Module 1: Principles of Teaching

Learning Objectives:

• Analyze the concepts of teaching as a ministry, profession, science, and vocation in the light
of research studies.
• Apply meaningfully and effectively the different teaching and learning principles for local and
global competence.

Deepen!
A. CONCEPT OF TEACHING
Teaching is a complex process that brings a socially desirable behavioral change in a
person. In traditional concept, teaching is the act of imparting instructions to the learners
in the classroom situation. But in modern concept teaching is to cause the pupil to learn
and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and also desirable ways of living in society. It
is a process on which learner, teacher, curriculum and other variables are organized in a
systematic and psychological way to attain some pre-determined goals.

Teaching is a part of the teaching-learning process. It is required to bring specific changes

in a person according to the need of his society and environment in which he is living.
“Teaching is not an act as it is dynamic in nature, so it is termed as a process”. It is
also not a fundamental concept as it is greatly influence by social and human factors.

Some Expert Views about Teaching:

Many authors view teaching as organized, purposeful, and deliberate efforts

designed to bring about a certain desirable end in an individual. A teacher is guided by
his thorough understanding of what teaching is. This affords a strong basis for his
interpretation of the process and consequently, in his performance as a teacher. Further,
this identifies the kind of direction he applies in every classroom work he engages his
students in.

As claimed by Acero, Javier, and Castro (2007), the word “teaching” may be
understood from different contexts, such as:
 • Teaching is an occupation. When we say, for example, that Dr. Daniels teaches
English, teaching becomes an occupation. One gets to know what Dr. Daniels
does for a living. She is a teacher by profession.
• Teaching may also mean of myriad of activities associated to teaching like when
one explains, asks, reviews, demonstrates, submit requirements, attends official
meetings, advises students, and checks on attendance.
• Teaching is an act itself. It involves the common activities in the classroom and the
teaching strategies and techniques, but focuses on the intent to make teaching
work to the full advantage of the learners by effective interaction of teacher and
students in the understanding of a particular subject matter.
Teaching as an act is construed as the most essential act, without which
there is no need for activities that teachers engage in outside of classroom work,
like attending seminars, meetings, and conferring with parents. It is like saying
there are activities that the teachers do as part of their job but not when they are
engaged in the act of teaching.

• Teaching is a process or set of actions to induce learning and eventually to

succeed in learning. This definition stresses the need for planning for teaching, the
process of teaching, and the achievement aspect, which means teaching is a
deliberate process; it does not just happen.
Ryburn’s view: “Teaching is a relationship which keeps the child to develop all this
power.”

Burton’s view: “Teaching is the stimulation guidance, direction, and encouragement of

learning.”

Smith’s view: In words of B.O. Smith, Teaching is a system of actions intended to

produce learning.”

It is to be noted that successful teaching, resulting in achievement of learning, can

only be realized when teaching is done in a manner that affords respect of the learner’s
intellectual integrity and capacity for the independent judgement.

The purpose of teaching goes beyond memorizing facts and knowing all the correct
answers. Teaching lies in making learners truly understand concepts under study.

It is important that a teacher knows how to teach in the classroom. One major
consideration is mastery of the content. He should be knowledgeable and able to talk with
authority on the subject matter he teaches. Moreover, teachers should not rely too much
on textbooks, but rather use the resources to provide additional information while
teaching.
 Teaching also requires effective delivery of the course content, thus, the need for
available varied strategies anchored on educational theories relative to the “how” of
teaching. There is no single definite strategy applies to learning. Other strategies can be
integrated into each lesson taught.

A teacher has become a facilitator, a far cry from what used to be a teacher-
centered instruction. He simply guides and provides learners opportunities to develop
creativity and come up with their own discoveries. This is anchored on the constructivist
learning theory which posits that students can construct their own learning in the
classroom.

All students have the capacity to learn. It is matter of tapping their potentials so
they can contribute to the classroom environment. Each can introduce new insights or
even raise questions about related issues for consideration. On the part of the teacher,
he should adapt a positive attitude toward the learners. High expectations yield high
results in the classroom. A teacher does not only expect his students to work hard but
also expects them to deliver to the best of their ability.

A teacher’s responsibility includes connecting students’ learning according to what

they know of value. He, therefore, needs to know his students’ interests, it will be easier
to motivate them for positive results. Teaching also includes making connections between
the subject matter and their real-world experiences. The connection is made possible
through hands-on activities.

