TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
FOREWORD……………………………………………………………………... I
APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL SCIENCE…………………………. 1
FIELDS OF STUDY IN SOIL SCIENCE………………….…………………… 2
CONCEPT OF SOIL….……….…..……………………………………………... 3
COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL………………………………………………… 8
SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT…………………………………… 10
What is soil formation?…………………………………………………… 10
What is weathering?..................................................................................... 11

What are the processes involved in soil formation?..................................... 11

Soil Genesis……………………………………………………………….. 12
The Soil Profile…………………………………………………………… 20
ROCKS AND MINERALS……….….………………………………………… 26
What are rocks?............................................................................................ 26
The Three Types of Rocks………………………………………………... 26
What are minerals?....................................................................................... 28
SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT…………………………………… 10
The Five Factors of Soil Formation………………………………………. 12
What are the roles of each factor in soil formation?.................................... 13
SOIL COLLOIDS…..…………………………………………………………….. 31
What are soil colloids?................................................................................. 31
Inorganic Colloids………………………………………………………… 32
Organic Soil Colloids……………………………………………………... 41
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL……………………………………… 43
Soil Texture……………………………………………………………….. 43
Soil Structure…………………….………………………………..………. 46
Soil Consistency……………………………………………………….….. 52
Soil Density and Porosity…………………………………………………. 52
Soil Moisture……………………………………………………………… 55
Soil Water Holding Capacity……………………………………………... 60
Soil Aeration……………………………………………………………… 63
Soil Color…………………………………………………………………. 65
Soil Temperature………………………………………………………….. 67
Soil Tilth………………………………………………………………….. 69
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL……………………………………... 71
Soil Reaction: Acidity and Alkalinity…………………………………….. 71
Buffering Capacity………………………………………………………... 76
Cation Exchange Capacity………………………………………………... 76
Percent Base Saturation….………………………………………………... 78

Exchange Sodium Percentage…………………………………………….. 79

Anion Exchange Capacity…………………………………………………. 79

PROBLEM SOILS……………………………………………………………….. 92

Acid Soils………………………………………………………………… 92

Calcaereous Soils…………………………………………………………. 93

Sodic Soils………………………………………………………………… 95

Saline Soils……………………………………………………………… 95

Saline-Sodic Soils………………………………………………………… 96

Organic Soils……………………………………………………………… 96

Heavy Cracking Clays…………………………………………………… 97

Gypsiferous Soils…………………………………………………………. 99

Sandy Soils………………………………………………………………... 100

Steeplands………………………………………………………………… 101

BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL…………………………………… 102

Soil Biota………………………………………………………………….. 102

Soil Microorganisms……………………………………………………… 102

Nutrient Cycling by Soil Microbes…….…………………………………. 102

FERTILIZERS AND SOIL AMMENDMENTS…………………………………. 109

Historical Account of Fertilizers………………………………………….. 109

Purpose of Fertilizers……………………………………………………... 109

What is a fertilizer?...................................................................................... 109

Classification of Fertilizers……………………………………………….. 109

Methods of Inorganic Fertilizer Application……………………………… 114

SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT……………………………... 120

Definition of Soil Conservation…………………………………………... 120

Principles of Soil Conservation…….……………………………………... 120

Steps in Soil Conservation………………………………………………... 120

Process of Nutrient Loss in the Soil………………………………………. 121

Soil Erosion……………………………………………………………….. 121

The Universal Soil Loss Equation………………………………………… 124

Soil Erosion Control Measures…………………………………………… 126

LAND EVALUATION AND LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION…… 130

What is land?................................................................................................ 130

What is land evaluation?.............................................................................. 130

What is land capability classification?......................................................... 131

What is land use planning?.......................................................................... 134

SOIL SURVEY AND SOIL TAXONOMY………………….……………….…. 138

What is soil survey?..................................................................................... 138

