CC-3

LEARNING AND TEACHING

By
Princi Bhaveshbhai Kanabar
A38
R.H Patel English Medium B.Ed. College
CONTENTS

UNIT 1 - Learning

1.1 Learning: Concept, Factors affecting learning

1.2 Nature of Learning Process, General Principles of Learning
1.3 Theory of learning (Pavlov, Thorndike, Kohler and Skinner) and their
educational implications
1.4 Motivation in learning: Principles of Motivation in Learning, Abraham
Maslow's Motivational Theory: Concept and educational implications.

UNIT 2 - Teaching

2.1 Teaching: Concept, Maxims of teaching, Models of Teaching (Concept of :

Advanced Organizer, Inductive Thinking Model), and Skills of Teaching (Set –
Induction, Questioning, Reinforcement, Stimulus – Variation, Explanation)
2.2 General and Psychological Principles of Teaching
2.3 Analysis of Classroom Interaction: Concept and Components of Ned Flanders’
Classroom Interaction Analysis

UNIT 3 - New Trends of Teaching – Learning

3.1 Use of ICT in teaching – learning, E- learning, Multi-Media Approach: Meaning

and concept
3.2 Experience Cone of Edger Dale, Programmed Learning Material: Concept and
Types, Nature of Each Type and Advantages
3.3 Computer Assisted Instruction, Computer Assisted Learning
3.4 Online Learning, Talkative Books, Various types of Learning Gadgets
UNIT 4 - Methods / Strategies, Techniques, Approach, Styles / Types of
Teaching – Learning (Nature - Importance – Limitations)

4.1 Methods / Strategies of Teaching – Learning: Supervised Study, Team

Teaching, Peer Group Teaching, Brain Storming, Seminar, Inductive – Deductive,
Focused Group Discussion
4.2 Techniques of Teaching – Learning: Drilling, Reviewing and Revision,
Demonstration, Analysis – Synthesis
4.3 Approaches of Teaching – Learning: Situational Approach, Structural
Approach, and Constructivist Approach
4.4 Styles of Learning - Auditory, Visual, Kinaesthetic and Multi-Sensory Learning
 UNIT 1 – Learning

1.1 Learning: Concept, Factors affecting learning:

It is quite essential for the teachers to know about the concept of the term ‘learning' before
engaging in the teaching process. It would facilitate the teachers to get a thorough
understanding of the meaning and definitions of learning.

Learning is an act of getting experience, knowledge, skills and values by understanding

what to do and how to do any task by synthesizing the different types of information
perceived by us. Learning brings about changes in the existing behavior of an individual.
Human beings, animals and plants do learning.

A child starts learning even in the womb of the mother and it involves continuous
training or practice to produce a permanent change in the behavior. Learning not only
brings about changes in the existing behavior of an individual but also enable individuals to
acquire new behavior. The changes brought about through experience and training by
learning would be stable and enduring. It prepares the individual for adjusting and adapting
with the existing environment.

Learning is a process which occupies an important role in molding the structure of

our personality and behavior. It develops socially accepted behaviors and also there is
equal chance of building negative side of human behavior. Learning necessities to meet
some personal need as it is a purposeful and goal oriented. Recognizing and identifying such
needs enable us to evaluate whether that learning has been worthwhile and successful.

Learning involves new ways of doing things with no limit to adopt the ways and
means to attain the goal. It is a continuous, comprehensive process which involves different
methods and covers conative, cognitive and affective domains of human behaviour.

Temporary changes due to maturation or hunger are excluded from learning. Also
we should know that responses to tendencies like instincts and reflexes etc. could not be
attributed to learning. Ex. We blink our eyes on bright light; we remove our hands
immediately when you touch a hot thing or a cold thing.
 Learning - Definitions:

 “Learning is the process by which behavior (in the broader sense) is originated or changes
through practice or training” – Kingsley and R. Garry (1957)

 “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a

result of reinforced practice” – Kimble (1961)

 “Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old

behavior as the result of experience” – Henry P. Smith (1962)

 “The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental

requirements” – Gardner Murphy (1968)

 Learning is defined as “the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes .It involves new
ways of doing things, and it operates in an individuals' attempts to overcome obstacles or
to adjust to new situations .It represents progressive changes in behavior. It enables him
to satisfy interests to attain goals” – Crow and Crow (1973)

 Learning is “a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience

and increases the potential for improved performance and future learning”
(Ambrose et al 2010).
 “We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that—when
internalized and mixed with what we have experienced—changes what we know and builds on
what we do. It’s based on input, process, and reflection. It is what changes us.”
–From The New Social Learning by Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner

 “The process of gaining knowledge and expertise.”

From The Adult Learner by Malcolm Knowles
 Factors Influencing Learning

We have seen that ‘learning' is one of the most important functions of our cognitive
system which brings about relatively permanent changes in the behavior of the
learner. There are some factors which influences the acquisition of knowledge by
perceived information through learning. These factors determine the achievement of
desired goals aimed in the learning process. The factors are:

a) Psychological individual differences of learners

b) Teachers' enthusiasm in classroom learning
c) Environment and other factors

a) Psychological individual differences of learners:

The individual differences in the psychological, physical, social and cultural factors
influence the quality and quantity of learning. The individual differences in
psychological aspects make learners to differ from one another in the learning
process.

The psychology of individual differences of learners' deals with the intelligence

and abilities associated with personality of learner, learning styles and needs and
interests of learner. The personality of learner includes their aptitude, attitude,
motivation, mental health and aspiration to achieve their goals of life.