The assessment methods need to be varied and applicable to classroom setting.

From the traditional assessment, new alternative forms of assessment have emerged
embodied in the curriculum to showcase learning.

Objectives of Teaching Concept

Major objectives of teaching concept are as follows:

• To bring desired changes in pupils.

• To shape behavior and conduct.
• Acquisition of knowledge
• To improve the learning skills of students
• Formation of belief,
• To provide a social and efficient member of society.

Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

 • Dynamic, Social, and Humane: Teaching is not a fundamental concept because
it is greatly influenced by social and human factors that are dynamic in themselves.
• Both Art and Science: Teaching is both art and science. It calls for the exercise
of talent and creativity making it an art and involving repertoire of techniques,
procedures, and skills that can be studied systematically, described and improved
making it science.
• Diverse in Application: In application, teaching is of diverse nature. It may have
various forms as formal, informal, directional, instructional, formational, training,
conditioning, indoctrination, talking, showing, doing, remedial, etc.

Characteristics of Teaching

• System of actions: Teaching is a system of actions varied in form and related to

content and pupil behavior under the prevailing and social conditions.
• Professional activity: It is a professional activity involving a teacher and student
with view to the development of students’ personality. Professionalism helps
students in being regular and making harmony with their objects towards those
they are concentrated.
• Subjected to analysis and assessment: Teaching can be analyzed and
assessed and analysis and assessment provide feedback for further improvement.
• Interactive process: Teaching is highly dominated by communication skills.
Teaching is an interactive process carried with purpose and objectives.
• Specialized Task: It is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of skills for
the realization of certain objectives.
• Collection of various modes: Teaching is a collection of various modes of itself.
It is a broader term. Terms like conditioning, training, instruction, indoctrination
denote a kind of teaching. They are a part of teaching but not a synonym with
teaching. These are various modes of teaching contributing to teaching.
Goals of Teaching

The aims of teaching concept with respect to its various modes are as follows:

• Teaching – To bring changes in the behavior of students.

• Conditioning – To improve the learning skills of students.
• Training – Shaping behaviour and conduct.
• Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge.
• Indoctrination – Formation of belief.
Levels of Teaching

We all know that teaching is a purposeful activity. Through teaching, a teacher brings a
desirable change in the learners. Both the concepts of teaching and learning are
interrelated to each other. The development of the all-around personality of the learner is
the final goal of teaching and learning. During teaching, an interaction takes place
between an experienced person (teacher) and an inexperienced one (student). Here the
main aim is to bring change in the behavior of the student.

Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind about the
developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be
achieved. These three levels are

1. Memory level: Thoughtless teaching

2. Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching
3. Reflective level: Upper Thoughtful level

B. Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning

In dealing a subject area such as Mathematics, here are the principles that we need to
consider.
Principle 1: Know your learners – their language background, their language proficiency,
and their experiential background.
Principle 2: Identify the learning outcomes including the language demands of teaching
and learning.
Principle 3: Maintain and make explicit the same learning outcomes for all the learners.
Principle 4: Begin with context embedded tasks which make the abstract concrete.
Principle 5: Provide multiple opportunities for authentic language use with a focus on
students using academic language.
Principle 6: Ensure a balance between receptive and productive language.
Principle 7: Include opportunities for monitoring and self-evaluation.

An extensive listing of teaching and learning principles has been identified in the
work of Crunkilton and Krebs as well as Newcomb et al. The following is a condensed
version of those principles, with topics to consider in preparing and conducting
educational programs for local farmers and others. The principles are presented in five
major categories: Organization and Structure of Subject Matter, Motivation, Reward and
Reinforcement, Techniques of Instruction, and Transfer of Learning.

Organization and Structure of Subject Matter

1. When the subject matter to be learned possesses meaning, organization and structure
that is clear, learning proceeds more rapidly and is retained longer.
Field agents should have a plan for the program to be delivered and a plan
for instruction. Farmers and other participants will learn more and retain the
information longer when they know what is expected and how the workshop will
be conducted.

2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning. Subject matter and learning experiences must
be provided that begin where the learner is. Farmers have varying backgrounds and
experiences.
The field agent must be familiar with the audience so that instruction draws
upon those experiences but is still within the ability of the participants to
comprehend the information and apply what has been learned.

