ABEN 22 Materials and Processes for ABE BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION Engr. Kelvin Michael A. Crystal Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering Cavite State University Indang, Cavite kmerystal@cvsu.edu.phIntroduction Machines used in the production and processing of crops grown for food and fiber are constantly changing. New developments in farm equipment and new technology in farming practices have reduced farm labor requirements. Machines become obsolete and uneconomical within a few years. These factors make it necessary to revise and bring up to date developments and improvements in the various types of farm equipment in current use on the farm.Materials of Construction The strength, durability, and service of a farm implement largely upon the kind and quality of material used in building it. There is a tendency in the construction of implements to eliminate as many castings as possible and to use pressed and stamped steel. Where this is done, the cost of manufacturing machinery in quantities is materially reduced. The weight of the machine is success or failure of an implement frequency depends upon the material used on building it.Materials of Construction CeesWood Iron, steel, and plastics have practically taken the place of wood. There are, perhaps, two reasons for this: first, steel and plastics are more durable; second, they are cheaper than good wood because of the scarcity of the latter.Rubber Rubber is both derived from the gum of trees and made synthetically. Special compositions of rubber are developed to obtain the properties desired for a particular application. Design engineers should have a thorough knowledge of the properties of rubber—both natural and synthetic. There are several grades of rubber materials varying in the general properties of hardness, flexibility, bonding properties, and chemical resistance.Rubber... The leading use of rubber on farm equipment is in the production of implement tires and tubes. Much rubber is also used in making flat and V belts and for the insulation of ignition wires. Rubber bushings on suspended oscillating components often give an excellent service life and require no lubrication. Disks of rubber to clasp plants are used on transplanters.Plastics A plastic material is an organic solid, polymerized to a high molecular weight, that is capable of being molded, usually with the aid of heat or pressure or both. There are many groups and types of commercially available plastics and they are sold under many trade names. Plastic fall into two general categories, thermoplastics and thermosettings.Plastics... Thermoplastics are usually soft and pliable at normal temperatures and become hard when cold. Typical thermoplastics used on machinery include acrylics and polyethylene polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosetting plastics retain a permanent form or shape when heat and pressure are applied during the forming process. Materials that fall into this category include epoxies, phenolics, polyurethane, and silicones.Plastics... Acommon plastic product used for seed hoppers and chemical tanks is fiber-glass-reinforced materials made from acrylic or polyester and is commonly referred to as “fiber glass”. It is permanent and has good resistance to weathering and most chemicals used in agriculture. Because of many properties of the plastics, they are widely used. Some uses include plow handles, bearings, tubing, conveyor belting, bristles for brushes, windows, and machine panels or hoods. Polyethylene is often used as protective covering for production of certain vegetable crops.Leather and Vegetable Fibers Leather is largely a belting material. Vegetable fibers are used in brushes, fabrics, and upholstery padding.Nonferrous Metals The nonferrous metals are copper and its alloys (such as brass and bronze), aluminum, magnesium, lead, zinc, and tin.Alloy An alloy is a substance that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. The number of possible alloys is infinite. They are made by the fusion of metals. The most common groups of alloys are bronze, brass, babbitt, alloy steels, and the aluminum alloys.Copper In commercial importance, the copper ranks next to iron and steel because of its electrical and heat conductivity and its capacity to form useful alloys. Copper is soft enough to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets or drawn into fine wire. It is used for ignition and electric wires for engines, in generator and starting motors, and in tubing for conducting fuel from tank to carburetor.Brass Ordinary brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Some commercial brasses contain small percentages of lead, tin, and iron. The percentage of copper in brass may range from 60 to 90 percent, and the percentage of zinc from 10 to 40 percent. Brass is used for making radiators, pipe, welding rods, screens for fuel lines, instrument parts, and fittings.Bronze Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. However, zinc is sometimes added to reduce the cost of the alloy or to change its color and increase its malleability. The amount of tin in bronze may vary from 5 to 20 percent, Phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, and aluminum bronze are special coppers alloys containing small percentages of tin, zinc, and other metal such as phosphorus manganese, and aluminum. These are used for bearing