Learning is most effective when differences in learner's language, cultural, and

social behavior are taken into account. Although basic principles of learning, stimulus
and effective instructions may apply to all learners, it is necessary to pay attention to
language, intelligence, ethnic group, race, belief and socioeconomic status of the
learners which can influence learning. When learners see that their individual
differences in abilities, background, and cultures are valued and respected, then the
motivation for learning enhances.

b) Teachers’ enthusiasm in classroom learning:

The modifications in behavior of the learner depend on the nature and method of
learning experiences gained by the learner. Teachers play an important role in the
teaching – learning process as a facilitator of learning. By adopting dynamic and
efficient teaching techniques and strategies, a teacher could explore the talents of the
learner and could progress quality of teaching –learning process.
Learning of different subjects and area of experiences could be enhanced by adopting
pertinent teaching techniques and strategies. The teachers should employ applicable
methods such as teacher- centered or learner- centered and a number of good
techniques such as memorizing, understanding, reflective, interaction, mentoring etc.
to enable the learners to learn their subject and content matter.

A teacher should be able to identify and meet the educational needs of the
learners. The awareness in educational psychology could enable a teacher to know
the motivational level, abilities, attitude, emotional conditions, interests and
intelligence of the learners ‘and should be aware of the advances educational
psychology.

A teacher should also be sensitive to individual differences, keep in mind the

level of intelligence and abilities of the learners and their different cultural attitudes.
A teacher should respond in a sensitive way and view learners positively regardless of
their cultural backgrounds.

The developmental needs of the learners could be motivated by a teacher if he

or she finds himself or herself passionate towards their profession. In the process of
teaching the teachers could counsel the learners by using psychometric instruments
such as tests, rating scales, checklists, observation and interview. It helps the learners
to overcome their psychological obstacles in their way to attain their aims of learning.

c) Environment and other factors:

The external environmental factors such as surroundings, cultural and social demands
such as relationship with parents, teachers and peer, information factors such as
media influence the learner. Surroundings include factors associated with one's
location, weather, and people in the surrounding area, schedules and events. Cultural
settings of the learner such as culture of their origin, religion and place influence the
learning process. The learner's social relationship with their parents, teachers and
peer group and mass media greatly influence the type of learning, intense of learning
and time required to learn a need of the learner.
Some other factors from online sources:

Aptitude
This is one of the most important factors affecting learning across ages. Different people will
have different aptitudes - some people might be better skilled at mathematics, and as a result
might find sciences easier to learn, while others have difficulty in the same subject. Again, the
people who find mathematics difficult might find economics and humanities easier to
comprehend. It is always important to consider a person’s aptitude before deciding what they
want to do in life in the future. If someone feels that they do not know what their aptitude is, it is
better to take an aptitude test and find out what works for them best so that they do not get
stuck doing something that they cannot do.

Goals and Aspirations

Now, just because a person is good at something does not mean that it should be their goal in
life. People who are talented in one field sometimes excel in other fields as well. A top example
would be Hedy Lamarr. She was one of the most brilliant engineers at the time and invented
signal-hopping technology that turned out to be one of the most fundamental requirements of
later technologies like GPS and WiFi. However, even though she was good at her work, her
interests lay in acting, and today she is considered one of the best actors that the world. So goals
and aspirations also come into play when it comes to learning - learning something that you
don’t like will invariably make you hate it even if you are good at it.

Motivation
Motivation is another one of the driving factors affecting learning. A person’s motivation to do
work is directly related to how motivated they are to do that particular piece of work. To study, a
student must have both intrinsic motivation as well as extrinsic motivation. In fact, there are 10
types of motivation - all of which are essential in a student’s life.

Locus of Control
Locus of control refers to the belief held by a person regarding the positive or negative outcomes
in a person’s life. What that means is that a person might believe that what they do influences
their outcome. For example, a person with a high internal locus of control would feel that their
work and talent were the reason for their success. Such students will be proactive in their
approach to learning and actively seek ways to improve themselves. A student with a low locus
of control would not take steps towards learning about their weaknesses and rectifying them.

Learning Style
Different students have different learning styles. Some students prefer visual learning because it
helps them remember the concepts better, while some students find an auditory learning
experience the best way to learn. Some other students might prefer a lesson that makes them
feel like they had any experience with the thing they were learning - this type of learning is called
kinesthetic learning. So whether a student prefers a visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learning style
is also one of the most important factors affecting learning among students.

More definitions for learning

 Gates “The modification in behavior to meet
environmental requirements”.
 Murphy. G “The term learning covers every
modification in behavior to meet
environmental requirements”.
 Baron “Learning as any relatively permanent
change in behavior potential, resulting from
experience’’.
 Smith H.P” Learning is the acquisition of new
behavior or the strengthening or weakening of
old behavior as a result of experience”.
 Crooks and Stein “Learning is a relatively
enduring change in potentials behavior that
results from experience”.
 C.E. Skinner “Learning is the process of
progressive behavior adoption”.
 Stephen “Learning is a relatively permanent
change in behavior that results from
experience”.
1.2 Nature of Learning Process, General Principles of Learning

Objectives of Learning

Learning is also a planned and systematic process just like teaching wherein there are
individual objectives of the learners, some of which are mentioned below.

o The main objective of learning is to gain knowledge and this is the ultimate target of the
learner.
o To enhance the current skill sets of the learner itself.
o Attaining doubtless knowledge
o Acquire lesson clarity and deep subject matter understanding.
o To create an impact in society at large.

Nature and Characteristics of Learning

Learning as a process possesses certain characteristics which are distinct. Some characteristics
are mentioned below.

o Learning is a change in behaviour irrespective of whether it is good or bad.

o Learning involves experiencing and practicing.
o Learning is influenced by the previous behaviour of an individual.
o Like teaching, learning is also a continuous process, as it is rightly said that with each
day passing we experience and learn something new.
o Learning is intended to bring about a permanent change in one’s behaviour.
o Learning is a universal process and is present everywhere around the globe.
o Learning is also said to be a process of adjustments that an individual follows to meet
the norms of society at large.
o Learning is intended to bring about the growth and development of an individual firstly
and then the society at large.
o Learning is an active social process.
o Learning is a dynamic and ever-evolving systematic process of interaction between the
teacher and the learner.
o People can learn from nature as well.