Motivation

1. Learners must be motivated to learn. Learning activities should be provided

that take into account the wants, needs, interests and aspirations of the
learners.
Much like readiness, motivation is an important characteristic of learners.
Instructors need to address the local situation of the participants and use the
experiences and situations of the farmers in planning and conducting
workshops.
2. Motivation (interest) is strongest when learners perceive that learning can be
useful.
Teaching at the local level can be highly successful when the instructor
makes clear connections between what is being taught and how the local
farmers will be able to utilize this new information.
3. Learners are motivated through their involvement in setting goals and planning
learning activities.
 An important part of program planning is identifying the needs of the
potential participants. Before any workshop is offered, the field agent should
meet with the local farmers to determine (by asking them) what it is that they
need to improve in their local situation. The field agent then designs the
workshop based on the feedback from the local farmers.
4. Learners acquire new knowledge and skills only as far as needed to accomplish
their purpose.
Once the local farmers have been engaged in planning a program and
identifying topics that need to be included, they are motivated to participate and
to learn. But once they believe they have the information they need, learning is
no longer a goal.
5. Success is a strong motivating force. People like to feel successful.
When farmers and others are able to apply new information and find
success, they are highly motivated to continue learning, to participate in
additional workshops, and to try other new ideas.
6. Learners are motivated when they attempt tasks that fall in a range of challenge
such that success is perceived to be possible but not certain.
In addition to readiness to learn, participants must believe that the new
content they will learn is achievable for them (not beyond their personal and
local possibilities) and yet will add to their knowledge rather than being on
topics they already know.

Reward and Reinforcement

1. When learners have knowledge of their learning progress, performance will be

superior to what it would have been without such knowledge.
Learners need to know that they are making progress. Periodic checks with
how the farmers are implementing change help to reinforce learning and
encourage additional participation in learning activities.
2. Behaviors that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be learned. Behavior
can be rewarded in a variety of ways.
Simply acknowledging that a participant has responded with an appropriate
answer during a discussion is a form of reward. Sharing success stories among
other farmers in the village also reinforces what has been learned. Farmers can
learn from each other.
3. To be most effective, reward (reinforcement) must follow as immediately as
possible the desired behavior and be clearly connected with that behavior which
is quite effective.
Just as in the formal classroom, participants want and need immediate
feedback. The sooner the field agent can acknowledge a positive change in
 behavior, the more the participants will be willing to learn and to attempt new
techniques.
4. Opportunity for fresh, novel, stimulating experience is a kind of reward which is
quite effective.
Instructors need to vary their presentations. A short lecture or discussion
can be followed by a demonstration or some other activity that “breaks the
monotony” and allows participants to engage in their learning in different ways.
Participants feel rewarded.
5. Threat and punishment have variable and uncertain effects upon learning;
punishment is not, psychologically, the reverse of reward.
Clearly, wrong answers must be corrected. However, correcting behavior
should not be done in a punishing manner.

Techniques of Instruction

1. Directed learning is more effective than undirected learning.

While the field agent has more knowledge of the content being taught than
the farmers, the field agent is not simply a purveyor of that knowledge. Learning is
more effective when direction is provided by the instructor or field agent, as
opposed to having participants study and investigate on their own.
2. Learning is an active rather than a passive process.
Participants learn more when they are actively engaged in their own
learning. Instructors must utilize active learning strategies to help make learning
an active process for the participants.
3. To maximize learning, learners should "inquire into" rather than be "instructed in"
the subject matter. Problem-oriented approaches to teaching improve learning.
While teaching must be directed by the field agent or instructor, participants
will learn more when they delve into a problem situation, gather information and
seek solutions. Problem solving is an effective teaching technique that allows
learners to inquire into the situation rather than simply be told the answer.
4. Learners think (formulate and test possible solutions to problems) when they
encounter an obstacle, difficulty or challenge in a situation that interests them.
An extension of what we know about motivation is that learning occurs when
the participants are interested in the problem and see a need for learning more
about the issue. Instructors must be familiar with the local situation so that teaching
addresses the local context and issues.
5. Learners learn what they practice.
A major advantage of teaching in an extension system at the local level is
that there are ample opportunities to work closely with local farmers as they apply
what they have learned. From demonstration sites to individual farms, participants
in an extension program can apply immediately what they have learned. They
apply and practice the new skills they have achieved.
 6. Supervised practice that is most effective occurs in a functional educational
experience.
Similar to the above principle, the extension agent can “supervise” the
application of what was taught to the farmers. Addition instruction and re-
instruction can occur in the local farmer’s setting.
7. Repetition without indications of improvement is a poor way to attempt to learn.
Simply doing the same task over again does not improve learning. Farmers
need to receive feedback on their practices to continue to improve their abilities in
production and marketing of their products.
8. The best way to help learners form a general concept is to present the concept in
numerous and varied specific situations.
Teaching by example can be very effective. The field agent needs to provide
an array of examples to help reinforce learning.

