General Methods of Teaching

Definition of Education
• Education is a process of acquiring knowledge,
skill and change in attitude as one interacts with
the environment. The environment includes both
physical and social.
• The physical environment refers to the
interaction with the physical phenomena like the
weather, the technology, etc. where as, the social
aspect refers to the people with whom people
interact
Forms of Education
There are three forms of education. These are:
1. formal education
2. non-formal education
3. informal education

Formal Education
• Formal education is a system consciously planned, organized and
guided by trained personnel, checked and evaluated and finally
certified.
• It is finite and limited to a period of “being taught" as against
"life" and "work"; it has fixed points of entry and exit; it is geared
to impersonal goals of knowledge acquisition; It is employment
oriented.
• It has fixed concepts and contents in its curriculum.
Non-Formal Education
• Non-formal education is a form of education which is
characterized by its moderate organization outside of
the formal educational structure, flexible
arrangements for specific social group in terms of time,
duration, place, mode of presentation, certification etc.
• It is a life-long learning integrated with life and work
(life is upgraded and enriched by learning). It has
flexible points of entry and exit; provides chances of
re-entry and re-exit and so on through out the life span
of the individual.
• It is systematically planned but not continuous.
Informal Education
• Informal education is a form of education,
which includes all direct influences of the
home and the society as well as the physical
environment and acquired from day-to-day
activities of the individual in the environment.
• It is accidental.
• There is no certification for what one has
learned through it.
The concept of Teaching
• Gagne (1963a) “…any form of interpersonal influence
aimed at changing the ways in which other persons can
or will behave”
• Amidon & Hunter (1967) “…an interactive process,
primarily involving classroom talk, which takes place
between teacher and pupils and occurs during certain
definable activities”
• Klauer (1985) “… interpersonal activity directed toward
learning by one or more persons”
• Robertson (1987) … teaching “denotes action
undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning
in another
 Common attributes of the concept of teaching

1. Teaching is an activity or process; teaching is action. You can see

teaching take place; you need not (and, some would argue,
should not) infer it from learning.
2. Teaching is an interpersonal activity or process. Interpersonal
means that teaching involves interactions between a teacher and
more students. Most of these interactions are verbal. Further
more, these interactions are bidirectional ( that is, teachers talk to
and influence students and students talk to and influence
teachers).
3. Teaching is intentional. There is some purpose or set of purposes
for which teaching occurs. Kluer (1985) suggests that teaching is
“directed toward learning,” while Gagne (1963a) asserts that
teaching is “aimed at changing the ways in which other persons
can or will behave”
“Teaching is an interpersonal, interactive activity,
typically involving verbal communication, which is
undertaken for the purpose of helping one or
more students learn or change the ways in which
they can or will behave.”
 Teaching as a profession
Criteria of a profession
1. A profession involves a body of knowledge
and system of skills;
• This criterion is related to the issue of specific
subject area to be mastered and the special
training one has to undergo to master the
ideas, concepts, principles, laws and theories
as well as skills.
2. A profession performs specific functions for
personal and social purposes;
3. A profession is Practicable;
• This relates to the freedom/autonomy that its
members enjoy to practice/ do their
professional career with out any restriction or
interference.
4. Entry into a profession requires an extended
period of preparation.
5. A profession is organized.
6. A profession has a literature and language
unique to it;
 Qualities of an Effective Teacher

 Effective teachers are those who helped their students learn more
than other teachers with similar students.
1. Effective Teachers Personal Attributes &
Characteristics
• Enthusiasm
• Warmth and humor
• Credibility
• High expectation for success
• Encouraging & supportive
• Businesslike
• Adaptable/flexible
• Knowledgeable
• Teachers' enthusiasm promotes learning by
helping to motivate students, by keeping them
persistent at tasks, and by helping them feel
more satisfied with the teaching.
• Enthusiastic teachers vary their voice,
gestures, and expressions; they move around
the room, from front to back as well as side to
side; and they maintain a quick lesson pace
involving high levels of interaction with
students
• Warmth and humor seem mostly to influence
students' learning indirectly by promoting an
environment in which students feel free and
are motivated to participate.
• Teachers should be able to laugh at themselves
and at their mistakes;
• they should avoid using sarcasm or teasing
students.
• However, warmth and humor, if
overemphasized, actually reduce classroom
learning, and so they are best used naturally
and sparingly
• Credibility and trustworthiness: create a
relaxed, supportive environment where
students trust the teacher to help them be
successful. They are developed through open,
honest teacher-student interaction.
• Effective teachers are positive people, oriented
toward and optimistic about their own and
their students' success. Specifically, effective
teachers have high expectations for success
and are encouraging and supportive of
students.
• Let the students know your objectives, why
they need to know it , and how they will use
the learning.

