Chap 2 9 10 17

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Chapter 2-Chemistry
Composition of Matter
• Matter:
anything that occupies space and has mass (solid,
liquid, or gas)
• Mass:
amount of matter in an object
• Weight:
gravitational force acting on object
2
Elements and Atoms
• Element:
- simplest form of matter
- Ex. C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
• Atom:
- smallest particle of an element
- contains protons, electrons, and neutrons
3
• Proton:
+ charge, inside nucleus
• Electron:
- charge, outside nucleus
• Neutron:
neutral, inside nucleus
5
• Atomic Number:
number of protons in each atom
• Mass Number:
number of proton and neutrons in each atom
7
Chemical Bonds
• What is it?
occurs when outermost electrons are transferred
or shared between atoms
8
• Ionic bonding:
- attraction between two oppositely charged ions
- Ex. NaCl
• Ion:
- charged particle
- Ex. Na+
9
10
• Polar covalent bonds:
- unequal sharing of electrons
- Ex. Water (H2O)
11
• Nonpolar molecules:
symmetrical electrical charge
12
Hydrogen Bonds
13
Molecules and Compounds
• Molecule:
- 2 or more atoms chemically combine
- Ex. Water (H2O)
• Compound:
- chemical combination of 2 or more different
types of elements
- Ex. NaCl
14
Chemical Reactions
• What are they?
formation or breaking of chemical bonds
• Reactants:
what is put into reaction
• Products:
end result of reaction
A+B  C+D
Reactants Product
15
Types of Chemical Reactions
• Synthesis reaction:
- build a new molecule
- energy-requiring
- Ex. ADP + P  ATP
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REACTANT PRODUCTS
ATP ADP + Pi + Energy
More potential Less potential

energy energy
(a)
REACTANTS PRODUCT
ADP + Pi + Energy ATP
Less potential More potential

energy energy
17
(b) Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Types of Chemical Reactions
• Decomposition reaction:
- break down molecule
- energy-releasing
- Ex. ATP  ADP + P
18
• Exchange reaction:
- combination of synthesis and decomposition
reactions
- Ex. AB + CD  AC + BD
- Ex. HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
19
• Reversible Reactions
– Chemical reaction that can proceed from

reactants to products and from products to
reactants
CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
20
Energy
• What is it?
ability to do work
• Kinetic energy:
energy in motion
• Potential energy:
stored energy
21
• Chemical energy:
energy stored in
chemical bonds (food)
• Glucose:
- sugar found in food
- glucose is used to
make ATP (energy)
• Glycogen:
- stored glucose
- stored in liver,
skeletal muscle, and fat 22
ATP
• What does it stand for?
adenosine triphosphate
• What is it?
stored energy
• When ATP is broken down (ATP  ADP + P)

energy is released.
23
Acids and Bases
• Acids:
- donate H+ (proton)
- pH below 7
- Ex. HCl (hydrochloric acid)
• Bases:
- accept H+ (proton)
- pH above 7
- Ex. NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
• Neutral:
pH of 7
25
26
Inorganic Chemistry
• What is it?
- substances that do not contain carbon and
hydrogen
- Ex. O2 and CO2
27
Inorganic Substances
A. Water
1. Important role in transporting
chemicals in the body
2. Absorbs and transports heat
B. Oxygen (O2)
1. Used by organelles to release
energy from nutrients in order to
drive cell’s metabolic activities
2. Necessary for survival
28
C. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
1. Waste product released during
metabolic reactions
2. Must be removed from the
body
D. Inorganic salts
1. Abundant in body fluids
2. Sources of necessary ions
(Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)
3. Play important roles in
29
metabolism Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
EXAMPLES OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY IN MEDICINE
Sl.No Inorganic compound Chemical formula Application & uses
1 Magnesium MgOH As antacids to relieve

hydroxide, Aluminum Al2(OH)3 acidity & heart burns
hydroxide
2 Sodium chloride, NaCl, KCL As oral re-hydration
potassium chloride salts. To relieve
weakness in time of
dehydration, diarrhea
or vomiting.
3 Sodium nitrite, NaNO2, In cyanide poisoning

Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 & anti-oxidant
4 Ferrous Sulfate FeSO4 In Anemia to
enhance hemoglobin
levels.
5 Sodium fluoride NaF In tooth paste to
prevent dental caries
6 Oxygen O2 For respiration
30
Organic Molecules
31
Carbohydrates
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
- Ex. C6H12O6
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
• Monosaccharide:
- simple sugar (1 sugar)
- Ex. Glucose and fructose
32
• Disaccharide:
- 2 sugars
- Ex. Glucose +
fructose = sucrose
- Ex. Glucose +
galactose=lactose
• Polysaccharide:
- many sugars
- Ex. Starch, grain,
vegetables, glycogen,
33
etc. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Functions of Carbohydrates
• Short-term energy storage
• Converted to glucose quickly
• Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
• Brain cells require glucose
34
Polysaccharides
Two monosaccharides can form
a Glycosidic bond through a
Dehydration reaction to create
a Disaccharide e.g. Sucrose
(Table sugar), Lactose (Milk)
When Many monosaccharides

are linked together, they form
Polysaccharides

Polymers of glucose
Cellulose
Starch Glycogen

Proteins
• Contains C, H, O, N
• Amino acids are the building blocks.
• 20 different amino acids
• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and

carboxyl group
• Amino acids aren’t stored so a daily supply is

required 37
The Legos of Life
Amino Acids
- small organic compound with an amine
group, a carboxyl group, and an R group