Transfer of Learning

1. Learning is most likely to be used (transferred) if it is learned in a situation as much

like that in which it is to be used as possible and immediately preceding the time
when it is needed.
Teaching at the local level enhances the opportunity for learners to apply
what they have learned within their own situations. The closer the instruction is to
the actual experiences and needs of the farmers, the more the farmers will be able
to learn.
2. Transfer of learning is more likely to take place when that which is to be transferred
is a generalization, a general rule or a formula.
Having farmers memorize specific facts is only useful when those facts are
with the broader context of their situation. The facts may change over time, but the
general concepts tend to be more stable and therefore more useful over time.
3. Learners can learn to transfer learning; therefore, teachers must teach for transfer.
While teaching at the local level is highly successful, not all participants
have exactly the same needs. However, field agents can teach concepts that any
farmer can apply in his or her own situation.

Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement

A major meta-analysis of research studies that addressed teacher behaviors and

student learning was conducted by Rosenshine and Furst. Additional studies have
verified the results of the meta-analysis. The researchers identified 11 major area of
teacher behavior. For five of those variables, as teachers exhibit these behaviors more,
student learning generally will increase.

1. Clarity - Cognitive clarity of a teacher's presentation

 the presentation is clear to the learners,
  points the teacher makes are clear and easy to understand,
 the teacher explains concepts clearly,
 questions are answered intelligently,
 instruction is organization.
2. Variability - Teacher's use of variety or variability
 variety of instructional materials,
 variety of teaching strategies,
 variety of types of tests and assessments,
 variety of level of discourse (discussion, question/answer) and of student
tasks (easier/more challenging).
3. Enthusiasm - Teacher's enthusiasm
 movement, gestures and voice inflections,
 teacher questions, especially questions calling for interpretation of facts.
4. Task-Oriented and/or Businesslike Behaviors - Degree to which a teacher
is task-oriented, achievement-oriented, and/or businesslike
 teacher is concerned that participant learn something rather than simply enjoy
themselves (but it is okay to have some fun on occasion),
 teacher encourages learners to work hard and to do independent and creative
work.
5. Student Opportunity to Learn Criterion Material
 correlations between measures of opportunity to learn and achievement are
positive, significant and consistent; not “wasting time” provides more
opportunity for learning,
 relationship between the content taught in the course and learner
achievement on the criterion test is positive.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Mathematics has always been the most important subject in the school curriculum.
Traditional mathematics teaching has been found to be unsatisfactory. During recent
years the demand has grown to make mathematics teaching more imaginative, creative
and interesting for pupils. Clearly the demands made on the mathematics teacher are
almost unlimited. The teacher must have a specialized understanding of the foundations
of mathematical thinking and learning. He/ She should also possess skills to put together
the whole structure of mathematics in the minds of his/her students. He, like a master
technician, should decide what kind of learning is worth what; realize and make use of
motivation and individual differences in learning. He/ She should be able to translate his1
her training into practice. Finally, he/ she should plan or design the instruction so that an
individualized discovery-oriented (or problem-solving) learning is fostered.
 A few of the current trends in the methods and media used in mathematics
instruction are mentioned here. These include the basic features of more recent ideas
which are the gift of educationists and psychologists. It is expected that teachers would
try to fit them into their practical scheme of teaching.

Principles of Child Development and Learning

How does one teach most effectively? Very simple: teach the child in the way he
learns best. Therefore, it is necessary that the teacher understands how a child learns,
and the factors which affect learning. Thus, the teacher has to understand the way in
which growth and development affect learning. Some aspects of learning are now
discussed.

1. A child learns best when he is clear about the purpose or goals to be achieved. It is
better if he/ she is guided by a self-selected goal. His/her purpose determines what he
learns and the degree to which he learns.

