PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

Ragasa, Pacano, Marzan

a.) Definitions of Principles

 It is adopted from the Latin word princeps, which means the beginning and end of
all things.
 Early Greeks use the term principles to:
1. Express the origin of things.
2. Express fundamental laws.
3. Put the ultimate objectives.
 Merriam Webster, “Principle is a comprehensive law or doctrine, from which
others are derived, or on which others are founded.”
 Ayer Dictionary, “The term principle is most frequently used to signify a
generalized statement through which otherwise unrelated data are systematized
and interpreted.”
 A principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the port
designated by the philosophy of education; it is compass by which the path of
education is directed.
 Principle is accepted as:
 Fundamental truth,
 Comprehensive law,
 A doctrine,
 A policy,
 A deep-seated belief
which governs the conduct of various types of human endeavors.

b.) How Principles of the Teaching are Derived

Principles of teaching are derived through:
1. The pooling of the opinions of the experts;
2. Comparative studies of the teaching performance of capable or inferior teachers;
3. Experimental studies of teaching and learning inside the classroom.

c.) Function and Scope of Principles

Organized principles of teaching should serve at least two general purposes:

1.) Principles should serve as the basis of intelligent and profitable practice.
 Guiding principles in the field of teaching must be:
 Understood as to the basis of their origin,
 Accepted for their desirability,
 Known about methods and techniques of their application.

2.) The principle should serve not only to stimulate, direct and guide, but also to
interpret school practice.
 The relative importance of principles depends upon how well they are founded upon
scientific experimentation, expert opinion, or classroom experience.
 The principles governing teaching change in response to change in the philosophy of
education and to the better understanding of the nature of the learning process.
 New psychological and social theories bring about change in the ideas of educational
leaders regarding the basic principles of teaching.
 Teaching must always be considered as a complex process that may be better
understood by making a broad and discerning application of its various principles.

d.) Types of Teaching Principles

1.) Starting Principles

 The most common terms used are reflexes, instincts, capacities, impulses, and
temperaments.
 These involve the nature of the child, his psychological and physiological
endowments which make education possible.
 These hereditary endowments are the preliminary concern in all educational
endeavors.
 It is therefore the function of education to make the best use of these hereditary
tendencies to meet human needs, growth, and development.
 In the language of Avent - “The child’s original nature is absolutely antecedent
and initial to all educational activities and results.” This means that the primary
concern of the teacher is not the subject but the child, not knowledge of
specialty, but knowledge of the laws and principles of child growth and
development. Thus, the process of child growth and development, like all other
natural processes, involve laws and principles.

2.) Guiding Principles

 These refer to the procedure, methods of instruction, or agglomerations of
techniques by which the pupil and the teacher may work toward the
accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education.
 The method of teaching involves the activities of the teacher and the students. It
is the method of learning and not the method of teaching that constitutes the
real problems of method.
 The method is the means of stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging
individual or class activities.
 The method of teaching involves the application of many laws and principles.
 True principles of teaching, then, must explain teaching processes.
 They must show how subject matters are organized and taught, how
teaching results are achieved and evaluated. Improved methods of teaching
are dependent upon increased knowledge of principles to be applied.

3.) Ending Principles

 These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes, or results of
the whole educational scheme to which teaching and learning are directed.
 These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible
principles or guidance by those who seek to educate effectively.
 By the aims of education, teachers mean the ends toward which the educative
process is moving. The primary requisite of effective learning is a goal or ending
point.
e.) Principles of Humanistic Education

Basic principles of humanistic education:

CHOICE or CONTROL
The humanistic approach focuses a great deal on student choice and control over the
course of their education. Students are encouraged to make choices that range from
day-to-day activities to periodically setting future life goals. This allows for students to
focus on a specific subject of interest for any amount of time they choose, within reason.
Humanistic teachers believe it is important for students to be motivated and engaged in
the material they are learning, and this happens when the topic is something the
students need and want to know.

FELT CONCERN
Humanistic education tends to focus on the felt concerns and interests of the students
intertwining with the intellect. It is believed that the overall mood and feeling of the
students can either hinder or foster the process of learning.

THE WHOLE PERSON

Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the
learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the
cognitive and affective domains. This aspect also relates to the curriculum in the sense
that lessons and activities provided focus on various aspects of the student and not just
rote memorization through note taking and lecturing.

SELF-EVALUATION
Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation is
meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for intrinsic
satisfaction. Humanistic educators disagree with routine testing because they teach
students rote memorization as opposed to meaningful learning. They also believe
testing doesn't provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher.