What is soil taxonomy?……………………………………..…………….. 139

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………… 159

PREBOARD QUESTIONS IN SOIL SCIENCE………………………………. 163

 What is Soil Science?
Soil Science is a branch of science that deals with
the scientific study of the soil—its genesis or origin,
formation and development, characteristics or
properties, functions in relation to crop production
and other uses, problems, protection, conservation
and classification.
FIELDS OF STUDY IN SOIL SCIENCE
 Soil Fertility is the study of the capacity of the soil to
supply nutrient elements to plants. It deals with the
form, amount, transformations, and availability of
plant nutrients that are essential for plant growth.
 Soil Physics is the study of the physical nature of the soil,
its characteristics, properties, and/or reactions which
are caused by physical forces.
 Soil Chemistry is the study of the chemical properties of
the soil, the original rocks and minerals that
constitute the parent materials from which soils come
from, their chemical nature and reactions, and the
description of the chemical processes that transform
nutrient elements in the soil and in the soil solution.
FIELDS OF STUDY IN SOIL SCIENCE
 Soil Microbiology is the study of the microorganisms living in
the soil, the characteristics of the different groups of
microorganisms and their role in the physical and
biochemical changes occurring in the soil.
 Soil Conservation and Management is the study of how to
protect the soil from degradation brought about by soil
erosion, crop removal, chemical deterioration and other
cultivation practices that affect the fertility and
productivity of the soil.
 Soil Survey and Classification is the study of the physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil, its
profile and its horizons, their origin, formation, and
development and taxonomic classification.
 Land Use is the study of the patterns of utilization and/or
allocation of lands for general or specific purposes such
as agriculture, forestry, built-up or settlement, wetlands,
barelands, grasslands, orchards and others.
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL
SCIENCE

 An “approach” means “perspective” or how one

looks at the discipline in relation to its use or possible
application.
 There are two general approaches in the study of soil
science:
1. Pedological approach
2. Edaphological approach
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL
SCIENCE
 What is meant by “pedological approach”?
Pedological approach studies the soil as they occur
in nature with main interest on the description or
characterization and differentiation of the properties
of the soil with little emphasis on its practical use.
Example:
Soil Survey and Classification
Soil Chemistry
Soil Physics
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF SOIL
SCIENCE

 What is meant by “edaphological approach”?

Edaphological approach is the study of soils with
the main goal of understanding the properties of the
soil in relation to its practical use such as knowing
the properties of the soil in relation to plant nutrition
and growth. It sees the soil as habitat for plants or
medium for plant growth.
Example:
Soil Fertility
Soil Conservation and Management
 CONCEPT OF SOIL
 Soil is the thin portion of the Earth’s crust which is a mixture of
organic and inorganic materials formed from the continuous
weathering of rocks and minerals and whose properties are
influenced by climate, living organisms, and relief or topography
acting on the parent material over a period of time (Sumner,
2000).

 The Five Factors of Soil Formation

1. Parent Materials
2. Climate
3. Living Organisms
4. Relief/Topography
5. Time
 CONCEPT OF SOIL

 Soil is a medium for plant growth that supplies

essential nutrients, water, and air to plants and provide
anchorage.

Upland Soil

Upland Soil Lowland Soil

 AS MEDIUM FOR PLANT GROWTH
1. Adequate amount of available NUTRIENTS
 The soil is the main supplier of nutrients needed by plants for growth.
 There are 16 essential nutrient elements needed by plants for growth and development.

ELEMENT SYMBOL
1. Carbon C
These 16 nutrient elements are classified into macronutrients
2. Hydrogen H
and micronutrients.
3. Oxygen O
4. Nitrogen N
• Macronutrients are those elements needed in large
5. Phosphorus P
amounts.
6. Potassium K
Examples
7. Calcium Ca
C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
8. Magnesium Mg
9. Sulfur S
• Micronutrients are those needed by plants in small
10. Copper Cu
amounts.
11. Zinc Zn
Examples
12. Boron B
Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Cu, Zn, Cl
13. Iron Fe
14. Manganese Mn
15. Molybdenum Mo
16. Chlorine Cl
 AS MEDIUM FOR PLANT GROWTH
2. Adequate supply of WATER

Water is very important for the growth and survival of all living things. In fact 70 – 80%
of the body of all living things is water. Different plants have also different water
requirements. The soil supplies the water needs of plants. Nutrients are dissolved in
water and plants absorb nutrients largely through water absorption.

3. Adequate amount of AIR

Air is needed for plant and animal respiration. Air in the atmosphere is the source of
essential oxygen for life to exist. The soil also supplies oxygen to plants particularly the
roots of plants and to microorganisms living in the soil.

 O2is needed for plant root respiration

 CO2 is essential for photosynthesis

4. Favorable ENVIRONMENT for anchorage and root growth

The last function of the soil is anchorage. The soil must:
 Have favorable temperature for plant growth,
 Be free from toxic materials and pathogens,
 Be firm but with low impedance to root growth.
 CONCEPT OF SOIL

 Soil is the foundation on which roads, bridges,

buildings, and other engineering structures are built.
 COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL
The soil is a complex mixture of solids and pore spaces that are occupied by water and
air.