Functions of Learning

Learning is a purpose-driven process and need to fulfill certain functions, few are mentioned
below.

o The most important function of a learner is to be actively involved in the process of

gaining knowledge.
o Learning is intended to bring about changes in individual, ideally positive changes.
o Learning is also transferable in the sense that it should be shared with people around.
o Learning helps the learner to build on his prior knowledge.
o Learning helps the learners to become problem solvers and helps them in self-
regulation.
 o To attain in-depth knowledge of the subject.

1.3 Theory of learning (Pavlov, Thorndike, Kohler and Skinner) and their
educational implications
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – PAVLOV

In 1904, Russian psychologist lvan Pavlov, during his experimental work on dog's digestive
process, accidentally noticed the secretion of saliva in the dog on the sight of food or hearing
the footsteps of the caretaker. Conditioning can be defined as “a process in which a neutral
stimulus which is not associated with any specific natural response, on pairing with a natural
stimulus acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus.” for example, if food is
presented, saliva flows. Food is the ‘natural stimulus' (or unconditioned stimulus-U.C.S.) that
can elicit the ‘natural response' (or unconditioned response-U.C.R) salivating'. The sound of
a bell which is a neutral stimulus, not associated with any specific response originally, when
paired with food a number of times, acquires the characteristics of food and starts eliciting
the response of salivation, even when presented alone. Now we say the dog has been
conditioned to the sound of bell and we refer the bell sound as ‘conditioned stimulus' (C.S.)
and salivation as ‘conditioned response' (C.R.). Classical conditioning of Pavlov is also called
‘stimulus substitution' because we substitute a neutral stimulus, through the process of
‘contiguity' (occurrence of two events in quick succession).

Experiment

A hungry dog was brought into a laboratory and food was shown. The sight of food is
smell of the food made the dog salivate. The amount of saliva secreted was measured.
The real experiment started. At one stage before offering the food, the small sound of
bell was given to the dog. When a number of trials continued like this, the dog salivated
even without seeing the food but by just hearing the bell. This is because the dog made an
association or connection between the sound of the bell and the arrival of food. The
sequence is as follows:

Food (US) Salivation (UR)

Bell (CS) Listening

Bell (S1) (CS) + Food (S2) (US) Salivation (UR)

Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

Where,

US means Unconditioned Stimulus i.e.

natural CS means Conditioned Stimulus
 i. e. artificial UR means Unconditioned
Response

CR means Conditioned Response

Experiment for Pavlov's Classical conditioning

Conditioning means making a connection between an artificial stimulus and natural

response. This becomes possible because a connection is made between an artificial
stimulus and a natural stimulus.

Concept and Principles

i) Principle of Acquisition:

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually
strengthened. For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog salivate in response to
the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the bell.
You can say the response has been acquired as soon as, you can gradually reinforce the
salivation response to make sure the behavior is well earned.

ii) Principle of Extinction:

Extinction is when the occurrences of conditioned response degrease or disappear. In

classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with
an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food (unconditioned stimulus) had
been paired with the sound of a whistle (conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come
to evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus
(the smell of food), were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle),
eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

iii) Principle of spontaneous recovery:

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus are no longer associated, Extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous
recovery.

iv) Principle of Stimulus Generalization:

Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
response after the response has been conditioned. For example, if a child has been
conditioned to fear a suffered white rabbit, the child will exhibit fear of objects similar to
conditioned stimulus.

v) Principle of Discrimination:

Discrimination is the ability of differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other

stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the bell
tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would involve being able to tell the
difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

Classroom Implications

1) Classical conditioning is used in language learning by associating words with

picture or meanings.
2) It can be used to develop favourable attitude towards learning, teacher's
subjects and the school.
3) Developing good habits in children such as cleanliness, respect for elders,
punctually, etc. through the use of conditioning.
4) Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear, through the use of
reconditioning process.
OPERANT CONDITIONING - B. F. SKINNER

Prof. Skinner started his research work on behaviour while he was a graduate in the
department of psychology of the Harvard University. In 1931, he wrote his thesis entitled,
The Concept of the Reflex in Description of the Behavior. Skinner was a practical
psychologist who conducted several experiments on rats on pigeons. He popularized
‘teaching machines' in learning in 1954.

Experiment

Skinner at first tested this theory with rats. Later, he experimented the test with
pigeons. With bar and a food tray he constructed a puzzle box and drove a hungry rat into
the puzzle box.

The hungry rat wandered here and there and pushed the bar. The bar and the
food tray had its connections. When the rat pushed the bar down a food pellet fell into
the tray and it ate the food. The rat learned the task of pressing to get food on needs from
which we can understand that reinforcement is needed to achieve a task.

In experiments on pigeons a pigeon was rewarded with a food pellet when it

approached a disc and pecked it. Skinner was able to shape even the behaviour of birds.

In the theory of skinner's operant conditioning, giving correct response is more

important. This type of conditioning is called instrumental conditioning since the
response is Instrumental in drawing unconditioned stimulus. Here stimulus's is only one.
In Pavlov's classical conditioning theory, we have two conditioned stimuli which precede
the response whereas in Skinner's operant conditioning theory. It is one unconditioned
stimulus which come later, desired response is reinforced by unconditioned stimulus.

An illustration showing Skinners Classical conditioning theory

 Concepts and Principles

i) Positive reinforcement

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his skinner
box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would
accidently knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop in to a container
next to the lever. The rat quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of
being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured
that they would repeat the action again. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour by
providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.

ii) Negative reinforcement:

The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behaviour. This is known as
Negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is
“rewarding” to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behaviour
because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

iii) Punishment (weakens behaviour)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or

eliminate a response rather than increase it .it is an adverse event that decreases the
behaviour that it follows.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
i. For developing the motivation in the students for classroom work by reinforcement
like praise, blames, grades etc., should be used.
ii. Skinner's principles of learning focus attention on the individual's pace of learning.
Teaching machines and the programmed learning system have been devised on
the basis of the theory of learning founded by skinner.
iii. In the classroom, the principle of immediacy of reinforcement is very important.
Praise for a job done well given immediately can be a stronger reinforce or
 motivator than a grade given much latter.
iv. The schools should practice the principle of operant conditioning namely to destroy
the elements of fear from school atmosphere by using positive reinforcement.
v. Desired behaviours of students should be reinforced at once to increase the
likelihood or reoccurrence of the behaviour in future. Each step of the behaviour is
to be reinforced.