• Businesslike : teachers focus on promoting

learning in a variety of ways. Classroom
activities are directed toward helping students
reach the established goals and objectives.
• A professional demeanor also includes the ability to
calmly and effectively adapt to changing classroom
circumstances.
• This includes the ability to "read" what is happening in
the classroom: the level of students' understanding and
motivation, changes in the classroom environment, and
problems with instruction.
• When problems arise, teachers must "flex" or adapt
their instruction to more effectively reach the
established goals.
• Teachers who exhibit a professional demeanor have also
knowledge of their subject, pedagogy, and students.
Knowledge of subject is most useful when integrated
with knowledge of pedagogy and knowledge of learners
2. Professional Skills and Abilities of effective
teachers
• Focusing and Engaging students attention
– Establishing set
– Using variety
• Using instructional Time Effectively
• Conducting Interactive Instruction
– Using Questions
– Providing clear instruction
– monitoring students progress
• Providing feedback & Reinforcement
Establishing set: There are three major types of set.
• Orientation set is used to engage students in a
new instructional activity.
• Transition set is used to help students see the
relationship between past and present
learning.
• Evaluative set is used to establish what
students may already know about a topic.
• Educators recommended that teachers should use
pre-questions as a way to introduce a new topic.
• Pre-questions (or pre-tests) help students identify
what material they do not yet know, and hence
need to study.
• In addition, responding to pre-questions
automatically activates any relevant prior
knowledge in the student’s mind. These processes
contribute to improved student learning.
• In many ways the brain is like a computer and we
are its users. A computer, of course, needs to be
switched on in order to work. Our brains need to be
'switched on' in order to learn.
• A computer needs to be told which software it
should use to interpret the data it receives. In the
same way the brain needs guidance about how to
process the new ideas and information it receives. It
needs to relate these new ideas to those it has
already processed. It needs to see how they 'fit'.
• The first activity of a session must 'switch on'
the brain.
• It must engage the students and make them
eager to learn about the topic.
– grab students' attention, get them engaged and
interested in the topic
– help students see the purpose of studying the topic
– surface students' existing knowledge and any
misconceptions they have.
• Using Variety: An effective teacher uses
variety in nonverbal behavior, instructional
approaches, types of assessment, and a host
of other areas. Variability, which was found to
be closely related to students' learning,
probably increases learning by helping
students remain more interested and engaged
• The most effective teachers maximize the time
available for instruction.
• The three factors most closely related to the efficient
use of instructional time are time on task,
momentum, arid transitions
• Time on task is a broad term that refers to the
amount of time students are actively engaged in
academic tasks.
• Momentum refers to the flow and pace of classroom
activities. Maintaining momentum helps maximize
academic learning time by maintaining a brisk
instructional pace, but one which allows students to
be successful.
• Effective teachers keep students involved in their lessons
through the use of questioning, instructional clarity, and
monitoring of understanding.
• The most effective questions require students to process
information and formulate a correct answer.
• Closed-response questions should be avoided or minimized.
• Questions should be phrased clearly and concisely in direct,
natural, unambiguous language and should be of a variety
of types and at a variety of cognitive levels depending upon
the objectives of the lesson.
• After a student responds to a question, the way in which the
teacher reacts is critical. Possible responses include probing,
redirecting, rephrasing, or giving the student the answer.
• Teachers whom students find most enjoyable
and helpful provide instruction which leads to a
clear understanding of the material.
• Instructional clarity is achieved through logical
organization, identifying and reinforcing main
points, using good examples to elaborate, and
monitoring and correcting.
 Methodological Principles
1. The importance of integrating learning
experiences:
• Images, ideas, concepts and conclusions
combine to form principles or laws that guide
man's practical activities.
• Integration of learning experiences facilitates
understanding in depth, association, transfer
and application of what has been learnt.
• By avoiding fragmentation of knowledge, a high
degree of meaningfulness will be developed.
• Clear teachers elaborate on important ideas and concepts
using concrete, verbal, or written examples and by explicitly
showing how ideas, concepts, tasks, etc., are similar to and
different from one another.
• Clear teachers monitor and quickly correct students'
misunderstandings by using questions and application
exercises throughout the lesson to monitor understanding
and to allow students to clarify their own misconceptions.
• Effective teachers carefully and continually assess students'
understanding through good questioning and by
establishing an open interactive classroom climate in which
students are more likely to ask for help.
• Effective teachers provide students with frequent feedback
and reinforcement for their academic performance.
2. The Importance of Interdependence:
• The theoretical basis of this principle states that
"knowledge is essentially a social product. It is built up
socially as a product of the social ability of man.
• This means, the growth, development, improvement
and refinement of knowledge is the product of
collective effort.
• Similarly, the sharing, exchanging and enrichment of
learning experiences, skills and outlooks are possible
through interdependence.
• To facilitate interdependence in classroom,
participation through discussion and group work must
be encouraged
3. The Utilization of materials that appeal to the
senses (audio-visual or multi-media materials).
• The theoretical basis of this principle states that
the beginning of knowledge is sense
perception.
• Hence audio visual materials are basic in the
formation of mental images that are accurate
and meaningful to the learner.
• Although at varying degree, there are many
kinds of representations of realia, models,
pictures, figures and charts
 Advantages of Using Media/Teaching Aids
• offer teachers powerful means to make their teaching effective ;
• helps students in greater acquisition of knowledge and ensures
longer retention
• provides interactive learning environment;
• easily motivates the learners
• it enhances a multisensory interest
• learning becomes more immediate and productive.
• gives classroom instructions a more scientific base
• enables teachers to transfer the knowledge in an organized way
and more systematically.
• helps teachers to draw and fix the attention of students towards
teaching.
 Advantages of Using Media/Teaching Aids

• Draws attention and concentration

• improves classroom discipline.
• enhances comprehension skills
• Enhances the clarity of communication.
• helps in stirring the imaginational, thinking process
• Develop the reasoning power of the students.
• helps the teachers to save their time and energy.
• offers opportunities of individual learning.
4. The role of verbalization in learning
• It is expressing in one's own words by highlighting or emphasizing
the essential features of ideas, concept or principles.
• It involves the attempt to define concepts or ideas in ones own
words as distinct from memorizing formal definitions of them.
5. The importance of active observation.
•  The theoretical basis of the principle states that "knowledge
acquisition begins with the practical use of the senses".
• Acquisition of knowledge is an activity which demands active
involvement of the learner. It occurs through interaction with the
environment.