2. Children grow physically, mentally and socially at different times and with different
growth rates. Various growth curves giving data about heights-weights, age, intelligence
and interest or aptitude inventories which apply to children of a given age group are
available. However, deviations are observed many a time in a given group of children.

The studies of Jean Piaget make it clear to us that a child's mental growth is a continuous
process from birth and that his thought processes are by no means those of an adult. The
stages of cognitive development which Piaget claims are important for the teaching of
mathematics are:

Stage l:.Sensory motor operations: This stage lasts for about the first eighteen months
since birth.

Stage 2: Concrete thinking operation: This stage lasts until about eleven or Approaches
and twelve years of age. Techniques of Teaching Mathematics

Stage 3: Formal thinking operations: This stage comes to form at the age of about
fourteen or fifteen.

The actual age at which each stage is attained varies considerably from child to
child because of the differing cultural backgrounds and environment. There is no clear
borderline between the end of one stage and the beginning of the next. However, what is
important is that Piaget considers that the order in which the stages appear is fixed and
this provides us with a framework against which we can examine the teaching strategy.
3. Learning is a continuous development process. It is change in behavior brought about
by thinking while facing situations that call for making discoveries, recognizing
patterns and formulating abstractions or generalizations in mathematics. A child grows
through experiences which provide both security and adventure. A learner learns what
he does himself. Inefficient rote learning does not cause permanent learning and
results in frustration and dislike for the concept subject. If an experience is motivating
only then it stimulates the creative faculty of the child and encourages exploration and
ensures the fullest development of the child's mathematical potential. "Learning by
doing" or the "discover approach" through carefully controlled situations or chosen
problems has proved to be a sound teaching strategy and a highly motivating activity.
4. A closer examination of the vast literature on "mathematics learning" reveals mainly
four levels or steps of learning.

The necessary conditions leading to the acquisition of new responses are (I) Real
situations: first-hand experiences with concrete things, (2) intuition, exploration,
discovery through investigation, (3) formulation: verbal or symbolic representation
based on logical reasoning and (4) assimilation, classification, generalization or
concept formation through thinking and reasoning.
New concept is developed as an extension of previous learning. The process of
learning as well as the product should be emphasized Generalizations in mathematics
are formed 1 inductively and applied deductively.

Trends in Organizing Content

Owing to the influence of professional mathematicians and due to the

recommendations i of national groups concerning updating the school mathematics
curriculum, new considerations have come to be strongly emphasized during the past
25-30 years. These I have a decisive impact on the planning of instructional strategies
in mathematics.
1. Recent trends in selection of topics: The advancements and extensive use
of technology has replaced manual computations almost completely. Thus,
many traditional mathematical topics (e.g., vulgar fractions, H.C.F., L.C.M. of
large numbers, complicated questions on areas, volumes etc.) and skills (e.g.,
tedious simplifications with brackets and complicated calculations with very
large numbers) have now become obsolete and are not emphasized any more.
Arithmetic and algebra are now taught more meaningfully and in an integrated
manner. The emphasis has shifted from deductive proofs in geometry to
constructions and applications of geometrical properties. A clear distinction is
made between the number system and the numeration system. The language
of sets, relations and mappings is now used in verbal, symbolic and
diagrammatic forms.
 2. In planning instruction, mathematics does not appear as a static, readymade,
prefabricated body of knowledge any longer. Rather, it is presented as an ever
expanding, growing and lively subject. Pupils are being given more opportunity
to experience typical processes of mathematical activity like looking for
patterns, making quizzes, puzzles, analogies and proving arguments, etc.
3. The new textual material presents mathematics as a unified discipline of broad
key concepts and fundamental structures. The emphasis is on developing
conceptual, meaningful mathematics without minimizing the importance of
proficiency in computational skills. It is now clarified to pupils "how and "why"
different operations take place before expecting them to master computational
skills.
4. There are increasing efforts to show mathematics as a useful tool for studying
other subjects. Better coordination between the teaching of mathematics and
instruction in other subjects has been recommended.
Problem-Solving Approach to Teaching