TEACHER AS A FACILITATOR
“The tutor or lecturer tends to be more supportive than critical, more understanding
than judgmental, more genuine than playing a role.” Their job is to foster an engaging
environment for the students and ask inquiry based questions that promote meaningful
learning.

Implication for Instruction:

 Instruction should be intrinsic rather than extrinsic; instructional design should
be student centered.
 Students should learn about their cultural heritage as part of self-discovery and
self-esteem.
 Curriculum should promote experimentation and discovery; open-ended
activities. .
 Curriculum should be designed to solicit students' personal knowledge and
experience. This shows they are valuable contributors to a nonthreatening and
participatory educational environment.
  Learned knowledge should be applicable and appropriate to the student's
immediate needs, goals, and values.
 Students should be part of the evaluation process in determining learning's
worth to their self-actualization.
 Instructional design should facilitate learning by discovery.
 Objectives should be designed so students have to assign value to learned ideals,
mores, and concepts.
 Take into account individual learning styles, needs and interests by designing
many optional learning/discovery experiences.
 Students should have the freedom to select appropriate learning from many
available options in the curriculum.
 Allow students input in instructional objectives.
 Instruction should facilitate personal growth.

STUDENT'S ROLE:
 The student must take responsibility in initiating learning; the student must
value learning.
 Learners actively choose experiences for learning.
 Through critical self-reflection, discover the gap between one's real and ideal
self.
 Be truthful about one's own values, attitudes and emotions, and accept their
value and worth.
 Improve one's interpersonal communication skill.
 Become empathetic for the values, concerns and needs of others.
 Value the opinions of other members of the group, even when they are
oppositional.
 Discover how to fit one's values and beliefs into a societal role.
 Be open to differing viewpoints.

TEACHERS ROLE:
 Be a facilitator and a participating member of the group.
 Accept and value students as viable members of society.
 Accept their values and beliefs.
 Make learning student centered.
 Guide the student in discovering the gap between the real and the ideal self,
facilitate the student in bridging this gap.
 Maximize individualized instruction.
 To facilitate independent learning, give students the opportunity to learn on
their own ~ promote open-ended learning and discovery.
 Promote creativity, insight and initiative.

f.) Principles of Good Teaching

CREATE AN ACTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

In order for students to gain knowledge from the presentation of information, they
should actively participate in their learning because active learning provides
opportunities for students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach
course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations,
case studies, role playing, in-class questions and other activities, all of which require
students to apply what they are learning and/or think about what they are learning as
they are learning.

FOCUS ATTENTION
Students in introductory courses often cannot tell what is central from what is
peripheral, foreground from background, superordinate from subordinate that’s why
teachers should be able to focus the attention of students on the aspects that matter
most.

CONNECT KNOWLEDGE
The more meaningful and appropriate connections students make between what they
know and what they are learning, the more permanently they will anchor new
information in long-term memory and the easier it will be for them to access that
information when it's needed.

HELP STUDENTS PRODUCTIVELY MANAGE THEIR TIME

Time plus energy equals learning. Learning to use one's time well is critical for students
and professionals alike. Allocating realistic amounts of time means effective learning for
students and effective teaching for faculty.

PROVIDE TIMELY FEEDBACK

Regular feedback helps learners efficiently direct their attention and energies, helps
them avoid major errors and dead ends, and keeps them from learning things they later
will have to unlearn at great cost. It also can serve as a motivating form of interaction
between teacher and learner, and among learners. When students learn to internalize
the voice of the 'coach,' they can begin to give themselves corrective feedback.

DEMAND QUALITY
Expect more and you will get more. High expectations are important for everyone — for
the poorly prepared, for those unwilling to exert themselves, and for the bright and
well-motivated. Expecting students to perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

BALANCE HIGH EXPECTATIONS WITH STUDENT SUPPORT

Bruner (1987) described a technique called 'scaffolding' in which a parent, teacher or
older sibling would use language or concepts slightly advanced of a child’s existing
ability in order to challenge the child to grow their understanding. As the understanding
increased, the language or concept advanced as well. This method would continually
challenge the child to learn new meaning, yet not overwhelm the child by using
language or concepts too advanced for the child to grasp. Angelo (1993) applied this
metaphor to the college environment, stating “Scaffolding is a useful metaphor for
college learning, as well. The weaker or smaller the student's foundation (preparation)
in the subject, the stronger and larger the instructional scaffolding (structure and
support) that is required.” Keep expectations of the students high, but provide ample
support for those who have less exposure to, or ability in, the subject.