• In order to apply the principle, teachers must encourage students to

actively observe cause and effect relationships, encouraging them to
form habits of asking and trying to get answers to questions.
6. The role of conceptualization in learning
• It refers to the formulation of a general idea
(principle or theory) representing common
elements.
• It is based on conceptual thinking. This kind of
thinking helps students translate their
observation into building larger relationships.
• The theoretical basis of the principle states
that the development of knowledge is
dependent upon the unity of sensory
(perceptual, practical experiences) and
rational (abstract, reasoning) knowledge
7. The importance of popularizing the use and habitual
reference to scientific processes and procedures.
• This refers to withholding conclusions and generalizations
until ample and more evidences are obtained.  
8. Provision for the kind of learning that promotes
continuous search for truth.
• It refers to providing opportunities and creating situations
that enable students to search continuously for truth and
reality i.e. engaging in persistent investigation, research
and inquiry.
• The theoretical basis of the principle states that the build
up of knowledge is continuous.
• Knowledge grows and develops through continuous
polishing refining and improving.
9. The provision for individual learning or activity
• The theoretical basis of the principle states that
the acquisition of knowledge and the
development of skill are both social and personal
"No one learns except through ones own
activities.
• The knowledge which is brought to the
individual through experience or sense
perception is enriched, developed and improved
individually and socially
10. The Importance of providing for first hand direct
experience and conditions for applications of
acquired knowledge.
• It refers to exposing and involving students in first
hand experiences through seeing, hearing feeling,
manipulating and experimenting.
• It enables them to experience the joy of discovery
through actually taking part and what it is.
• The theoretical basis of the principle state that
knowledge arises out of practice (experience) and
is tested in practice (application).
• To acquire behavior students must be engaged in
behavior.
 I hear and I forget.
I see and I believe.
I do and I understand.
Confucius
 UNIT TWO
INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
Instructional (teaching) method:-
• Effective teachers are not only aware of the
existence of various kinds of teaching methods,
they are also skilled in using them.
• deals with what the teacher and the students
should do in the teaching- learning process
• method is the means by which lesson activities
are selected and ordered in such a way that the
students could bring about the expected learning
outcomes.
• is any teaching that can be used to facilitate
student learning and satisfaction
Classifications of Instructional Methods
• Different educational researchers use different types of
classifications when referring to instructional methods. The
following are among the various types of classifications of
teaching -learning methods.
 
Direct instruction methods versus indirect instruction
methods
Teacher-centered methods versus student- centered methods
Conventional methods versus non- conventional methods
Traditional methods versus modern ( non- traditional)
methods
 Teacher-Centered Methods
• It is a teaching method that occurs when
teachers control instruction by presenting
information, giving directions to the class, and
using criticism;
• associated with teacher dominated activity,
teacher controlled classrooms;
• an instructional procedure for teaching content
in the most efficient, straightforward way
( Cruickshank& Others, 1995)
• Teacher centered approaches are more traditional
in nature, focusing on the teacher as instructor.
• They are sometimes referred to as direct
instruction, deductive teaching or expository
teaching, and are typified by the lecture type
presentation.
• In these methods of teaching, the teacher
controls what is to be taught and how students are
presented with the information that they are to
lean.
• Teacher- centered instruction is, in some
literature, synonymous with expository or
didactic teaching.
• Some even relate it to lecture approach.
• In this method, the teacher uses the
traditional ‘chalk- and –talk’ or any other
method of teaching in which the teacher is
active and the students not active as the
teacher.
• It is an active teaching method than an active
learning method.
• Teacher- centered approaches are dominated by
instruction where the teachers’ role is to present
the information that is to be learned and direct the
learning process of students (Shuell, 1996).
• The teacher identifies the lesson objectives and
takes the primary responsibility for acting
throughout the instruction by explaining the
information to be followed by students' practice.
• Teacher- centered strategies are most efficiently
used for the teaching of facts, rules and action
sequences.
• It focuses exclusively on the acquisition of
predetermined information (Borich; 1988).
 When is Teacher-centered Method Appropriate?