INSIGHT LEARNING - KOHLER

This theory is related to the cognitive type of theory of learning. It was developed by
Gestalt psychologist. The main exponents are Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Kafka and Max
Wertheimer.

This theory advocates that when a particular situation is being learnt, it does not help to
learn it in parts but it helps to learn its whole. Learning is an exploratory, purposive and
creative activity but not a trial and error method of activity. Learning means,
‘Reorganization of the perceptual field”. Learning is dependent upon intelligence of the
individuals.

Experiment

Wolfgang Kohler conducted experiments through Chimpanzees in a laboratory at Canary

Islands. He conducted the following experiments based upon box-problems and some
others on stick problems. He inserted hungry Chimpanzees (Sultan) in a cage and hung
bananas at the ceiling and paced a stick and a wooden box inside. It tried to catch the
banana by standing on the box but it could not. The hungry Chimpanzees sat in a corner
and tried to grasp the situation by analyzing hoe to takes the bananas. A student insight
appeared in its mind and it jumped at the top of wooden box and hit the bananas with
the help of stick.
 An illustration of Kohler's Insight Learning Theory

Instead of the above method, Kohler also conducted the various experiments by placing the
bananas outside the box and placing two sticks inside the box and by removing the wooden
box.

The results of the experiment are:

i. Learning is achieved not only by trial and error method but on the Chimpanzee's
intelligence.
ii. The whole situation has to be understood along with the inner relations involved
therein. One can solve the problem through the experience gained.

Classroom Implications

i. Learning and teaching should be in total and not in part

ii. The learner should be motivated by arousing the interest and curiosity to well
acquaint with the specific aims and purposes of the learning process
iii. The teacher should adhere to inter-disciplinary approach in teaching
iv. Learning should be in an intelligent from and not in a mechanical form

Trial and Error Learning (Edward Lee Thorndike)

The famous psychologist Edward lee Thorndike (1834 – 1949) was the initiator of the theory of
trial and error learning based on the findings of his experiment on cat. In one of his
experiments, for instance, he put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. There was only one door which
could be opened by correctly manipulating a farce. A fish was placed outside the box.

The smell of the fish ached as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. In
another trial, the process was repeated. The cat was kept hungry and placed in the same place
in the same puzzle of the box. The fish and its smell again worked as a motive for it to get out
of the box, it again made random movements and frantic efforts. But this time, it took less time
to come out. In subsequent trials, such incorrect responses, biting, clawing and dashing were
gradually reduced and the cat took less time on each succeeding trials. In due course, it was in
a position to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box. In this way, gradually the cat
learnt the art of opening the door. The experiment sums up the following stages in the process
of the learning.

1. Drive : In the present experiment it was hungry and was intensified by the sight of
the food.
2. Goal : To get at the food by getting out of the box.
3. Block : The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
4. Random Movements : The cat persistently
tried to come out of the box without knowing
how.
5. Selection : Gradually, the cat recognized the
correct way to manipulate the latch. It
selected the proper way of manipulating the
latch out of its random movements.

6. Fixation : At last, the cat learned the proper

way to open the door by eliminating all the
incorrect responses and fixing only the right
 response. Now it was able to open the door
without any error or in other words, learnt
the correct way of opening the door.
Based upon the experiment mentioned above the
major theoretical principles which form the basis of
Thorndike’s theory of learning and summarized in the
discussion as follows. Learning involved trial and error
or selection and correction. Learning is the result of the
formation of connectionism. Learning is incremental,
not insightful; Learning is direct, not mediated by ideas.
The experiment sums up the following stages in the
process of learning.

Trial and Error is a method of learning in which various responses are tentatively tried and
some discarded until a solution is attained.

E.L.Thorndike (1874-1949) was the chief exponent of the theory of connectionism or trial
and error. He was an American Psychologist who conducted Stimulus - Response(S-R)
theory experiment with the help of animals. Thorndike was the first to study the subject of
learning systematically using standardized procedure and apparatus. All learning, according
to Thorndike is the formation of bonds or connections between Stimulus- Response.

The Puzzle Box Experiment

Thorndike's Experiment on cat in the puzzle is widely known and often quoted in psychology
of learning. The experimental set up was very simple. A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle
box and outside the box a dish of food was kept. The cat, in the box had to pull a string to
come out of the box. The cat in the box made several random movements of jumping,
dashing and running to get out of the box. The cat at last succeeded in pulling the string. The
door of the puzzle box opened, the cat came out and ate the food. He promptly put the cat to
next trial. The cat again gave a lot of frantic behaviour but it soon succeeded in pulling the
string. It repeated for several time, Thorndike noticed as the repetition increases the error also
reduced i.e., Thorndike's cat showed slow, gradual and continuous improvement in
performance over successive trials. He concluded that learning of cat in the puzzle box can be
explained in term of formation of direct connectionism between stimulus and response.
Features of Trial and Error Learning

1. Learning by trial and error is gradual process.

2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely motivated.
3. The learner makes random and variable response.
4. Some responses do lead to the goal (annoying response)
5. Some responses lead to the goal. (satisfying responses)
6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying responses will tend to be eliminated
and the satisfying responses will be strengthened and repeated.
7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the satisfying response) decreases with
successive trials.