bushings, springs, pipe fittings, valves, pump pistons, and bearings.Babbitt Babbitt is a tin-base alloy containing small amounts of copper and antimony. Good babbitt for automobile bearings should contain 7 percent copper, 9 percent antimony, and 84 percent tin. It is used mostly as a bearing metal.Solder Common solder contains about one part tin and one part lead. Hard plumbers’ solder contains two parts tin and one part lead. Solder is used extensively in joining brass, copper, tin, steel, and cast iron.Aluminum This is a white metal with a bluish tinge which is resistant to corrosion and to many chemicals. However, it can be dissolved by alkalis and hydrochloric acid. It is frequently alloyed with iron and copper. Aluminum is extensively used to make light castings for certain types of farm equipment and for coating chemical tanks.Zinc Zinc is a bluish-white, crystalline, metallic, brittle when cold, malleable at 100 to 210 degrees Celsius. It is used mostly as a coating on sheet iron and die castings as a protection against corrosion.Ferrous Metals The ferrous metals include cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. These metals are all produced by the reduction of iron ore into pig iron and subsequent treatments of the pig iron by various manufacturing processes.Ferrous Metals... The term “cast” refers to the process that is used to obtain the final form or shape of the metal. The hot molten material is poured into a mold allowed to cool and harden into the shape dictated by the pattern of the mold. The method is used to form many intricate and irregular shaped parts on farm machinery. The basic differences between iron and steel include the manufacturing processes, the amount of carbon, and impurities, which in turn affect the physical properties.Cast lron There are five general types of castings that are made of iron. There include gray, white, chilled, malleable, and ductile.Gray Cast Iron Gray cast iron is formed by allowing the molds to cool slowly in natural air. Most of the carbon occurs in the casting as graphite flakes that are responsible for the gray color noted when the part is broken. The parts formed are high in compressive strength and low in tensile strength and are relatively brittle. The wearing characteristics due to abrasion are low. To obtain rigidity required in the parts made in this manner, the castings are usually large.White Cast Iron Rapid cooling of the castings causes the carbon to remain in a chemically combined form and gives a characteristic white color when fractured. The parts so made are very hard and brittle; thus it is used in forming parts that are subjected to abrasion or wear. Typical parts include plates for burr and roller mills and plain bearings used on some disk harrows.Chilled Cast Iron Chilled cast iron | made by chilling or rapidly cooling only portions of the casting. This is accomplished by lining or making the mold with metal at the areas where chilling is desired. The hot molten metal is chilled in these areas and casting assumes the characteristics of white cast iron, whereas the remaining portions are cooled more slowly and have the same properties as a gray cast iron.Chilled Cast Iron... This process is used to form many machine parts that require good wear or abrasion resistance of surface or edge but where it is desired to retain toughness in the body to absorb shock loads. Chilled cast iron is used on moldboards and shares on plows and some bearings and on chain sprockets.Malleable Cast Iron Malleable iron is made by subjecting a white casting to the annealing or “softening” process. The casting is heated to a temperature of about 1600 degree Fahrenheit and held in the oven for a long period of time; then it is cooled very slowly. This heat treatment converts the combined carbon into free carbon in an amorphous condition, but not the crystalline form as in gray cast iron.Malleable Cast Iron... The castings or parts are malleable, tough, and strong. The properties are similar to those of low-carbon steel, but the cost is considerably less. Typical farm-machinery parts made of malleable iron include mower guards, ledger plates, control pedals, and chains.Ductile Cast Iron This is a new metal for farm-equipment parts. Patents were granted on the process of producing ductile cast iron in 1949. It is a high-grade iron produced by the ladle addition of magnesium alloy to molten iron prepared to produce gray cast iron. The magnesium acts as desulfurizer, and when added in controlled amounts, it produces spheroidal carbon instead of flake carbon (graphite).Ductile Cast Iron... Ductile cast iron has many applications in farm equipment, such as sprockets, gears, chilled plowshares, mower guards, parts of hay-baller knotter mechanism, and_ tail-wheel mounting brackets for plows. Ductile cast iron can be welded similarly to gray cast iron. It requires, however, a special reverse-polarity arc rod designated Ni-rod 5S. This rod deposits a bead with 8 percent elongation and with tensile properties of over 60,000 psi.Wrought Iron Wrought iron is nearly pure iron, with some lag, and is used on forge work as it is readily welded and easy to work. Wrought iron has very little carbon in it, ranging from 0.05 to 0.10 of 1 percent. It is expensive, however, and a mild steel is used to a considerable extent in place of it. The commercial form is obtained by rolling the hot iron into bars or plates from which