Most of the strategies in teacher- centered

instruction are at their best :
• when the teacher's purpose is to disseminate
information that is not readily available from text
books in appropriate sized pieces.
• When the teacher must subdivide and translate
text book material in to a more digestible form
for more understanding by the students
• when the teacher wishes to arouse student
interest.
• There are also times when teacher- centered
instruction strategies are inappropriate. This
includes:-
• When objectives other than the acquisition of
information pertaining to the learning of facts,
rules, and sequences of behavior are desired.
• W/n the students are considerably above average in
intelligence and achievement or are already well
versed in the content to be learned , this time
teacher dominated instruction strategies become
boring and ineffective.
 What is Student-Centered Method?
• It is a teaching method that occurs when teachers provide
students with experiences or information and then ask
students for their observation and conclusion (Cruickshank,
et.al, 1997).
• In these methods, the students are not passive.
• The methods keep students active. Student-centered methods
deal not only in providing information (knowledge) rather they
compel students to collect information, record it
systematically, discuss it, compare it, draw conclusions and
communicate what is concluded.
• the strategies in this category give importance to involving
students in their own learning by doing things. This makes
them active learning methods
• Student centered approaches (sometimes
referred to as discovery learning, inductive
learning, or inquiry learning) place a much
stronger emphasis on the learner’s role in the
learning process.
• When you are using student-centered
approaches to teaching, you still set the
learning agenda but you have much less direct
control over what and how students learn.
• The role of the teacher in student -centered
methods is organizing and guiding the
activities through which the students learn.
• Besides, teachers take the responsibility of
checking that the students are really thinking
and follow their progress to ensure they are
learning.
Research shows that learner-centered methods
lead to:
 Increased student engagement with the content
 Deep learning
 Long term retention
 Acquisition of critical thinking or creative problem-
solving skills
 Positive attitude toward the subject being taught
 Confidence in knowledge or skills
 Points to Consider While Selecting Instructional Methods

• Teachers use different teaching methods in

their instruction. What matters is the extent to
which the teachers consider the different
factors in the choice of the teaching methods.
• While selecting instructional methods, there
are things that we have to consider.
• An arbitrary way of selecting a teaching
method often leads to failure.
• The points to be considered while deciding on
which method to use are:
 The types of objectives that you want
your students to achieve
 The overall characteristics of students
you teach.
 Group size
 Objectives and Teaching Method Choice
 

• Teachers need to always ask themselves questions such as:

What do I want my students to be able to do?
What do I want my students to feel?
• These objectives highly influence how you have to teach
the lesson because different educational objectives require
different ways of communication. Two things are supposed
to be found out about objectives to decide which methods
are appropriate for them: 
Kind of the objectives, and
level of the objectives
Students and Teaching Method Choice

• Other than lesson objectives, characteristic of

the students is another base for deciding
which method is to be used. The
characteristics include
learning styles of students
level of students participation
ability of students
motivation of students
Learning Styles of Students:- Students learn in different
ways and styles. An approach that is appropriate to one
student may well be inappropriate for another.
• For example some students in your class could be visual
learners and prefer to have methods using charts,
demonstration and other visual aids.
• Auditory learners could also be there in your class and
they might prefer hearing to explanations of the point
to be learned. Such students may be helped through
methods like lecture, question & answer,
brainstorming,...
• Kinesthetic learners are also having preferences of one
method over the other because they learn best while
touching and moving.
• From this we learn that the difference
between students in their learning styles can
be used as frame of reference for selecting our
teaching methods.
• When we accept that students have different
learning styles, we as teachers realize the
importance of providing variety of learning
activities choosing and using variety of
methods.
Level of students' participation: The level of
participation of the students aimed at is an
important factor that helps teachers to choose
methods.
• The kind and level of participation of students
in a given lesson depends on the teaching
strategy applied.
• A method working to involve students in a
high participation will not work when the
participation level required is low or medium.
This is to mean that varied participation level
needs varied methods of teaching.
Ability of Students:- Choice of teaching methods needs
to be related to the ability of your students.
• It is not good to lecture to students and expect them
to take their own notes if they are not able to do this
or they are not used to it.
• It is also good if teachers consider the attention span
of their students when choosing teaching methods.
• The more matured students can tolerate with the use
of similar methods for number of periods. However,
less matured kids have less attention span for one
(similar) thing and changing the methods for each
attention span is to be considered.
 Some Interesting Facts

Students are not attentive to what is being said in a lecture

40% of the time.

Students retain 70% of the information in the first ten

minutes of a lecture but only 20% in the last ten minutes.
Meyer & Jones, 1993
Therefore, we need to make sure to engage students in active
participation
57
Motivation of Students:- The choice of a teaching
method can have an effect on the motivation
and interest of students. An enthusiastic
approach is more likely to motivate students
than a dull approach. To this end, teachers might
need to choose action involving methods.
• On the other way round, motivation and interest
of students can also have an effect on the choice
of methods. For example, when you find your
students enjoy working with others, choosing
methods like group discussion, role play,
seminar, etc… might give you better results
 Active Learning Improves:

•  Critical thinking
• Retention and transfer of new information
• Student motivation
• Interpersonal skill
• The purpose of employing active learning
methods is to develop higher order levels of
learning outcomes such as, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation.

• For learning to be active, students must do more

than listening; they must read, write, discuss, or
be engaged in solving problems.