The experiment sum up the following in the process of learning:

 Drive : In the present experiment, drive was hunger and was intensified with the
sight of food. (motivation)
 Goal : To get the food by getting out of the box.
 Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
 Random Movement: The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
 Chance of Success: As a result of this striving and random movement the cat,
by chance, succeeded in opening the door.
 Selection (of proper moevement) : Gradually the cat recognised the correct
manipulation of latch.
 Fixation: At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating
all the incorrect responses and fixing the only right responses.
Through the experiment, Thorndike explains that the learning is nothing but the stamping in
of correct responses and stamping out of incorrect responses through trial and error.

Thorndike's Laws of Learning

 Law of Readiness :
The law states "When any conduction unit is ready to conduct, for it do so is satisfying. When a
conduction unit is not ready to conduct. for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduction is
ready to conduct, for it not to do so is annoying."

Law of Effect:
The law states "When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response is made and is
accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs the strength of connection is
increased. When a connection between stimulus and response is made and accompanied or
followed by an annoying state of affairs , it strength decreases.

 Law of Exercise:
The law states "Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly
connected with the situation in proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that
situation and to the average vigour and duration of the connection."

 The law has two sub parts: a) Law of Use and b) Law of Disuse
a) Law of Use states that "When a modifiable connection is made between a
situation and response that connection strength is increased if it is practised."
b) Law of Disuse states that "When a modifiable connection is not made between a
situation and response, during a length of time, that connection's strength is
decreased." This means, any act that is not practised for sometime gradually decays.

Educational Implication

 Thorndike's theory emphasizes the importance of motivation in learning. So learning

should be made purposeful and goal directed.
 It stresses the importance of mental readiness, meaningful practise and incentive in
learning process.
 The law of readiness implies that the teacher should prepare the minds of the students
to be ready to accept the knowledge, skills and aptitudes before teaching the topic.
 More and more opportunities should be given to the learners to use and repeat the
knowledge they get in the classroom for effectiveness and longer retention.
 To maintain learned connection for longer period, review of learned material is necessary.
 The law of effect has called attention to the importance of motivation and
reinforcement in learning.
 In order to benefit from the mechanism of association in the learning process what
is being taught at one situation should be linked with the past experience of the learner.

 Principles of Trial and Error Learning

 1. Learning involves trail and effort
 2. Learning involves formation of connection
 3. learning involves incremental
 4. learning is direct
1.3 Motivation in learning: Principles of Motivation in Learning, Abraham
Maslow's Motivational Theory: Concept and educational implications.
Motivation in the classroom is the willingness and desire of a student to learn. Motivation can be
measured by four indices: choice, effort, persistence, and level of achievement. The higher these
indicators are, the higher a student's motivation.

here are two types of motivation in education:

 Intrinsic – When students are internally motivated to learn

 Extrinsic – When students are motivated by outside factors.

What motivates students to do well in school?

Students may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to do well in school. If they are intrinsically
motivated, they have an internal desire to learn something and are not learning it for a reward of
any kind. Extrinsically motivated students are motivated to learn by an outside reward—this may
be praise, allowance, gifts, etc.
Why is motivation in education important?

Motivation plays a key role in education. Students who are motivated are more likely to set goals
and work toward achieving those goals. Students are more likely to have higher achievement and
learn more when they are motivated.

Motivation, as the name suggests, is what ‘moves’ us. It is the reason we do anything at all. For
teachers, a lack of motivation has long been one of the most frustrating obstacles to student
learning. While the concept of motivation may intuitively seem fairly simple, a rich research
literature has developed as researchers have defined this concept in a number of ways.

Social scientists and psychologists have approached the problem of motivation from a variety of
different angles, and education researchers have adapted many of these ideas into the school
context. While there is a great deal of overlap between motivation theories, researchers differ in
their identification of the underlying belief systems leading to motivational variation.

Some theorists emphasise belief in oneself and one’s competency, others prioritise goal
orientation, and a third group argues that the difficulty of the task shapes individual motivation.
This resource will provide an introduction to various theories of motivation, explain the
importance of motivation for learning, and outline several practical strategies that teachers can
use to support and promote student motivation.
 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation.
1. The environment can be used to focus the student's attention
on what needs to be learned.
Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will promote persistent
effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will be successful in children and in
adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners
by capturing their attention and curiosity.

2. Incentives motivate learning.

Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The instructor determines
an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a particular time. In a general learning
situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in
learning based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based
on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things.

3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive

than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly
reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.
Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults -- have little capacity
for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced constantly. The use of incentives is
based on the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student experiences
feelings of satisfaction. Caution should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not
absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal motivation.

4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to

learn, that is, when one wants to know something.
Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructor's role is to
encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the instructor may need to
supervise directly to ensure that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not ready to learn,
he or she may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must be supervised and
have the instructions repeated again and again.

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 5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional
material is organized.

In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the individual. One method of
organization includes relating new tasks to those already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to
determine whether the persons being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct them to
compare and contrast ideas.

None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are realistic for the learner.
The basic learning principle involved is that success is more predictably motivating than is failure.
Ordinarily, people will choose activities of intermediate uncertainty rather than those that are difficult
(little likelihood of success) or easy (high probability of success). For goals of high value there is less
tendency to choose more difficult conditions. Having learners assist in defining goals increases the
probability that they will understand them and want to reach them. However, students sometimes have
unrealistic notions about what they can accomplish. Possibly they do not understand the precision with
which a skill must be carried out or have the depth of knowledge to master some material. To identify
realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in assessing a student's readiness or a student's progress
toward goals.

1. Because learning requires changed in beliefs and behavior, it

normally produces a mild level of anxiety.
This is useful in motivating the individual. However, severe anxiety is incapacitating. A high
degree of stress is inherent in some educational situations. If anxiety is severe, the individual's
perception of what is going on around him or her is limited. Instructors must be able to identify
anxiety and understand its effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing
severe anxiety in learners by setting ambiguous of unrealistically high goals for them.