nails, bolts, nuts, wire, chains, and many other products are made.Steel Alloys A steel alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. The mixture is composed largely of steel with small amounts of one or more alloy metals. The more common alloy elements used in steel are boron, manganese, nickel, vanadium, tungsten, and chromium.Steel Steel is made from pig iron with manufacturing processes different from those used from making cast iron. The carbon content is lower and more carefully controlled.Steel... There are several ways that steel may be classified. Some of there include: 1.the manufacturing processes (Bessemer steel, open-hearth steel, and electric steel), which affect the quality; 2.the carbon content; 3.alloy steel, where other metals are added; 4.uses such as structural or tool steel; and 5.methods of forming, such as rolled, forced, and cast.Carbon Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon having a carbon content generally below 1.5 percent. Carbon is very important and its presence controls the hardness of the finished steel product. The proportion of carbon is carefully controlled in the manufacturing processes, since the carbon also influences the stiffness and brittleness.Carbon Steel... Carbon steel is generally classed as: 1. low-carbon (carbon content not exceeding 0.25 percent); 2. medium-carbon (0.25 to 0.50 percent carbon); and 3. high-carbon (over 0.50 percent carbon).Carbon Steel... Low-carbon steels are used extensively in the construction of farm machinery. Practically all of the structural parts are made of low-carbon steel. This material is malleable and easy to cut and weld. Medium-carbon steels are used for parts and components requiring greater strength and hardness, such as shafting and connecting rods. High-carbon steel is very hard and is used for making tools, ball and roller bearings, and cutting tools.Alloy Steel The physical properties of steel can be changed and improved to meet the requirements of special applications and uses by the addition of special alloy metals. The more common alloy elements used in steel include boron, manganese, nickel, tungsten, and chromium.Boron Steel This contains a small amount of boron. The boron acts to increase the hardening ability of the steel, that is its ability to harden deeply when heat-treated by quenching and tempering. It is used for axle shafts, wheel spindles, steering-knuckle arms, cap screws, and studs.Manganese Steel This usually contains 11 to 14 percent manganese and from 0.8 to 1.5 percent carbon and has properties of extreme hardness and ductility. It is usually cast for the desired shape and finished by grinding. It is used in feed grinders and machine parts subject to severe wear.Nickel Steel Steel containing from 2 to 5 percent nickel and from 0.10 to 0.50 percent carbon is strong, tough, and ductile. Nickel steels are used in making parts that are subjected to repeated shocks and stresses.Vanadium Steel When less than 0.20 percent vanadium is added to steel, the resulting alloy is given additional tensile strength and elasticity comparable to the low- and medium-carbon steels with a corresponding loss of ductility.Chrome-Vanadium Steel These contain about 0.5 to 1.5 percent chromium, 0.15 to 0.30 percent vanadium, and 0.15 to 1.10 percent carbon. These steels are used extensively in making machinery castings, forgings, springs, shafting, gears, and pins.Tungsten Steel Steels containing from 3 to 18 percent tungsten and from 0.2 to 1.5 percent carbon are used for dies and hard-speed cutting tools.Molybdenum Steel This steel has properties similar to tungsten steel.Chrome Steel Chrome steel usually contain from 0.50 to 2.0 percent chromium and from 0.10 to 1.50 percent carbon. Chromium steels are used in making high-grade balls, rollers, and races for ball and roller bearings. Chrome steels containing from 14 to 18 percent chromium produce a variety of stainless steel.Chrome-Nickel Steel The average chrome-nickel steel contains about 0.30 to 2.0 percent chromium, from 1.0 to 0.40 percent nickel, and from 0.10 to 0.60 percent carbon. Heat treatment increases its tensile strength, elasticity, and endurance limits. It is tough and ductile. Chrome-nickel steel is used in making gears, forgings, crankshafts, connecting rods, and machine parts.Chrome-Nickel Steel... When chrome-nickel steel contains from 16 to 19 percent chromium, 7 to 10 percent nickel, and less than 0.15 percent carbon, it is generally called stainless steel. The commonly called 18-8 stainless falls in this group.Tool Steel The term tool steel is used in designing a high-carbon steel that is used for making tools. It has the property of becoming extremely hard by quenching from a temperature of 1400 to 1800 degree Fahrenheit. It can then be treated to obtain any degree of hardness by heating at lower temperature.Soft-center Steel Soft-center steel consists of three layers of steel. Two layers of hard steel are placed in each side and welded to an inner layer of soft steel. In this manner, a hard surface is obtained, without brittleness. Soft-center steel is used in the making of plow bottoms. Filing a slight notch in the edge of the metal will reveal the three layers.Soft-center Steel... Clad steels and bimetal steels are made by permanently bonding a layer of nickel, inconel, or monel to a heavier base layer of steel by hot rolling. The cladding layer may range in thickness from 3/16 and