• Students must be doing things, and then thinking

about why they are doing them
Group Size and Teaching Methods
• In order to make a good choice of teaching
strategy, it is important to become familiar
with the methods in relation to the group size
they serve.
• To assist you to understand some methods and
their association to group size, the methods
are divided into the three group sizes to which
they are most applicable and presented in a
chart.
 UNIT THREE
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
• Effective teachers are always able to forecast what is
going to happen in their classrooms during and after a
short or long period of instruction.
• Their prediction highly depends on their preparation
of their instruction in the form of lesson, unit and
annual plans.
• As teaching is a systematic process, it demands a
careful consideration of all its elements during
instructional planning. This is possible if one develops
the skill of instructional planning at different levels.
 Definition of Instructional Planning

• Cruckshank et.al (1995) define planning as "the

process by which teachers decide how best to
select and organize a learning experience to
maximize both teacher and students
achievement and satisfaction.
• before teaching they consider both what to
teach and how to teach it so that teaching and
learning are worthwhile
 Importance of Instructional Planning
• Planning leads to shared understanding of
instructional goals or objectives and subsequently
enhances students' performance
• Planning processes initiated by teachers can give both
students and teachers a sense of direction
• It produces a smoothly running classroom with fewer
discipline problems & fewer interruptions
• It gives teachers greater confidence, security and
enthusiasm for what & how they are teaching &
encourages the use of variety & creativity.
• It benefits students by helping teachers take their
diversity into account.
 POOR PLANNING
• Frustration for the teacher and the student
• Aimless wandering
• Unmet objectives
• No connections to prior learnings
• Disorganization
• Lack of needed materials
• A waste of time
• Poor management
 Levels of Planning
• Teachers regularly engage in long-range,
intermediate- range, and short range planning.
• When teachers engage in long-range instructional
planning, they are generally deciding how to
approach teaching either for an entire year or for a
semester long course.

• Intermediate, middle range or unit planning involves

decisions about how courses can be broken into
chunks, parts, or units where each unit has a
particular theme of focus. In intermediate, or unit,
planning teachers arrange those units or topics in a
meaningful order, thus determining the sequence of
the course.
• During short-range planning, you decide in
detail what information students must learn
about each topic and how it can most
effectively be presented.
• It is at this level of planning that specific
instructional objectives are needed.
 Instructional Objectives
• The beginning of any educational plan is the statement of
objectives.
• The quality of your objectives determines the quality of both
your plan and your actual instruction.
• The foundation of good planning is the preparation of good
objectives.
• An instructional objective or learning outcome is a statement of
the concepts, attitudes, or skills that students are expected to
have accomplished by the end of some period of instruction.
• If you want to plan effectively, you must first decide what it is
that you want your students to know or to be able to do as a
result of the learning experience.
 Writing Instructional Objectives
• Three things must be considered.
 First, you decide the kinds of learning
outcomes you want to express in the
objective.
 Second, you determine whether a general
or specific objective is appropriate.
 Third, you consider the information that
needs to be included in the objective.
 Kinds of Learning Outcomes
• Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives classifies
learning outcomes into three types or domains: the
cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Each of these
three domains is further classified according to the
level, or complexity, of the learning outcome.
Cognitive Domain: They emphasize knowledge of facts
and concepts and their applications.
Objectives in the cognitive domain are classified by their
level of complexity, from the easiest to the complex as
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
Synthesis and evaluation.
Affective Domain: Bloom's affective domain deals with
attitudinal, emotional, and valuing goals for learners.
• Objectives in this domain are subdivided into five levels.
They are Receiving or attending, responding, valuing,
organization, & characterization.
Psychomotor Domain
• Developing muscular strength and coordination is the
primary focus of objectives within the psychomotor
domain.
• This aspect of the learning outcome include objectives
which deals with manipulative or skill development and
expressed through acting or doing. It generally, involves
the development of mental and physicial skills,
techniques & abilities of the learner.
 THE ORIGINAL TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

• Knowledge – The remembering of previously learned material; this involves the recall
of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete theories.
• Comprehension – The ability to grasp the meaning of previously-learned material;
this may be demonstrated by translating material from one form to another,
interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), or by predicting consequences or
effects.
• Application – The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations; this
may include the application of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and
theories.
• Analysis – The ability to break down material into its component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood; this may include the identification of the
parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and recognition of the
organizational principles involved.
• Synthesis – The ability to put parts together to form a new whole; this may involve
the production of a unique communication (thesis or speech), a plan of operations
(research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information).
• Evaluation – The ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose; the
judgments are to be based on definite internal and/or external criteria.
 THE REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

• Remembering – Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant

knowledge from long-term memory
• Understanding – Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic
messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing,
inferring, comparing, and explaining
• Applying – Using information in new ways; carrying out or using a
procedure or process through executing or implementing
• Analyzing – Breaking material into constituent parts; determining how
the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose
through differentiating, organizing, and attributing
• Evaluating – Making judgments based on criteria and standards through
checking and critiquing; defending concepts and ideas
•  Creating – Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional
whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through
generating, planning, or producing
On the first level we learn to remember. There
is just rote memorization and recollection of
facts without much understanding.
• For example, if we learn about lemons, we
want to remember the name, shape, colour,
size and that they are sour. Once we
memorized these essentially meaningless
facts, we move to the second level of learning. 
On level two we learn to understand. We begin
to decode information and learn that a lemon
is yellow when it’s ripe to eat, and if we take a
bite, that it's really super sour. We also
understand that lemons contain lots of
vitamin C, which is a great natural antioxidant
that keeps us healthy. Now as we really
understand a lemon, we can work with it. 
On the third level we apply what we know.
We've understood that while lemons are sour,
they are also a great provider of vitamin C. 
• To apply this knowledge in a meaningful way.
We could boil a lemon into hot water and add
some honey. Then serve this hot lemon to our
sick sister, who’s in need of a treatment. 
On the fourth level, we learn to analyze. This involves
examining and breaking down information into
components, determining how the parts relate to
one another, and finding evidence to support
generalizations.
• We study the lemon flesh, examine the skin and look
at levels of vitamins. We conclude that we can eat
everything inside, while the skin taste bitter and
contains traces of toxic pesticides. It ought not to be
consumed.
Now we are ready evaluate. We analyze, critique and
compare.
• To evaluate our lemon as a good source of vitamin, we
compare it to other sources, such as oranges and
supplements. We look at the following properties:
vitamin levels, affordability, taste, and packaging
waste. If we evaluate our thoughts critically and
without bias, we learn where the lemons score high
and where others score higher. 
• Now after we have learned, understood,
applied, analyzed and evaluated, we are ready
to create. As we now really understand
lemons, also in comparison to similar things,
we can formulate a plan to create our own
natural lemonade. 
Cognitive Level Action Verbs

