, particularly in fields like teaching and social work, praxis
involves not only understanding theoretical concepts but also actively applying them
in practical situations. This approach recognizes the dynamic interplay between
theory, reflection, and action.

Micro Strategies:

Definition: Micro strategies typically refer to small-scale, detailed, or localized

approaches. These are specific actions or tactics focused on individual components or
elements within a system.

Example: In education, a micro strategy could involve a specific teaching technique

or a targeted intervention to address a particular learning challenge for a single
student or a small group.

Macro Strategies:

Definition: Macro strategies, on the other hand, involve larger-scale, overarching, or

systemic approaches. These are broad plans or methods designed to impact entire
systems, organizations, or contexts.

Example: In the context of education, a macro strategy might involve the

implementation of a new curriculum, a policy change at the institutional level, or a
comprehensive teacher training program to improve education across an entire
school or district.

Application to Language Teaching:

In language teaching, micro strategies could include specific classroom activities,

techniques for teaching grammar, or approaches to address individual language
skills. On the other hand, macro strategies might involve designing an entire
language curriculum, implementing language policies at a national level, or adopting
new methodologies across an entire school district.

The post-method era in language teaching represents a departure from the notion
that there is a single, universally applicable method for language instruction. Instead,
this era encourages a more eclectic and flexible approach, taking into consideration
various factors. Some principles associated with the post-method era include:

1. Eclecticism:
 Emphasizes the use of diverse methods and techniques based on the
specific needs and characteristics of learners rather than rigidly
adhering to a single method.
2. Contextualization:
 Recognizes the importance of considering the socio-cultural context
and individual learner differences in designing language instruction.
3. Teacher Autonomy:
 Encourages teachers to make informed decisions based on their
expertise and understanding of their students, allowing them autonomy
in selecting and adapting methods.
4. Critical Pedagogy:
 Incorporates a critical perspective, encouraging learners to engage
critically with language and its societal implications, promoting
awareness and social responsibility.
5. Focus on Communication:
 Prioritizes meaningful communication and interaction in language
learning rather than strict adherence to isolated grammar rules.
6. Task-Based Learning:
 Promotes the use of language in authentic, real-world tasks, fostering
practical language skills and learner engagement.
7. Individualization:
 Recognizes and accommodates individual differences in learning styles,
preferences, and abilities, promoting a more personalized approach to
language instruction.
8. Learner-Centered Approach:
 Shifts the focus from the teacher as the primary authority to a more
learner-centered approach, where learners actively participate in the
learning process.
9. Technology Integration:
 Acknowledges the role of technology in language learning and
encourages the incorporation of technology tools to enhance learning
experiences.
10. Reflective Practice:
 Encourages teachers to engage in reflective practice, continuously
evaluating and adapting their teaching methods based on ongoing
experiences and feedback.
In the post-method era, the emphasis is on flexibility, adaptability, and
responsiveness to the diverse needs of learners, recognizing that effective language
teaching requires a dynamic and evolving approach.

Particularity:

"Particularity" in the context of pedagogy suggests that there isn't a one-size-fits-all

set of pedagogic principles that can universally apply to all educational settings.
Instead, it emphasizes the importance of understanding the specific and unique
features of a given educational context. This perspective recognizes that each
learning environment has its own set of challenges, resources, cultural nuances, and
student characteristics.

Educational practices, according to the principle of particularity, should be tailored to

the specific needs and conditions of the learners and the context. Teachers might
need to consider the cultural background of their students, the available resources,
and the overall context of the learning environment to create effective and
meaningful educational experiences.

In essence, particularity rejects a standardized or generalized approach to pedagogy

and encourages educators to be responsive to the specific characteristics and needs
of their students and learning environments.

Practicality:

"Practicality," as discussed in the context you provided, involves a shift towards a

pedagogy that encourages teachers to develop their own context-sensitive
pedagogic knowledge through practical experience. This perspective argues that
teachers should be empowered to derive theories from their own teaching practice
rather than merely implementing theories proposed by external experts.

Practicality in pedagogy implies a hands-on and experiential approach to learning for

teachers. It suggests that educators should engage in reflective practice, learning
from their own experiences in the classroom and continuously adapting their
methods based on what works best in their specific teaching context.

This approach acknowledges that effective teaching is not solely about applying pre-
established theories but involves an ongoing process of experimentation, reflection,
and refinement. It encourages teachers to be active participants in shaping their
pedagogical approaches based on the practical insights gained through teaching
experiences.
In summary, "Particularity" emphasizes the need for context-specific understanding,
while "Practicality" advocates for a pedagogical approach that is grounded in the
practical experiences and insights of individual teachers. Together, these concepts
support a dynamic and responsive approach to education that takes into account the
unique characteristics of each learning environment.

It seems like you're discussing different perspectives on pedagogy, highlighting the

rejection of a universally applicable set of pedagogic principles and the emphasis on
context-sensitive knowledge. Let's explore the "Possibility" aspect and then touch on
"Critical Pedagogy."

Possibility:

In the context you've presented, "Possibility" could refer to the potential for diverse
and context-specific approaches to pedagogy. This perspective suggests that the
possibilities for effective teaching methods are numerous and depend on the unique
circumstances of a given educational setting. It implies a rejection of rigid, one-size-
fits-all approaches in favor of recognizing the potential for creative and adaptable
teaching strategies.

This viewpoint acknowledges that what works in one educational context might not
necessarily work in another. It supports the idea that teachers should have the
flexibility to explore various methods and tailor their approach based on the needs,
backgrounds, and learning styles of their students.