Air in the soil is made up of:

N2 - 79.2%

O2 - 10-12% (This is significant to root respiration

because it is easier for roots to get oxygen from the soil than
through the leaves).

CO2 - 0.255 % (Concentration is higher in the soil than in

the atmosphere)

Water in the soil is in the form of a solution where nutrient

elements are dissolved.

The solid part of the soil is a mixture of ORGANIC and INORGANIC materials.

 ORGANIC MATERIALS include dead residues of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

 INORGANIC MATERIALS are the weathered rocks, minerals, and nutrient elements.

Pore spaces are occupied by air and water.

 IDEAL SOIL COMPOSITION

•Soils with mineral particles of 45% or more are generally called MINERAL SOILS.
•Soils with organic matter content of 18% or more are called ORGANIC SOILS.
•Organic soils are also called PEAT and MUCK soils or BOG soils.
•PEAT SOILS are organic soils composed of slightly decomposed plant and animal residues the
composition of which is still recognizable.
•MUCK SOILS are organic soils with 20-50% OM that are well decomposed and the original materials
cannot be distinguished anymore.
•BOG SOIL is a general term for organic soils under the Soil Order Histosols.
SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
What is soil formation?
In order to understand the nature of soils, it is
important to know its origin or soil genesis.

 Soil genesis is the evolution of the soil from its parent

material (Brady, 2009). Formation of soils is largely
dictated by nature and involves various processes.

 Soil formation is the process by which soils are

formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.
Weathering is the main agent of soil formation.
STAGES OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT
 SOIL GENESIS
Soil genesis is the mode of origin of the soil with
special reference to the processes or soil-forming
factors responsible for the development of the solum
(true soil) from the unconsolidated parent material
(Brady, 1985).

 Soils that have originated from or developed from

rocks or unconsolidated materials (called regolith)
are referred to as mineral soils.

 Soils that are formed from plant and animal residues

are called organic or bog
MAJOR PROCESSES IN SOIL-PROFILE
DEVELOPMENT
ADDITION-precipitation
w/ ions and solid part.;
organic matter

Ground Surface
TRANSFORMATIONS
Organic matter humus
Primary minerals hydrous oxides; clay; ions, H2SiO4

TRANSFER TRANSFER
Humus,clays, ions, Ions, H4SiO4
H4SiO4

REMOVALS
IONS, H4SiO4
 WEATHERING
What is weathering?
Weathering is a physico-chemical and biological process
acting upon rocks and their component minerals causing
physical and chemical transformations to form the soil.

Among the climatic factors, water and temperature are

the main agents of weathering.

What are the processes involved in soil formation?

There are many processes involved in soil formation and
these are generally grouped as physical, chemical and
biological processes.
 WEATHERING
A. Physical Processes

1. Grinding
2. Thermal expansion
3. Glacial plucking
4. Salt crystallization
5. Freezing
6. Wetting
7. Drying
8. Water erosion
9. Wind erosion
 WEATHERING
B. Chemical Processes

 Hydration - association of water molecules or of hydroxyl groups

with minerals, often without actual decomposition or modification
of the mineral itself.

CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (g,l) CaSO4 . 2H2O

 Hydrolysis - Replacement of the basic ions by the hydrogen, with

consequent collapse and disintegration of the structure.

KAlSi3O8 + H+ HAlSi3O8 + K+

 Oxidation-Reduction– removal/addition of one or more electrons

from an ion or an atom to another.

4FeO(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l) 4FeO(OH) (s)

Ferrous ferricgoethite
 WEATHERING
C. Biological Processes

1. Growth of lichens
2. Decomposition by microorganisms
3. Prying by roots of trees and other
plants
4. Boring and cutting by insects and other
animals
The Five Factors of Soil Formation

Climate

Parent Topography
Material

Living Time
Organisms
 ROLE OF EACH FACTOR OF SOIL
FORMATION

1. Climate–This is the driving force that is responsible for

the weathering of rocks and minerals to form the soil.

 Rainfall and temperature are the most important agents

of weathering (both physical and chemical) and determines
vegetation distribution.