2. It is important to help each student set goals and to provide

informative feedback regarding progress toward the goals.
Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning from one day to the next.
It also directs the student's activities toward the goal and offers an opportunity to experience
success.

3. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators.

People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation
can also result in direct anxiety reduction by the social acceptance and the mere presence of
others. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and other
behaviors that may seem as negative.

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 4. Many behaviours result from a combination of motives.

It is recognized that no grand theory of motivation exists. However, motivation is so necessary

for learning that strategies should be planned to organize a continuous and interactive
motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness.
The general principles of motivation are interrelated. A single teaching action can use many
of them simultaneously.

Finally, it should be said that an enormous gap exists between knowing that learning must be motivated
and identifying the specific motivational components of any particular act. Instructors must focus on
learning patterns of motivation for an individual or group, with the realization that errors will be
common.

MOTIVATION FACTORS AND STRATEGIES, BY TIME PERIOD

TIME

BEGINNING: When learner enters and starts learning

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

ATTITUDES: Toward the environment, teacher, subject matter, and self

NEEDS: The basic need within the learner at the time of learning

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Make the conditions that surround the subject positive.

-- Positively confront the possibly erroneous beliefs, expectations, and assumptions that may
underlie a negative learner attitude.

-- Reduce or remove components of the learning environment that lead to failure or fear.

-- Plan activities to allow learners to meet esteem needs.

TIME

During: When learner is involved in the body or main content of the learning process.

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 4

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

STIMULATION: The stimulation processes affecting learner during the learning experience.

AFFECT: The emotional experience of the learner while learning.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Change style and content of the learning activity.

-- Make learner reaction and involvement essential parts of the learning process, that is, problem
solving, role playing, stimulation.

-- Use learner concerns to organize content and to develop themes and teaching procedures.

-- Use a group cooperation goal to maximize learner involvement and sharing.

TIME

ENDING: When learner is completing the learning process.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS

COMPETENCE: The competence value for the learner that is a result of the learning behaviors.

REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcement value attached to the learning experience, for the learner.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES

-- Provide consistent feedback regarding mastery of learning.

-- Acknowledge and affirm the learners' responsibility in completing the learning task.

-- When learning has natural consequences, allow them to be congruently evident.

-- Provide artificial reinforcement when it contributes to successful learning, and provide closure
with a positive ending
 5
1. Motivation is a key to change. Throughout our lives, we discover things about ourselves (and our life)
that we would like to change. However, before we start changing anything, we need to feel motivated.
Without motivation, change is difficult.
2. Motivation is dynamic, NOT static. An important point to remember about motivation is that it is never
the same at any one time. Motivation is always evolving, just as we are always changing and evolving.
People think that you either have motivation or you don’t. This is not true. The truth is, a person’s
motivation, and the intensity of their motivation, changes for a variety of reasons.
3. Motivation is influenced by internal and external factors. Our thoughts and emotions represent the
internal factors that influence motivation. Our family, culture, society, and friends represent the
external factors. Even though we may have the internal factors that lead us to be motivated, there may
be external factors that work against us. We need to be aware of these and figure out how to listen and
honour the factors that are most important to us.
4. Motivation is influenced by social interactions. When I was attending graduate school, there were
many times when I thought about giving up. But, I knew I would regret it if I did. So, when I felt my
motivation dropping, I would surround myself with other people who knew what I was going through.
My interactions with them helped strengthen my motivation to continue with my PhD and achieve my
dream.
5. Motivation can be modified. People can feel different levels of motivation for different behaviours, and
at different times in their life. When I started blogging in 2011, I was highly motivated to write. Then, it’s
almost as though the motivation to write just disappeared. A few months ago, the desire to write came
back. Just as I became motivated to take my business to a higher level, I also became motivated to write
again. My motivation was modified based on the circumstances of my situation.

Sometimes, we feel disheartened and discouraged because we no longer feel motivated to do the things
we once were highly motivated to do. When this happens, the best thing to do is to take a step back and
reflect on the different reasons for why your motivation changed. Remind yourself that your motivation
will return, but you need to figure out the reasons why it went away in the first place. Then, start being
proactive in building it back up.

Motivation is defined as the psychological process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented
behavior. In the world of business and leadership, effectively motivating employees is one of an
executive's most significant challenges. Each employee comes to the workplace with varying needs
that they hope to fulfill through work. Each employee's unique and individual nature means that an
effective executive or manager must have a clear understanding of the many psychological processes
involved with motivation.
 6
STRATIGIES TO ENCHANCE MOTIVATION AND LEARNING

When learning is considered in an aspect of a social process means the primary role of teacher
is to assist the learner. The teacher’s task is to continually move the students ZPD toward higher
levels of competence and complexity.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as “the distance between the
actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in
collaboration with more capable peers” Vygotsky, (1978). Vygotsky believed that when a
student is in the ZPD for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the
student enough of a “boost” to achieve the task. A teacher can provide several kinds of
assistance to the learner on how something could be done to achieve the task, or they can
demonstrate a process or skill both physically and by talking aloud about how an expert thinks. A
teacher can also assist by breaking up a task into smaller units or reorganizing the sequence
of a complex task.

A teacher might assist through questioning, feedback, encouragement, and praise.

Each of these forms of assistance depends on clear and effective communication with students.
Perhaps the most important form of assistance is the well-timed question, which can serve a
number of purposes. Questions can determine when and what a student is ready to learn and
can provide information about the developmental level of each student in particular domain.
Questions can also serve to extend student’s thinking further and provide opportunities for
them to articulate and reflect on their thoughts. Questions can serve as “scaffolds” by guiding
the student through a logical thinking process or by promoting the learner to think about a
problem in a new day.