up, with the cladding amounting to about 10 to 20 percent of the total plate thickness.Shapes of Steel Steel that is formed into angles, channels, tee bars, | beam, Z bars, U bars, and hollow squares is known as structural steel. Solid bars are furnished in many shapes, such as round, half round, oval, square, hexagon, and _ flat-rectangle strips. Various sizes of round and square tubing are available. Many special parts formed from flat-rolled carbon steel and stainless sheets and plates.Hardening of Finished Steels In many cases where long-life service is desired, extremely hard steels cannot be forged and machined to the required shape and finish. Under these conditions a softer steel is shaped and finished, then given a hardening treatment. The most common hardening processes are casehardening and hardening by heat treatment.Casehardening This is a process of hardening a ferrous alloy so that the surface layer or case is made substantially harder than the interior or core. Casehardening can be done by several processes, such as carburizing and quenching, carbonitriding, _ nitriding, cyaniding, induction hardening, and flame hardening.Carburizing It is a process in which steel is packed in charred peach pits or charcoal and heated at about 1600 degree Fahrenheit for a long enough period to give the desired depth of hardness. It is then removed, quenched, and tempered to give the desired hardness.Nitriding It is a process of casehardening by placing the finished heat- treated steel in an airtight box and heating to 1000 degree Fahrenheit as ammonia gas is injected into the chamber.Carbonitriding It is a process of hardening steel by the addition of carbo-rich gas as well as ammonia.Cyaniding It is a process where the steel is dipped into a molten bath of potassium cyanide for a short time. Some carbon and nitrogen are absorbed by steel, which results in the hardening of a thin surface layer.Induction hardening It is accomplished by the use of a high-frequency alternating electric current for a short period. A current is induced in the surface of the steel, which causes localized heating. After heating, the surface is flooded with water to quench and harden it.Flame hardening It is a process in which a oxyacetylene torch is used to heat the surface quickly to a temperature above the critical temperature, after which the surface is quenched with water.Hardening by Heat Treatment Heat treatment is a term used to describe the application of heating and cooling processes to steel, through a range of temperatures, to improve the structure and produce desirable characteristics. Such treatments include annealing, hardening, tempering, and casehardening. Plow beams, plow disks, and disk-harrows blades are examples of parts of agricultural machines that are heat- treated in order to make more serviceable implements.Hard Facing or Surfacing The application of a hard surface, or face, by welding is not to be confused with the hardening of finished surfaces. Hard facing, or surfacing by welding, is the addition of a hard metal over the base metal by applying a welding-rod deposit to provide a final surface that is harder that the original surface.Hard Facing or Surfacing... Hard facing are applied to parts for wear resistance, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, or combinations of the three. Most hard facing is done to prevent wear. In hard-facing parts, it is essential that the correct hardening materials be selected to suit the base metal.Hard Facing or Surfacing... There are possibly hundreds of different hard-facing alloys available, and these are manufactured in three forms: as welding rods, as insert shapes, and in powdered forms. There are many types of welding rods. The rods used with the oxyacetylene torch are not coated. They are heated and dipped into a special flux. Electric rods usually have a flux coating.Hard Facing or Surfacing... Insert and filler bars are welded on surfaces where extra- heavy hard facing is required. Hard-facing powders are spread over the base metal., which is heated to the melting point to embed the powders firmly.References Brady, G.S.: Material Handbook. 1944 Clapp, H.W. and DS. Clark: Engineering Materials and Processes, Metals and Plastics. 1949 DuMond, T.C.: Engineering Materials Manual, Materials and Methods. 1951 Geiger, H.L. and H.W. Northrup: A New Metal for Farm Tool Components, 1951 Hessenthaler, W.H.: Machine Laying of Polyethylene Mulch, 1958 Lyman, T: Metals Handbook, The American Society for Metals. 1948 Marks, L.S.: Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook. 1949 ‘Oberg, E. and FD. Jones: Machinery’s Handbook. 1949, Ryerson Steels. 1954 ‘Smith, R.B.: Materials of Construction. 1973Standards for Engineering Materials AES 501:2000- Engineering Matoras = als and Pulleys for Agricultural Machines Snecicaion and Aplications Paes 4042000 Enon Matt =Koys and oan foe gull achins Sec icatons and :annicatons AES 207-2001 Enpineeting Mattias Halcal Gears fr Agiculual Machines Speciicalns and Apolcatons PAES 314.2002 Engineering Materials = Washers - Specifications and Application PAES 315.7009 ~ Engineering Materials Pins ~ Snecitcations and Application PAES 317: 2002 - Engineering Materials = Metal Shests and Plates. SpecificationsEND OF PRESENTATION Engr. Kelvin Michael A. Crystal Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering Cavite State University Indang, Cavite kmerystal@cvsu.edu.ph