Arid Climate vs Humid Climate

• Dry and lacks water/rain - Abundant water/rain

• Fewer vegetation - Abundant vegetation
• Soil development is slow - Soil development is very fast
 ROLE OF EACH FACTOR OF SOIL
FORMATION
2. Parent Materials – these are the rocks, minerals and
organic residues from which the soil is developed through
weathering or the unconsolidated and more or less
chemically weathered mineral or organic matter from
which the solum of soils is developed by pedogenic
processes.

 The type of parent material determines the properties of the

soil formed from it, its fertility and productivity.

Two General Types of Parent Materials

•Residual – refers to the bedrock or rocks where the soil developed through
pedogenesis.

•Transported – loose materials like sand, silt, and clay and/or organic residues that
were transported and deposited and formed into soils.
 Types of Transported Parent Materials

AGENT DEPOSITED BY/IN NAME OF

DEPOSIT
Water Stream Alluvium
Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine

Ice Ice Till, Moraine

Melt Water Alluvium. Lacustrine

Wind Wind Loess (silt)

Dune (sand)
Volcanic Ash

Gravity Gravity Colluvium

 Soils are formed from the weathering mostly of rocks and
minerals and some plant and animal residues or organic materials.

Rocks & Minerals Mineral soils

Organic Residues Organic soils

Rocks are the huge consolidated or unconsolidated

materials that essentially form the Earth’s solid crust. Rocks are
the parent materials from which soils are developed by
weathering.

Examples Granite
Basalt
Marble
Gneiss
Sandstone
 ROLE OF EACH FACTOR OF SOIL
FORMATION
3. Topography or Relief – Topography refers to
elevation and steepness of the land or the landscape
position and the slopes it has.
 ROLE OF EACH FACTOR OF SOIL
FORMATION

4. Living Organisms – These refers to soil

organisms that play a vital role in the degradation
or decomposition of organic matter. The most
common organisms found in the soil are:
 Bacteria,
 Fungi,
 Algae,
 Actinomycetes,
 Insects like ants, termites, and centipedes,
 Earthworms
 ROLE OF EACH FACTOR OF SOIL
FORMATION
5. Time - Soils can take many years to form. Younger
soils have some characteristics from their parent
material, but as they age, the addition of organic
matter, exposure to moisture and other environmental
factors may change its features.

With time, they settle and are buried deeper

below the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually
they may change from one soil type to another
(eSchooltoday, 2015).
Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R
slightly to mod. weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C
mod. to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo--C
high to extremely weathered
 SOIL PROFILE: FORMATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
 Soil profile is the vertical cross-section
of the soil from the surface through all
its horizons.
 A horizon is a layer of soil differing in
properties and characteristics from
adjacent layers below or above it. Each
soil is characterized by a given sequence
of horizons in its profile.
Addition & transformation of OM

Transformation of minerals. Transfer

of Fe, humus, soluble ions.

Accumulation of humus, Fe, soluble

ions

Removal of soluble ions

 In studying and describing the soil profile and its horizons, the horizons are
grouped under five master horizons and sub-layers are identified under each master
horizon.

Letters of the alphabet are used to designate the names of the horizons.

SOIL PROFILE SYMBOLS

O Horizon dominated by organic matter

A Organic-rich, mineral horizon at or adjacent to the surface
E Mineral horizon of maximum eluviation
B Mineral horizon of maximum illuviation and formed beneath an O,
A, or E horizon
C Weathered parent material
R Underlying consolidated bedrock
 ACQUIRED vs. INHERITED CHARACTERISTICS
•Horizons may be developed in place from the weathering of parent materials or
may be enhanced by the deposition of materials from other places through erosion,
leaching and other processes.

•Thus, a soil profile may have inherited characteristics from its parent material
and/or acquired characteristics as a result of deposition from other soils.
Example of inherited – presence of quart mineral
Example of acquired – organic matter, red and yellow iron oxides

Three kinds of symbols are used in combination to designate soil horizons or

layers:

A.Capital letters – used to designate master horizons;

B.Lower case letters – are used as suffixes to indicate specific characteristics;
C.Arabic numerals – are used both as suffixes to indicate vertical
subdivisions within a horizon or prefixes to indicate discontinuities.
 MASTER HORIZONS
O horizons – Organic horizons that form above the
mineral soil or layers dominated by organic material.