It is a fault that the attitude of teachers and pupils towards the learning of
mathematics is not clear Some teachers lack confidence and feel insecure. They prefer
to follow rigid and stereotyped curricula and methods, rely heavily on texts and use
punishment as a mode of getting assignments done. This is because their own
mathematics is often too fragmented to cope with the necessary understanding of
extension of a topic and they find it difficult to relate one topic to another. The crisis of
attitude among children is very well reflected in their performance, failure and dislike for
the subject. It is felt that problem-solving in mathematics presents to both the teacher and
the pupils an opportunity it to redeem this very sad situation. Problem-solving is an
individual or a small group activity, most efficient when done cooperatively with free
opportunity for discussion. As a consequence, it permits the incorporation of a wide range
of levels and styles of thinking and development. Problem-solving reflects the process of
mathematics. It increases a child's ability to think mathematically. The method of problem-
solving is a method of thinking, of analyzing, and of learning how to find the answer to a
question or problem using known ideas. Learning through problem-solving is a regression
from known ideas to unknown ideas, from old ideas to new ideas and from the simple to
the complex. Problem-solving essentially results in an increased ability to think and
generate ideas of mathematics. Problem-solving does not mean doing the block
&exercises at the end of each chapter or unit.

The process of problem-solving involves

a. Sensing, accepting and defining problem which is intriguing or meaningful to

children of the relevant age. The problem need not always be real. he only
important factor is acceptance of the problem by children as their own.
 b. Considering the relationships which exist among the elements of the situation.
Identifying data and information, making knowns and unknowns explicit,
presenting data, etc., are a few skills required at this stage.
c. Pursuing the plan of action to a tentative answer. This includes techniques such
as trial and error, defining terms and relationships using empirical arguments
and control of variables.
d. Testing the result.
e. Accepting the result and acting on it.
The problems have many sources. They may be found in the environment or may be
related to some area of living, they may be real (project type) or mental (puzzle or quiz)
type.

Problem-solving situations may be used by the t4cher for three purposes: (a) for helping
children develop mathematical ideas, (b) for the application of known mathematical. ideas
in new situations, (c) for the analysis of the method of problem-solving.

The basic techniques which help are the same for all the three categories. These are
drawing a diagram, restating the problem in one's own words, dramatizing the situation
or preparing a model, replacing the numbers (quantitative aspects) by variables and
rearranging data, estimating an answer, arguing backwards logically, i.e. from "to prove"
to "what is given" and discover the relationships between the known and the unknown.

Language of Mathematics
It is known that language can either help or hinder learning. If language is used
correctly and with clarity, it helps in thinking but if it reveals imperfect meanings it creates
a misunderstanding. Since mathematics deals in abstractions and itself is a way of
thinking, it creates a dependent relationship between the notions and the language used
to describe them. Mathematical language facilitates thinking by complementing ordinary
language. Consider how a child gets the notion of a "circle". A child handles, manipulates
and observes shapes of objects like a wheel, bangles, the ring, etc. He may experiment
with a model or may stand in a circle while playing. In all these actions he must abstract
the properties or features which make a mental picture called a circle. Having understood
that to be a circle, a shape has to consist of a set of points in the same plane such that
they all are at the same distance from a given point. He then generalizes his
understanding to all possible circles and their relations and components. He leaves out
the concrete modes and subconsciously enters the symbolic level. To use or
communicate that abstract idea, - one requires language. So mathematical language
walks hand in hand with the growth of mathematical understanding, permeating the
general linguistic development of children. Also, mathematics is itself a language; it has
its own symbols and rules for correct usage. In spoken language, usage indicates what
words mean, in mathematics careful defining sharpens word meanings. Mathematical
language is clear, concise, consistent and cogent. Pupils who get the idea and describe
it in correct language are less confused than pupils who memorize terms representing
ideas which remain as strange as the terms themselves.

Mode-Building: Translating verbal language to the language of mathematics, that is

solving a word problem, involves three stages: (i) encoding, (ii) operations, (iii) decoding.

Encoding is the process of building a mathematical model from a given verbal statement.
Suppose we say that "a father's age is 5 years more than twice his son's age". If we
assume the two ages to be x and y years respectively, then the corresponding
mathematical model is

After a model has been set up, we operate on it according to given conditions, obtain a
solution and then translate it back into verbal language.

The skill of model-building requires a clear understanding of the mathematical equivalent

of words which have mathematical meanings. Words such as more, less, times,
difference, is equal to, square, etc., have to be identified and used in the model for the
verbal statement.