The Legos
of Life
Amino Acids
- Twenty
(20) different
amino acids

Figure 2.16c

Figure 2.16ab

The Legos of Life
Peptide
- A short chain of amino acids
Polypeptide
- Long chains of peptides
- Proteins consist of polypeptides that are

hundreds or even thousands of amino acids long
Structural Hierarchy
Primary structure
- The amino acid sequence, from beginning to end
Secondary structure
- Together with the laws of physics and chemistry, polypeptides fold
into a more compact structure
- Depending on the intermolecular interactions, peptides could fold
into α- Helix or β- pleated sheets

Secondary structure
- α- Helix polypeptide
backbones forms a repeating
helical structure that is stabilized
by Hydrogen bonds
-β- pleated sheets regions
of the polypeptide lie in parallel to
each other which then forms
Hydrogen bonds
- Some regions along
polypeptide chains do not assume
any α- Helix or β- pleated sheets
and are just called random coils

Tertiary structure
- The polypeptide
then folds and refolds
onto itself to assume a
complex three-
dimensional structure

Quaternary structure
- Functional
proteins that are
composed of two or
more tertiary
structured proteins

Factors that influence protein structure

48
Functions of Proteins
• Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
• Hemoglobin
• Act as enzymes
• Immune system functions
• Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
• Part of cell membrane
49
Enzymes
The rate of chemical
reactions are increased in
three general ways only one
of which could be done by
any organism:
1. Increasing the temperature

2. Increasing the
concentrations of reacting
substances
3. Adding a catalyst

Enzymes
- Function as biological catalysts

Enzymes
- Function as biological catalysts
- Most enzymes are highly specific for their
reactants (substrates) known as the lock-and-key
model
- Unlike non-biological catalysts e.g. platinum

• Enzymes:
proteins that speed up reactions
53
Protein Denaturation
54
Lipids
• Contain C, H, O
• No 2:1 ratio of H:O
• Insoluble in water
• Ex. Fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,

phospholipids
• Glycerol and fatty acids are the building blocks.

55
Functions of Lipids
• Long term energy storage
• Insulates against heat loss
• Protective cushion for organs
• Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane

structure
56
Fat
• Pad and insulate the body
• Building blocks: glycerol and fatty acids
57
• Saturated:
- single covalent bonds
between carbon atoms
- Ex. Beef, pork, whole
milk, cheese, eggs
• Unsaturated:
- one or more double
covalent bonds between
carbons
- Ex. Olive oil, fish oil,
sunflower oil 58
Trans Fat
59
60
Phospholipids
61
Phospholipids
- Contains Hydrophilic head

and two Hydrophobic tails
- The opposing
characteristics of this
molecules gives rise to the
cell membrane

Phospholipids
- The opposing characteristics of this molecules gives rise to the cell membrane
aptly called the lipid bilayer
Aqueous (“watery”) Extracellular Environment
Aqueous (“watery”) Intracellular Environment

Omega Fatty Acids
65
Eicosanoids
• Important regulatory molecule derived
from arachidonic acid
Prostaglandins – dilate or constrict blood vessels

can regulate inflammation
Thromboxanes – facilitate platelet aggregation
Leukotrienes – mediator of inflammatory response
stimulation of vascular permeability
66
Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids with
long fatty acid tails bonded to alcohols or
carbon rings
- Plants secrete waxes to restrict water loss and
keep out parasites and other pests
- Other types of waxes protect, lubricate, and
soften skin and hair

Waxes
- Complex, varying mixture of lipids
with long fatty acid tails bonded to
alcohols or carbon rings
- Molecules that pack tightly, so
waxes are firm and water repellent

Steroids
69
Nucleic Acids
• Composed of C, H, O, N, P
• Ex. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA

(ribonucleic acid)
• Nucleotides are the building blocks
• Nucleotides composed of nitrogen base,

phosphate, and 5 carbon sugar
70
The language of life
- Nucleotides are
five-carbon
monosaccharide
ring: Ribose or
Deoxyribose

- Nucleotides are
five-carbon
monosaccharide
ring bonded to a
nitrogenous base:
Purine or
Pyrimidine

- Nucleic Acids
- DNA
(Deoxyribonuclei
c acid) consists of
two chains of
nucleotides
twisted into a
double helix;
Contains the
blueprint for life

Nitrogen Bases
DNA RNA
Adenine Adenine
Thymine Uracil
Cytosine Cytosine
Guanine Guanine
74

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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

ATP ADP + Pi + Energy

More potential Less potential

ADP + Pi + Energy ATP

Less potential More potential

– Chemical reaction that can proceed from

CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-

• When ATP is broken down (ATP  ADP + P)

Sl.No Inorganic compound Chemical formula Application & uses

1 Magnesium MgOH As antacids to relieve

3 Sodium nitrite, NaNO2, In cyanide poisoning

• Converted to glucose quickly

• Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)

• Brain cells require glucose

When Many monosaccharides

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Amino acids are the building blocks.

• 20 different amino acids

• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and

• Amino acids aren’t stored so a daily supply is

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

- Proteins consist of polypeptides that are

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1. Increasing the temperature

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• No 2:1 ratio of H:O

• Ex. Fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,

• Glycerol and fatty acids are the building blocks.

• Insulates against heat loss

• Protective cushion for organs

• Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane

- Contains Hydrophilic head

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Aqueous (“watery”) Intracellular Environment

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Prostaglandins – dilate or constrict blood vessels

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Ex. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA

• Nucleotides are the building blocks

• Nucleotides composed of nitrogen base,

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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