Oi – Organic horizon where the original forms of plant

and animal residues are recognizable or only slightly
decomposed.
Oe – Organic horizon with residues intermediately
decomposed.
Oa – Organic horizons with residues highly decomposed
or unrecognizable.
Oi

Oe
Ap A
EB
E
Bt
E/B
BC
Bt

C
BC

C
A
Solum

C
Parent Material
 MASTER HORIZONS
A horizons - Mineral horizons that formed at the
surface or below an O horizon that exhibit obliteration
of all or much of the original rock structure and (i) are
characterized by an accumulation of humified organic
matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction and
not dominated by properties characteristic of E or B
horizons; or (ii) have properties resulting from
cultivation, pasturing, or similar kinds of disturbance.
 MASTER HORIZONS
E horizons - Mineral horizons in which the main
feature is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some
combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand
and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials.
 MASTER HORIZONS
B horizons - Horizons that formed below an A, E, or O horizon
and are dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original
rock structure and show one or more of the following:

1. illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, humus,

carbonates, gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination;
2. evidence of removal of carbonates;
3. residual concentration of sesquioxides;
4. coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously
lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than
overlying and underlying horizons without apparent
illuviation of iron;
5. alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides or both
and that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if
volume changes accompany changes in moisture content;
6. brittleness.
 MASTER HORIZONS
C horizon - Horizons or layers, excluding hard bedrock,
that are little affected by pedogenic processes and lack
properties of O, A, E, or B horizons. The material of C
horizons may be either like or unlike that from which
the solum presumably formed. The C horizon may
have been modified even if there is no evidence of
pedogenesis.

R layer - Hard bedrock including granite, basalt,

quartzite and indurated limestone or sandstone that is
sufficiently coherent to make hand digging
impractical.
 TRANSITIONAL HORIZONS
Two kinds of transitional horizons are recognized.
A. The horizon is dominated by properties of one
master horizon but has subordinate properties of
another. Two capital letter symbols are used, such as
AB, EB, BE, or BC. The master horizon symbol that
is given first designates the kind of master horizon
whose properties dominate the transitional horizon.
B. Distinct parts of the horizon have recognizable
properties of the two kinds of master horizons
indicated by the capital letters. The two capital
letters are separated by a virgule (/), as E/B, B/E, or
B/C. The first symbol is that of the horizon that
makes up the greater volume.
AB - A horizon with characteristics of both an overlying A
horizon and an underlying B horizon, but which is
more like the A than the B.
EB - A horizon with characteristics of both an overlying E
horizon and an underlying B horizon, but which is
more like the E than the B.
BE - A horizon with characteristics of both an overlying E
horizon and an underlying B horizon, but which is
more like the B than the E.
BC - A horizon with characteristics of both an overlying B
horizon and an underlying C horizon, but which is
more like the B than the C.
CB - A horizon with characteristics of both an overlying B
horizon and an underlying C horizon, but which is
more like the C than the B.
E/B - A horizon comprised of individual parts of E and B
horizon components in which the E component is
dominant and surrounds the B materials.
B/E - A horizon comprised of individual parts of E and B
horizon in which the E component surrounds the B
component but the latter is dominant.
B/C - A horizon comprised of individual parts of B and C
horizon in which the B horizon component is
ominant and surrounds the C component.
Subordinate Distinctions within
Master Horizons
a - Highly decomposed organic material
b - Identifiable buried genetic horizons
c - Concretions or nodules with iron, aluminum, manganese or titanium
d - Physical root restriction, either natural or manmade such as dense basal
till, low pans, and mechanically compacted zones.
e - Organic material of intermediate decomposition
f - Frozen soil in which the horizon or layer contains permanent ice.
g - Strong gleying or mottling
h - Illuvial accumulation of organic matter
i - Slightly decomposed organic material
k - Accumulation of pedogenic carbonates, commonly calcium carbonate.
m - Continuous or nearly continuous cementation or induration of the soil matrix
by carbonates (km), silica (qm), iron (sm), gypsum (ym), carbonates and silica
(kqm), or salts more soluble than gypsum (zm).
n - Accumulation of sodium sufficient to yield a morphological appearance of a
natric horizon.
o - Residual accumulation of sesquioxides.
p - Plowing or other disturbance of the surface layer by cultivation,
asturing or similar uses.
q - Accumulation of silica.
r - Weathered or soft bedrock including saprolite; partly consolidated
soft sandstone, siltstone or shale;
s - Illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides and organic matter
ss - Presence of slickensides
t - Accumulation of silicate clay
v - Plinthite which is composed of iron-rich, humus-poor, reddish
material
w - Development of color or structure in a horizon but with little or no
apparent illuvial accumulation of materials.
x - Fragic or fragipan characteristics that result in genetically developed
firmness, brittleness, or high bulk density.
y - Accumulation of gypsum.
z - Accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum.
 ROCKS AND MINERALS
What are rocks?