Remembering Articulate, Define , List, Name, Identify, Recall, Recognize, Tell

Understanding Calculate, Categorize, Conclude, Contrast, Exemplify, Expand,

Explain, Predict, Restate , Compare, Discuss, Distinguish

Applying Carry out , Classify, Demonstrate, Execute, Illustrate, Implement

Practice, Solve

Analyzing Appraise, Attribute , Compare, Contrast, Deconstruct, Detect

Differentiate, Discriminate, Distinguish, Examine, Formulate, Infer

Evaluating Appraise, Check , Coordinate, Critique, Defend , Detect, Dispute

Judge, Monitor, Prioritize, Rate

Creating Change, Compose, Construct, Create, Combine, Compile

 Some Interesting Facts

Students are not attentive to what is being said in a lecture

40% of the time.

Students retain 70% of the information in the first ten

minutes of a lecture but only 20% in the last ten minutes.
Meyer & Jones, 1993
Therefore, we need to make sure to engage students in active
participation
81
 Affective Domain
• Bloom's affective domain deals with attitudinal,
emotional, and valuing goals for learners.

• Although teachers most often associate their

instructional outcomes with the cognitive
domain, almost all teachers try to promote some
change in students affect. For example, most
teachers hope that their students come to enjoy
and value the subject they teach, as well as
learning in general.
• Receiving: Awareness, willingness to hear,
selected attention.
• Responding to Phenomena: Active participation
on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to
a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may
emphasize compliance in responding, willingness
to respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
• Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a
particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This
ranges from simple acceptance to the more
complex state of commitment.
• Organization: Organizes values into priorities
by contrasting different values, resolving
conflicts between them, and creating a unique
value system. The emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values.
• Internalizing values: Has a value system that
controls their behavior. The behavior is
pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of the learner.
 Level Acton Verbs
Receiving asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates,
Phenomena names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses

Responding to answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets,

Phenomena helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports,
selects, tells, writes.

completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms,

Valuing initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects,
shares, studies, works

adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes,

Organization defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates,
modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes

acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies,

Internalizing values performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises,
serves, solves, verifies.
 Psychomotor Domain
• Developing muscular strength and
coordination is the primary focus of objectives
within the psychomotor domain.
• This aspect of the learning outcome include
objectives which deals with manipulative or
skill development and expressed through
acting or doing.
• It generally, involves the development of
mental and physical skills, techniques &
abilities of the learner.
• Imitation: Includes repeating an act that has been
demonstrated or explained, and it includes trial and
error until an appropriate response is achieved.
Becomes aware of action to be performed through
senses.
• Manipulation: Includes repeating an act that has
been demonstrated or explained, and it includes trial
and error until an appropriate response is achieved.
• Precision: Response is complex and performed
without hesitation.
• Articulation: Skills are so well developed that the
individual can modify movement patterns to fit
special requirements or to meet a problem situation.
• Naturalization: Response is automatic. One acts
"without thinking."
• Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.
• Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a
skill.
• Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in
the skill performance without the presence of the
original source.
• Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced,
and performed consistently.
• Naturalization - Two or more skills combined,
sequenced, and performed consistently and with ease.
The performance is automatic with little physical or
mental exertion.
 Level Action verbs
begin, assemble, attempt, carry out, copy, calibrate, construct,
Imitation dissect, duplicate, follow, mimic, move, practice, proceed,
repeat, reproduce, respond, organize, sketch, start

acquire, assemble, complete, conduct, do, execute, improve,

Manipulation maintain, make, manipulate, operate, pace, perform, produce,
progress, use

achieve, accomplish, advance, exceed, excel, master, reach,

Precision refine, succeed, surpass, transcend

adapt, alter, change, excel, rearrange, reorganize, revise, surpass

Articulation

arrange, combine, compose, construct, create, design, refine,

Naturalization originate, transcend
 General (Broad) versus specific
(Narrow) Objectives
• examples of general objectives.
– students will know parts of speech
– students will understand art
– Students will enjoy music
– Students will study Asia
• If the objectives are to guide classroom
instruction, specific information must be
contained.
Given a paragraph, the learner will identify every verb by arching it correctly
C A B D
 ABCDs of writing objectives

• A-Audience: The who. "The student should be able

to…”
• B-Behavior: What a student is expected to be able
to do or the product or result of the doing. The
behavior or product should be observable.
• C-Condition: The important conditions under which
the performance is to occur.
• D-Degree: The criterion of acceptable performance.
How well the learner must perform in order for the
performance to be considered acceptable.
• Type of behavior - the specific action or
performance expected of the student.
• Condition - the circumstance(s) under which
the behavior is to be demonstrated.
• Criteria - the degree or level to which the
behavior must be demonstrated to be
acceptable.
Example:
• Given the picture of a flower (condition), the
student will be able to label the different parts
(behavior), with fewer than three mistakes
(criteria) and complete the task in five minutes
(criteria).
• Given a worksheet of 100 multiplication
problems, the students will write the correct
answers for 80% of the problems.
• Given 10 sentences, the students will identify
the subjects and verbs with 90% accuracy.
 When are Objectives Good?