Critical Pedagogy:

Critical pedagogy, on the other hand, is a specific approach to education that

emerged from the work of educators like Paulo Freire. Critical pedagogy emphasizes
the importance of questioning and challenging established power structures,
fostering a critical consciousness among students, and promoting social justice.

In a critical pedagogical framework, educators aim to empower students to think

critically about societal issues, inequalities, and the systems that perpetuate them. It
often involves engaging students in dialogue, encouraging them to question
assumptions, and promoting a participatory and democratic learning environment.

Combining "Possibility" and "Critical Pedagogy" could suggest an approach to

teaching that not only recognizes the diverse possibilities for effective pedagogy but
also encourages critical thinking and social awareness among students. Teachers, in
this context, might be seen as facilitators of learning who guide students in exploring
various perspectives, questioning assumptions, and understanding the broader
implications of their education within societal contexts.

Community Language Learning (CLL) and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

are two distinct language teaching approaches, each with its own principles and
methods. Here's a brief overview of the key differences between the two:

1. Philosophy and Focus:

 Community Language Learning (CLL): CLL is based on the humanistic
and counseling psychology principles. It emphasizes the importance of
creating a supportive, inclusive community in the language learning
process. The focus is on building a sense of trust and collaboration
among learners.
 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT): CLT is more focused on
communication as the primary goal of language learning. It aims to
develop learners' ability to use language in real-life situations,
emphasizing fluency and functional communication over accuracy.
2. Teacher Role:
 CLL: The teacher in CLL is often referred to as a "counselor" or
"facilitator." The role involves providing emotional support,
encouragement, and creating a positive learning environment. The
teacher helps learners express themselves in the target language
without fear of making mistakes.
 CLT: The teacher in CLT acts as a guide or facilitator, creating
opportunities for students to engage in meaningful communication.
The emphasis is on providing contexts for language use and helping
learners develop their communicative competence.
3. Methodology:
 CLL: The methodology involves a learner-centered, group-oriented
approach. Activities often include group discussions, role-plays, and
storytelling. The teacher may use translation as a tool to help learners
understand and express themselves.
 CLT: The methodology focuses on authentic communication. Activities
involve real-life language use, such as simulations, problem-solving
tasks, and information gap activities. The emphasis is on using the
language for practical purposes.
4. Error Correction:
 CLL: Error correction is generally done in a gentle and supportive
manner, with an emphasis on maintaining a positive and non-
threatening atmosphere. The focus is on helping learners self-correct
through reflection.
  CLT: Error correction is integrated into the communicative process.
Teachers may provide feedback during or after communication
activities, addressing errors that impede understanding. The goal is to
improve communication skills rather than focusing solely on accuracy.

In summary, while both CLL and CLT share an emphasis on communication, they
differ in their underlying philosophies, teacher roles, and specific methodologies. CLL
places a strong emphasis on building a supportive community, while CLT focuses on
real-life communication and the development of communicative competence.

In summary, while both CLL and CLT involve active participation of students, the specific roles
differ. In CLL, students play roles within a supportive learning community, sharing personal
experiences and emotions. In CLT, students take on roles related to authentic communication,
engaging in tasks that mirror real-world language use and focusing on the development of
communicative competence.

Underlying Assumptions of CLT: Before discussing changes, it's essential to

highlight some underlying assumptions of CLT:

1. Communicative Competence: The primary goal is for learners to develop

communicative competence, which includes not only grammatical competence
but also sociolinguistic and strategic competence.
2. Authentic Language Use: Language is best learned through authentic and
meaningful communication in real-life situations.
3. Fluency over Accuracy: The focus is on developing fluency and the ability to
use language for communication, even if it involves some errors.
4. Student-Centered Learning: Learners should be active participants in the
learning process, with an emphasis on interactive and collaborative activities.

Changes in CLT: While the specific eight changes may vary based on different
interpretations or sources, here are some common changes associated with the
evolution of CLT:

1. Shift from Grammar-Translation to Communicative Approaches: CLT

represents a move away from traditional grammar-translation methods toward
more communicative and interactive language teaching.
2. Focus on Real-Life Communication: There is an increased emphasis on using
language in real-life situations, with activities that simulate authentic
communication contexts.
 3. Integration of Skills: CLT encourages the integration of language skills
(listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in a holistic manner, reflecting the
interconnected nature of language use.
4. Task-Based Learning: The introduction of task-based language teaching,
where learners engage in meaningful tasks that require language use for
successful completion.
5. Use of Authentic Materials: Incorporation of authentic materials (real texts,
videos, etc.) to expose learners to genuine language use and cultural contexts.
6. Student-Centered Approaches: A shift towards student-centered learning,
where learners take an active role in their language acquisition through
interactive and collaborative activities.
7. Error Correction within Communication: Error correction is viewed within
the context of communication, focusing on the message rather than strict
adherence to grammatical accuracy.
8. Cultural Competence: Recognition of the importance of cultural competence
in language learning, acknowledging the cultural aspects embedded in
language use.

It's important to note that the field of language teaching is dynamic, and different
scholars may highlight varying aspects of the changes associated with CLT. If there
have been specific developments or changes suggested by Jacob and Farell after my
last update, I recommend checking more recent sources or publications by these
authors for the latest information.

Teacher as a co-learner ; It suggests that teachers actively engage in the learning process
alongside their students, adopting a more collaborative and interactive approach to
education.