Rocks are the huge consolidated or unconsolidated

materials that essentially form the Earth’s solid crust.
Rocks are the parent materials from which soils are
developed by weathering.

The type of rock from which the soil came from largely
dictates the characteristics of the soil.
 THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
1. Igneous Rocks – are rocks formed from the cooling
and solidification of volcanic magma and have not
been changed appreciably since its formation.

2. Metamorphic Rocks - are rocks that have been

substantially altered from its previous composition
and condition by the action of heat and pressure
resulting to partial melting or metamorphism.

3. Sedimentary Rocks – are rocks that are formed by

transport, deposition, and compaction.
 Igneous Rocks
1. Granite - quartz, K-feldspar, biotite
2. Basalt - pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
3. Andesite - plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
4. Gabbro - pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Diorite - plagioclase, amphibole, quartz
6. Rhyolite - K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
7. Obsidian- volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff - fragmental volcanic rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
1. Granite ------------- Gneiss
2. Basalt ---------------Schists
3. Sandstone ---------- Quartzite
4. Limestone ----------- Marble
5. Shale ---------------- Slate
6. Conglomerate ------- Meta-conglomerate
 Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)
2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (claystone) (<1/256mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)
THE ROCK CYCLE
 MINERALS
 Minerals are elements or chemical compounds that are
crystalline in nature and has been formed as a result of geologic
processes (Gaines et al., 1997 as cited by Sumners, 2000).

 Minerals found in the soil may come from:

1. Original minerals found in the rocks from which the soil was
formed;
2. Altered forms from their original state by weathering;
3. New minerals that have been transported or deposited by
agents of weathering.

All minerals dissolve in water but differ in rates and pathways of

dissolution.
 TWO TYPES OF MINERALS

A. Primary Minerals - minerals that have not been

altered chemically since deposition and
crystallization from molten lava.

B. Secondary Minerals - minerals resulting from the

decomposition of a primary mineral or from the
re-precipitation of the products of decomposition
of a primary mineral.
Primary minerals are further altered by weathering processes particularly by
chemical weathering transforming them into new compounds called secondary
minerals.

Examples
 Olivines serpentine smectite

 Augite (pyroxene) chlorite or smectite or calcite

 Feldspars illite/kaolinite/gibbsite

 Micas vermiculite and illite

 Common Primary Minerals in Soils
MINERAL COMPOSITION
Quartz SiO2
Microcline Feldspars KAlSi3O8
Orthoclase Feldspars KAlSi3O8
Albite (Sodic plagioclase) NaAlSi3O8
Anorthite (Calcic plagioclase) CaAl2Si2O8
Muscovite (Micas) KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2
Biotite (Micas) K(Mg,FeII)3(Al,Si3)O10(OH,F)2
Chlorite (Mg,FeII)10Al2(Si,Al)8O20(OH,F)2
Hornblende (Amphibole) NaCa2(Mg,FeII)4(Al,FeIII)(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)16
Augite (Pyroxene) (Ca,Mg,Fe,Al)2(Al,Si)2O6
Serpentine Mg6Si4O10(OH)8
Tourmaline Na(Mg,FeII,Al,Mn,Li)3Al6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH,F)4

Garnets (FeII,Mg,Mn or Ca)3(FeIII,Al or Cr)2Si3O12

Epidote (Ca2FeIIAl2O)(Si2O7)SiO4(OH)4
Olivines (Mg,FeII)2SiO4
Sphene CaTiSiO5
Zircon ZrSiO4
Apatite Ca5(F,Cl)(PO4)
Limenite FeTiO3
Common Secondary Minerals

 Calcite - CaCO3
 Dolomite - Ca.Mg(CO3)
 Gypsum - CaSO4.2H2O
 Apatite - Ca5(PO4)3.(Cl,F)
 Lemonite - Fe2O3.2H2O
 Gibbsite - Al2O3.3H2O
 Clay minerals - Kaolinite, Montmorillonite,
Illite, Vermiculite
 Chapter 2 - Soil Colloids
 What are soil colloids?