ENHANCE MOTIVATION TO LEARN

Motivation to learn is alterable; it can be positively or negatively affected by the task,
the environment, the teacher, and the learner.
ENCOURAGE FACULTY-STUDENT AND STUDENT-STUDENT INTERACTION AND
COMMUNICATION
Frequent student-faculty contact in and out of class is a most important factor in
student motivation and involvement. Faculty concern helps students get through rough
times and keep working. Knowing a few faculty members well enhances students'
intellectual commitment and encourages them to think about their own values and
plans.

HELP STUDENTS ORGANIZE THEIR KNOWLEDGE

Information without organization and context does not promote learning. Information
organized in personally meaningful ways is more likely to be retained, learned, and
used.

g.) LEARNING PROCESS

Organization and Structure of Subject Matter

1. When the subject matter to be learned possesses meaning, organization and structure
that is clear, learning proceeds more rapidly and is retained longer.
2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning. Subject matter and learning experiences
must be provided that begins where the learner is.

Motivation
1. Learners must be motivated to learn. Learning activities should be provided that take
into account the wants, needs, interests and aspirations of the learners.
2. Motivation (interest) is strongest when learners perceive that learning can be useful.
Teaching at the local level can be highly successful when the instructor makes clear
connections between what is being taught and how the students will be able to utilize
this new information.
3. Learners are motivated through their involvement in setting goals and planning
learning activities. An important part of program planning is identifying the needs of the
potential participants.
4. Learners acquire new knowledge and skills only as far as needed to accomplish their
purpose.
5. Success is a strong motivating force. People like to feel successful. When students and
others are able to apply new information and find success, they are highly motivated to
continue learning, to participate in additional workshops, and to try other new ideas.
6. Learners are motivated when they attempt tasks that fall in a range of challenge such
that success is perceived to be possible but not certain. In addition to readiness to learn,
participants must believe that the new content they will learn is achievable for them
(not beyond their personal and local possibilities) and yet will add to their knowledge
rather than being on topics they already know.

Reward and Reinforcement

1. When learners have knowledge of their learning progress, performance will be
superior to what it would have been without such knowledge. Learners need to know
that they are making progress.
2. Behaviors that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be learned. Behavior can
be rewarded in a variety of ways. Simply acknowledging that a participant has
responded with an appropriate answer during a discussion is a form of reward.
3. To be most effective, reward (reinforcement) must follow as immediately as possible
the desired behavior and be clearly connected with that behavior which is quite
effective. Just as in the formal classroom, participants want and need immediate
feedback. The sooner the field agent can acknowledge a positive change in behavior, the
more the participants will be willing to learn and to attempt new techniques.
4. Opportunity for fresh, novel, stimulating experience is a kind of reward which is quite
effective. Instructors need to vary their presentations. A short lecture or discussion can
be followed by a demonstration or some other activity that “breaks the monotony” and
allows participants to engage in their learning in different ways. Participants feel
rewarded.
5. Threat and punishment have variable and uncertain effects upon learning;
punishment is not, psychologically, the reverse of reward. Clearly, wrong answers must
be corrected. However, correcting behavior should not be done in a punishing manner.

h.) TEACHER BEHAVIOR AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

1. Clarity - Cognitive clarity of a teacher's presentation.

 the presentation is clear to the learners
 points the teacher makes are clear and easy to understand
 the teacher explains concepts clearly
 questions are answered intelligently
 instruction is organized properly

2. Variability - Teacher's use of variety or variability.

 variety of instructional materials
 variety of teaching strategies
 variety of types of tests and assessments
 variety of level of discourse (discussion, question/answer) and of student tasks
(easier/more challenging)

3. Enthusiasm - Teacher's enthusiasm.

 movement, gestures and voice inflections
 teacher questions, especially questions calling for interpretation of facts

4. Task-Oriented and/or Business-like Behaviors - Degree to which a teacher is task-

oriented, achievement-oriented, and/or business-like.
 teacher is concerned that participant learn something rather than simply enjoy
themselves (but it is okay to have some fun on occasion)
 teacher encourages learners to work hard and to do independent and creative work

5. Student Opportunity to Learn Criterion Material

 correlations between measures of opportunity to learn and achievement are
positive, significant and consistent; not “wasting time” provides more opportunity
for learning
 relationship between the content taught in the course and learner achievement on
the criterion test is positive