Scaffolding is the general team for the work the teacher does to provide just enough support,
depending on the needs of the student, to move students’ skills and understanding within the
ZPD. In a mathematics class, for example, the teacher may scaffold a multiplication problem by
relation the problem to an activity that is very familiar to the students, by reviewing skill
needs to solve the problem by providing tools for students to work with, and by offering
support while allowing the students to find their own solutions (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
Scaffolding is a process of assessing and assisting and being sensitive to the needs and the
readiness of the learner to learn with less experience in an area, a field or domain.
 7
They may need more sequenced supports, more attempts, and more opportunities to revise to
develop expertise.

Assistance can also be provided by more capable peers, by resources in the classroom, or
by internet, software, and books. The teacher’s role is to make sure that the student has access
to a variety of resources appropriate to the student’s needs and understanding of how to use
them. Inherent in the notion of Scaffolding is the idea that the teacher eventually fades her
support as students become more skilled. The process of Scaffolding is not necessarily a linear
one. In facts, it is probably best compared to a spiralling process were the teacher anticipates
when the students will be competent enough to work independently, but it is also prepared to
step back in to support students who are not quite ready. Instead of designing a particular time
they will relinquish control to the learners, effective teachers are mindful that they are always
trying to release control of the learning to the students, while being available for needed
assistance.

Supervised discussion:

Teacher’s role in a classroom is multifaceted, charged not only with creating and designing a
learning environment that maximizes learners’ opportunities to interact with each other and
other experts, but also with the job of acting as an expert, model, guide, and facilitator of these
social interactions. The teacher takes the lead to design the tasks, develop resources and
establish the classroom culture and norms for interactions. This includes identifying roles and
appropriate behaviour for students as they interact with one another, fostering discussion
between and among learners and managing the complexities of multiple ongoing tasks and
activities. The teacher role in a socially interactive classroom is to let students discover their
needs of learning by themselves in an almost planned way. In supervised discussion, teachers
are very much involved in shaping the learning environment like gather and arrange resources,
and watch diligently to figure out where learners need help. The engage in a complex balancing
act of knowing when to take centre stage-when to act as an expert- and when to give up control
and step back as a facilitator so that students can learn by teaching themselves and each other.
 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Theory of Human Motivation
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Abraham Maslow. Abraham Harold Maslow was born April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York. He was the
first of seven children born to his parents, who themselves were uneducated Jewish immigrants from
Russia. His parents, hoping for the best for their children in the new world, pushed him hard for
academic success.

He was an American psychologist who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological
health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. Maslow
was a psychology professor at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research,
and Columbia University. He stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people, as
opposed to treating them as a "bag of symptoms".

It was in 1943 a Psychologist Mr. Abraham Harold Maslow suggested his Theory of Human Motivation.
His theory is one popular and extensively cited theory of motivation. Maslow's theory is based on the
Hierarchy of Human Needs. According to Maslow, human behavior is related to his needs. It is
adjusted as per the nature of needs to be satisfied. In hierarchy of needs theory, Maslow identified five
types / sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy of their importance and priority. He concluded that
when one set of needs is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating factor. Thereafter, the next set of needs
in the hierarchy order takes its place. These needs in hierarchy can be compared to a pyramid. At the
lowest level, there will be first set of needs which can be described as basic needs and are universal in
character. This will be followed by other sets of needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most
fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and transcendence at the top. In
other words, the crux of the theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they
become motivated to achieve higher level needs.

The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency
needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency
needs" are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may
not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests
that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus
motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term
"metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic
needs and strive for constant betterment.

The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many
different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow
spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and
"primarily". Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow
stated that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.[5] Thus Maslow acknowledged the
likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he
focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would tend to be
met.
1. Assumptions in Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Maslow's Assumptions in Hierarchy of Needs Theory are;
Man is a wanting being, i.e. his wants are growing continuously even when some wants are satisfied.
2
Human needs are of varied and diversified nature. They can be arranged in a hierarchy of importance
progressing from a lower to a higher order of needs.

Needs have a definite hierarchy of importance. As soon as needs on a lower level are fulfilled, those
on the next level will emerge and demand satisfaction. This suggests that bread (food) is essential and
is a primary need of every individual.

According to Maslow, "Man lives by bread alone when there is no bread." However, he feels the
other needs when his physiological needs are fulfilled. In brief, bread is important but man does not
live by bread alone. There are other needs (security / safety, social, esteem and self actualisation
which influence behavior of people (employees) to work. This is the basic feature of Maslow's
need hierarchy. Attention to all human needs is essential for motivation of employees. Attention to
the provision of bread alone is not adequate for motivating employees. Bread can act as motivating
factor when there is no bread but when it is available, its use as motivator comes to an end. Here,
other motivators (e.g. security of job, social status, etc.) will have to be introduced for motivating
employees. Attention to other needs such as security needs, social needs, esteem needs and self
actualisation needs is equally important and essential for the motivation of different categories of
employees. Maslow, in his theory, has referred to different needs and suggested that attention needs
to be given to all such needs as attention to physiological needs alone is not adequate for motivating
employees. According to Maslow, "Man does not live by bread alone". This conclusion of Maslow is a
practical reality and needs to be given adequate attention while motivating employees.

2. Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs

Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is shown in the following diagram.
The Maslow's Pyramid of Human Needs is explained below;
Physiological Needs: Physiological needs are the basic needs for sustaining human life. These
needs include food, shelter, clothing, rest, air, water, sleep and sexual satisfaction. These 3basic
human needs (also called biological needs) lie at the lowest level in the hierarchy of needs as
they have priority over all other needs. These needs cannot be postponed for long. Unless and
until these basic physiological needs are satisfied to the required extent, other needs do not
motivate an employee. A hungry person, for example, is just not in a position to think of anything
else except his hunger or food. According to Maslow, 'man lives by bread alone,' when there is
no bread. The management attempts to meet such physiological needs through fair wages.