 Soil colloids are made up of the smallest particles of

humus and clay in the soil.
 Only particles less than 0.001 mm are officially defined
as colloids.
 Soil colloids are the most active portion of the soil---
the seat of all chemical activities---and determine the
physical and chemical properties of a soil.
 SOIL COLLOIDS

•Seat of chemical activity or reactions in soils

•Very small particles whose sizes range from 0.2 to
1µm.

1µm = 1/1000 mm
= 0.001mm
= 0.0001 cm
 3 MAJOR SOIL SEPARATES
SOIL USDA ISSS DESCRIPTION
SEPARATE DIAMETER DIAMETER
RANGE (mm) RANGE (mm)

Sand 2.0 – 0.05 2.0 – 0.02 Coarse, gritty,

cubic to spherical
in shape
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 – 0.002 Smooth, powdery,
cubic to spherical
in shape
Clay less than 0.002 Less than 0.002 Sticky, plastic
when wet, plate-
like or flake-like,
some are tubular
in shape in shape
Three Concepts that Govern the
Understanding of Soil Colloids
A. Specific Surface Area
B. Isomorphous Substitution
C. Cation Exchange Capacity
What is Specific Surface Area?
 Surface area is an extensive quantity---depends on how much soil is present.

 Specific surface area is an intensive quantity---the surface area per mass.

 SSA is a property of solids which is the total surface area of a material per unit
mass.

 The surface area of individual soil particles is an important factor in nutrient

or pesticide adsorption, water adsorption, soil strength, and soil transport.

 Factors affecting surface area of soils:

1. primary particles
2. amorphous mineral coatings
3. OM
4. Water
 Concept of Specific Surface Area
GEOMETRY AREA VOLUME

Sphere πd2 πd2/6

Disc/Cylinder πdh or πd2/2 πd2h/4

Cube 6d2 d3

Square Rod 2d2 or 4dh d2h

Note: The finer the colloid, the higher is the specific surface area.
 CONCEPT OF SPECIFIC SURFACE
AREA (SSA)
Specific Surface Area of some soil colloids (Sumner, 2000)

SOIL/MINERAL SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA

m2/g
MINERALS
Kaolinite 15 – 20
Illite 80 – 100
Montmorillonite 280 – 500
Iron Oxides 305 – 412
Allophane & Imogolite 305 – 412
Humus 560 -800

SOILS
Sands <10
Sandy Loam & Silt Loam 5 – 20
Clay Loam 15 - 40
Clay >25
 CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
•CEC is the “sum total of the exchangeable cations that the soil
can adsorb”.

•It is the “total capacity of a soil to hold exchangeable cations.”

•CEC is expressed as:

1. cmol/Kg (centimole per kilogram of soil)

2. meq/100g (milliequivalents per 100 g of soil)

•CEC is an inherent soil characteristics and is difficult to alter

significantly.

•CEC influence the soil’s ability to hold unto essential nutrients

and provides a buffer against soil acidification.
 CEC of Soil Colloids (Brady, 2009)

Humus - 200 cmol/Kg

Vermiculite - 150
Montmorillonite - 100
Illite - 30
Chlorite - 30
Kaolinite - 8
Fe & AL Oxides - 4
 TYPES OF SOIL COLLOIDS
A. Organic colloids
Ex: Humus
B. Inorganic colloids
1. Silicate clays Ex: 1:1 Type, 2:1 Type, 2:1:1 Type
2. Oxide clays or Non-silicate clays
1. Fe oxides and Hydrous oxides
Ex. Hematite, Goethite
2. Al and Hydrous Oxides
Ex. Gibbsite, Boehmite
3. Amorphous clays
Ex. Allophane, Imogolite
 INORGANIC COLLOIDS
1. Silicate Clays or Layer Silicates

 Silica Tetrahedron

 Alumina Octahedron
 Types of Silicate Clays
 1:1 Type Minerals - The layers of the 1:1-type minerals
are made up of one tetrahedral (silica) sheet combined
with one octahedral (alumina) sheet.
Examples: Kaolinite, Hallosite

1 Silica Tetrahedral Sheet

1 Alumina Octahedral Sheet

 These layers, in turn, are held together by hydrogen
bonding.
 Consequently, the structure is fixed and no expansion
ordinarily occurs between layers when the clay is
wetted.
 The effective surface of kaolinite is thus restricted to
its outer faces or to its external surface area.
 Kaolinite exhibits very little plasticity (capability of
being molded), cohesion, shrinkage, and swelling.