– Are the objectives relevant to the curriculum for which

students will be held accountable?
– Do the objectives promote a range of learning outcomes
across several domains of learning (cog., off, psych.)?
– Do the objectives promote a range of levels of understanding
or performance (low or high) within each domain?
– Are the objectives written in terms of what learners are
expected to know or do? Are they specific enough that
students will be aware of exactly what they need to know do?
– Are the objectives achievable by this group of students? Do
the objectives correspond to the readiness and ability level of
the students? Do the objectives take individual differences
into account?
Major Elements involved in lesson planning

Generally, there are five major elements involved

in lesson planning (Kyriacou, C., 1998):
 deciding on educational objectives
 selecting contents
 selecting learning activities
 preparing the materials and resources to be
used
 deciding how to monitor and assess pupils'
progress
 UNIT FOUR
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Activities
 What is classroom management?
 Why should teachers manage their classes?
 What are the areas to be managed?
 How can it be managed?
• Managing the classroom environment is one of
the major roles of any teacher. You must be a
good manager of your classroom as it insures you
maintain a conducive environment for the
teaching learning process.
• Management is about control, about directing
affairs, and coping with uncertainties.
• Classroom management relates to the following.
Controlling the learning situation
Directing the learning for the students
Coping with the individual student differences.
• Classroom management can be defined as “….
managing the classroom situation to insure that an
atmosphere is generated where the most effective
learning takes place for all of the students.”(Reece, I. &
Walker, S., 2004).

 the process of organizing and conducting a class so

that it is efficient and effective and results in
maximum student learning (Clark et al., 1988).

 establishing a conducive physical and

psychological environment for the learning process.
• Classroom management, can also be defined as "the
provisions & procedures necessary to create and
maintain an environment in which teaching & learning
can occur (Cruickshank, et. al., 1995).
• Specifically, when planning your classroom
management strategies you need to consider the sort
of classroom environment you want and the rules &
routines need in order to establish this environment.
• Further, you must learn how to hold students
accountable for following classroom procedures and
how to reinforce and reward students for doing so.
• Finally, you need to plan how you will intervene when
misbehavior does occur.
• Traditionally, classroom Management has been
viewed as reactive in nature with a focus on how
teachers react after students misbehave.
• The emphasis was on using discipline to control
misbehavior in classrooms and schools.
• Some teachers spend as much as 80 percent of
their time and effort trying to control student
behavior (Cruickshank, et. al., 1995).
• Research suggests that these control-oriented
teachers may be trying too hard & teaching too
little.
• they are not presenting the clear, uninterrupted,
brisk-paced lessons which are essential to students’
involvement and learn.
• when students spend more time engaged in
learning tasks & correspondingly less time engaged
in nonacademic behaviors, they learn more.
• Managing the classroom environment is one of the
major roles of any teacher.
• classroom management can be aimed at:
 Promoting an environmental, physical and
emotional act of students to be conducive to
effective learning;
 Creating enough time to be used learning
effectively;
 Securing the support and cooperation of students
in classroom activities;
 Ensuring the active and meaningful engagement
of students to the learning task; and
 Maintaining of discipline and control.
 Preventing Management
Problems
• Effective classroom managers always consider
the sort of classroom environment they want
and the rules and routines they use to
establish this environment.
Establishing the physical & Psychological
Environment
• The classroom environment has a powerful
impact on students’ behavior, learning and
motivation.
• Classroom environment (climate) refers to the
overall atmosphere of a classroom resulting from
an interaction of individual needs and
institutional norms and the surrounding
environmental conditions.
I. The Physical Environment
• The physical environment consists of those
aspects of the classroom that exist
independent of the people who inhabit it.

• The shape and size of the room, the seating

arrangement and the location and availability
of equipment and materials are major aspects
of the physical environment.
 Planning the physical Environment

• Effective classroom management starts with

decision about the physical environment in the
classroom.
• Room arrangement and seating patterns can
affect behavior of students and their attitude
towards school and learning.
A. Seating Arrangement:
• Students need to know that the classroom is a
safe, comfortable place in which they can
engage in positive social and academic
experiences. They need
to have enough space to move freely
to have enough space to work at their
desks
to avoid distraction nearby b/c of not
enough space.
• There are 3 notable aspects of the classroom environment
that are impacted by seating arrangements. Those are:
peer interactions
teacher-student interaction
student affect
• Peer interaction (interaction between students) is seriously
influenced by seating arrangement planned (decided).
• Interaction between students and the teacher is seen to be
influenced by the way students are seated. In a classroom
with row seating pattern, students seated in the front and
down the middle of the classroom (forming a triangular area
often called action zone) were found to interact more with
the teacher than those placed out of the “action zone”
Students Affect & Seating Pattern
• Research shows consistently that students sitting
towards the front of the class experience greater
enjoyment of and interest in the class, are more
involved with the class and like the teacher more.
B. Number of Students
• While teachers have little, if any, control over the
number of students in their class, they can influence
the effect of class size.
• they can be sure that there are an adequate number of
desks.
• the desks should be the right size for the students and
should provide ample work space for them
• Left handed students and those with physical
challenges will need work spaces specifically
designated for their safety and comfort
Room Arrangement
• Research on room arrangement impact on
students’ behaviour and learning suggests that an
attractive, well organized environment leads to
more positive attitudes, better grades and more
receptive students.
• Further, students persist longer at tasks,
participate more in discussions, and feel closer to
the group in pleasantly arranged classrooms.
• Unattractive classrooms have been linked to:
 frequent absenteeism
 discomfort
 fatigue, and
 complaints from both parents and students
 II. The Psychological Environment