Security/Safety Needs: These are the needs connected with the psychological fear of loss of
job, property, natural calamities or hazards, etc. An employee wants protection from such types
of fear. He prefers adequate safety or security in this regard i.e. protection from physical danger,
security of job, pension for old age, insurance cover for life, etc. The safety needs come after
meeting the physiological needs. Such physiological needs lose their motivational potential
when they are satisfied. As a result, safety needs replace them. They begin to manifest
themselves and dominate human behaviour. Safety needs act as motivational forces only if they
are unsatisfied.
Social Needs: An employee is a human being is rightly treated as a social animal. He desires to
stay in group. He feels that he should belong to one or the other group and the member of the
group should accept him with love and affection. Every person desires to be affiliated to such
groups. This is treated as basic social need of an individual. He also feels that he should be loved
by the other members. He needs friends and interaction with his friends and superiors of the
group such as fellow employees or superiors. Social needs occupy third position in the hierarchy
of needs.

Esteem Needs: This category of needs include the need to be respected by others, need to be
appreciated by others, need to have power and finally prestigious position. Once the previous
needs are satisfied, a person feels to be held in esteem both by himself and also by others.
Thus, esteem needs are two fold in nature. Self esteem needs include those for self confidence,
self-respect, competence, etc. The second groups of esteem needs are those related to one's
status, reputation, recognition and appreciation by others. This is a type of personal ego which
needs to be satisfied. The Organisation can satisfy this need (ego) by giving recognition to the
good work of employees. Esteem needs do not assume the motivational properties unless the
previous needs are satisfied.

Self-actualisation Needs: This is the highest among the needs in the hierarchy of needs
advocated by Maslow. Self actualisation is the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming. It is a 'growth' need. A worker must work efficiently if he is to be ultimately
happy. Here, a person feels that he should accomplish something in his fife. He want to utilise
his potentials to the maximum extent and desires to become what one is capable of becoming. A
person desires to have challenges and achieves something special in his life or in the area of his
specialization. Though every one is capable of self- actualization, many do not reach this stage.
This need is fully satisfied rarely.
 Limitations of Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Maslow's theory of motivation (Hierarchy of Needs Theory) is very popular all over the world4 and
provides guidelines to managers / managements for motivating employees. However, Maslow's theory
has many limitations.

Limitations of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory are noted below;

 Maslow's theory is over simplified and is based on human needs only. There is lack of direct
cause and effect relationship between need and behavior.
 The theory has to refer to other motivating factors like expectations, experience and perception.

 Needs of all employees are not uniform. Many are satisfied only with physiological needs
and security of employment.
 The pattern of hierarchy of needs as suggested by Maslow may not be applicable uniformly to
all categories of employees.
 Maslow's assumption of 'need hierarchy' does not hold good in the present age as each person
has plenty of needs to be satisfied, which may not necessarily follow Maslow's need hierarchy.
 Maslow's theory is widely accepted but there is little empirical evidence to support it. It is
largely tentative and untested. His writings are more philosophical than scientific.

3. Importance of Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Although Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory has been criticized on above grounds, still it holds
many advantages or merits. It helps the managers to understand the behavior of their employees. It also
helps the managers to provide the right financial and non-financial motivation to their employees. This
overall helps to increase the efficiency, productivity and profitability of the organization.

Educational Implications of Maslow’s theory of Human Motivation :

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has several educational implications, as it provides insights into
understanding and addressing the motivational needs of students. Here are some key educational
implications of Maslow's theory:

1. Basic Needs Must be Met First:

 Before students can fully engage in the learning process, their basic physiological and safety
needs must be met. Schools and educational institutions need to ensure a safe and supportive
environment, including access to nutritious meals, clean facilities, and a sense of physical
security.
2. Creating a Positive and Inclusive School Culture:
 Fostering a sense of belongingness and inclusivity is crucial. Schools should promote a positive
and supportive culture where students feel accepted and valued. Building strong relationships
among students, teachers, and staff can contribute to meeting students' social and emotional
needs.
3. Addressing Social and Emotional Development:
 Recognizing the importance of social relationships, educators can incorporate activities and
programs that promote teamwork, collaboration, and social skills. Creating opportunities for
 positive peer interactions and supportive teacher-student relationships can contribute to a
sense of belonging.
4. Recognition and Positive Reinforcement:
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 Acknowledging students' achievements and providing positive reinforcement can address their
esteem needs. This includes recognizing both academic and non-academic accomplishments,
fostering a sense of competence and self-worth.
5. Encouraging Individual Growth and Autonomy:
 Teachers can support students' self-actualization needs by providing opportunities for creativity,
critical thinking, and personal growth. Offering choices and autonomy in learning tasks can
empower students to take ownership of their education and pursue their interests.

6. Differentiated Instruction:
 Recognizing that students have diverse learning styles, abilities, and interests, educators should
adopt differentiated instructional strategies. Tailoring teaching methods to accommodate
individual needs helps create a more personalized and engaging learning experience.
7. Professional Development for Educators:
 Educators should be trained to understand the psychological and emotional needs of students.
Professional development programs can help teachers develop effective strategies for creating a
positive and supportive classroom environment.
8. Support for Special Needs Students:
 Students with special needs may require additional support to address their unique challenges.
Special education programs and resources should be in place to ensure that these students can
fully participate in the learning process.
9. Holistic Approach to Education:
 Taking a holistic approach to education involves considering not only academic development but
also social, emotional, and physical well-being. Schools can integrate programs that focus on the
overall development of students to meet a broad range of needs.

By considering Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, educators can design learning environments that foster
motivation, engagement, and overall well-being, creating a foundation for effective teaching and
learning.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
 UNIT -2 Teaching 6

2.1 Teaching: Concept, Maxims of teaching, Models of Teaching (Concept of : Advanced

Organizer, Inductive Thinking Model), and Skills of Teaching (Set – Induction, Questioning,
Reinforcement, Stimulus – Variation, Explanation)
Teaching is known as an activity of achieving the objectives of learning by sharing the knowledge
through proper methods and techniques