• This refers to the social or emotional climate of the

classroom aspects of the classroom that exists only
in the minds of the inhabitants, how one feels
about the classroom. The psychological
environment includes:
 the emotional tone of the classroom and
 the comfort level students feel with the
teacher, the learning task and one another as
a social group

• A positive climate promotes cooperative working

relations and helps to prevent and control
problems.
• Three aspects of the psychological
environment have been consistently linked
with students’ learning. These are:
 Classroom emotional affect (tone).
 task orientation; and
 Organization
Affect or Tone:
• An inviting classroom is one that is appealing,
positive place that provides a sense of physical
and emotional safety for students and the
teacher.
• Inviting classrooms are communities of
learners characterized by:
 mutual respect between the teacher &
students
 cooperative relationship among the
students
 a sense of student satisfaction
Task Oriented
• A classroom with a positive psychological
environment is busy, task oriented place.
• In task oriented classrooms, students perceive
that there are definite learning goals to pursue
and believe that they will be held accountable
for reaching these goals.
• Even during free time, the classroom
environment should encourage intellectual
exploration.
Organization
• A classroom with positive psychological
environment is also a place which is
predictable because of well organized routines
and structure.
• Effective classroom management is
fundamentally proactive.
• Students’ misbehavior can be prevented by
thoughtfully establishing the physical and
psychological environments in your classroom.
• The second aspect of proactive or preventive
management is organizing the procedures and
movement in the classroom.
• In well-organized classroom, students clearly
understand what behaviors the teacher expects and
are guided toward those behaviors by the predictable
structure of the classroom.
• This can be done by establishing classroom routines
and procedures.
• Classroom routines are established rules &
procedures which control and coordinate the
movement of students and the occurrence of events.
Types of Classroom Routines
1. Management routines: Management routines involve
nonacademic matters such as distributing and collecting
materials and papers, leaving and entering the room, making
transitions between activities and classes, starting and ending
the school day, cleaning the room, and taking attendance.
2. Activity routines: Effective teachers establish activity
routines that spell out how each kind of activity will be
conducted.
3. Instructional routines. Instructional routines establish what
the teacher will do while teaching.
4. Executive planning routines. Executive planning routines
include establishing, how, when, and where you will complete
your teaching tasks
 Reacting to misbehavior
Why Students Misbehave
1. seeking attention. Students need attention to
know that they are a member of the group and
often behave in inappropriate ways to gain that
attention.
2. Some students misbehave because they are
seeking power. If the teacher is seen as a
barrier to gaining power in the classroom, a
student may misbehave in an attempt to
undermine the authority of the teacher.
3. Misbehavior may be caused by the students
seeking revenge. This misbehavior is often in
response to an earlier power struggle in which
the student was embarrassed, humiliated, or
treated with disrespect, especially in front of
peers.
4. Students misbehave because they are seeking
isolation. That is they just want to be left
alone.
• While much misbehavior can be attributed to
students' active or passive efforts to meet their
needs, researchers point out that some misbehavior
is actually caused by teachers. Researchers identified
for principal teacher behaviors that cause
misbehavior in the classroom.
• Inadequate preparation is perhaps the most
common. Lack of planning regarding the structure
and pace of learning activities leads to students'
restlessness and misbehavior. Second, teachers
sometimes, often unknowingly, treat students
differently. As a result students perceive that the
teacher has certain favorites or enemies.
 Using Punishment in the Classroom
 

• The most common reaction to misbehavior in

schools, no matter what the offense, is some
form of punishment such as verbal reprimands,
time-out, detentions, or more severe verbal or
physical reactions.
• Punishment is something undesirable, painful, or
discomforting that is applied to the student as a
result of misbehavior. It is intended to weaken
the probability that the inappropriate behavior
will recur.
 Guidelines for Using punishment
• Use punishment Sparingly. Punishment should be reserved for
serious misbehavior and generally used as a last resort.
• Use punishment quickly. Effective classroom managers react to
students' misbehavior quickly -usually when they behavior starts
rather than when it ends.
• Use punishments related to the misbehavior. In selecting
punishment for possible use in your classroom, it is important that
they logically relate to the misbehavior.
• Use punishment after careful consideration. Since punishment is
complex & situational teachers should be aware of the context; they
should know how the punishment will be interpreted by the
students and what the punishment will require of them.
• Avoid complex, time consuming punishment systems. Some
teachers try to implement complex intervention systems that require
extensive record keeping or time-consuming conferencing