 Specific Surface Area (SSA): 10-20 m2/g

 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): 3 – 15 cmol/Kg
 Types of Silicate Clays
 2:1-Type Minerals - The crystal units (layers) of these
minerals are characterized by an octahedral sheet
sandwiched between two tetrahedral sheets.

Silica Tetrahedral Sheet

Alumina Octahedral Sheet

Silica Tetrahedral Sheet

Two Types of 2:1 Minerals
1. Expanding type
Ex: smectites (montmorillonite) and vermiculite
2. Non-expanding type
Ex: mica (illite), chlorite
 2:1 Expanding Type
Example: Montmorillonite
 Oxygen-to-oxygen and cation-to-oxygen bonding.
 High shrink-swell capacity.
 Cracks are formed when dry.
 Very difficult to cultivate because it is sticky
when wet and form hard clods when dry.
 Not good foundations for roads and buildings.
 Specific Surface Area: 700 – 800 m2/g
 Cation Exchange Capacity: 60 -100 cmol/Kg
 2:1 Less Expanding Type
Ex: Vermiculite
 Structure similar to mica
 Water molecules act as bridges or bonds between
layers
 Limited expansion between layers
 Al3+ substitute for Si4+ in tetrahedral layer
 Mg2+ and Fe2+ are in the octahedral layer
 Specific Surface Area: 500 – 700 m2/g
 Cation Exchange Capacity: 110 – 160 cmol/Kg
 2:1 Non-Expanding Type
Ex: Illite
 Non-expanding layers due to K+ fixed between the
layers preventing expansion
 Specific Surface Area: 40 – 180 m2/g
 Cation Exchange Capacity: 20 -40 cmol/Kg
 2:1:1 or 2:2 Non-Expanding Type

Ex: Chlorite
 No water adsorption between layers which is why it is
not expansive
 Specific Surface Area: Low
 Cation Exchange Capacity: 10 – 40 cmol/Kg
 ORGANIC COLLOIDS
 Humus particles are tiny pieces of organic matter and
are known as organic colloids.
 The humus colloids are not crystalline.
 They are composed basically of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen;
 The organic colloidal particles vary in size, but they
may be at least as small as the silicate clay particles.
 The negative charges of humus are associated with:
1. enolic (-OH)
2. carboxyl (-COOH)
3. phenolic groups
ORGANIC COLLOIDS
 Importance of Soil Colloids
 Humus particles are tiny pieces of organic matter and are
known as organic colloids (Clay particles are known as
inorganic colloids. Inorganic colloids usually make up
the bulk of soil colloids).

 Humus or organic colloids are the most reactive

chemically and generally have a greater influence on soil
properties per unit weight than the clay particles.

 One of the most important properties of colloids is their

ability to adsorb (attach to), hold, and release the mineral
ions which form plant nutrients known as CATION
EXCHANGE CAPACITY.

 Cation Exchange Capacity of humus is 200 cmol/Kg.

 Ionic Forms of the 16 Essential Nutrients
Elements Available Form
1. Carbon (C) CO2
2. Hydrogen (H) H2O, H2
3. Oxygen (O) O2
4. Nitrogen (N) NH4+, NO3-
5. Phosphorus (P) H2PO4-,HPO4=, PO4=
6. Potassium (K) K+
7. Calcium (Ca) Ca++
8. Magnesium (Mg) Mg++
9. Sulfur (S) SO4=
10. Iron (Fe) Fe++
11. Manganese (Mn) Mn++
12. Zinc (Zn) Zn++
13. Copper (Cu) Cu++
14. Boron (B) BO3=
15. Molybdenum (Mo) MoO4=
16. Chlorine (Cl) Cl -
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
SOIL
1. Soil Texture
2. Soil Structure and Consistency
3. Soil Densities and Porosity
4. Soil Moisture and Water Holding
Capacity
5. Soil Aeration
6. Soil Color
7. Soil Temperature
8. Tilth
 SOIL TEXTURE
 Soil texture refers to the size of the mineral particles
that made up a soil. This refers to the relative
proportion of the three soil separates %sand, %silt
and %clay.

 The texture of the soil cannot be altered. A sandy soil

remains sandy and a clay soil remains clayey.

 This is the most stable property of the soil.
 Two Quantitative Methods of Determining Soil
Texture
1. Soil Hydrometer Method
2. Pipette Method

 Both methods make use of Stoke’s Law of

Sedimentation:
V = kd2
Where:
V - velocity of fall
k - a constant
d - diameter of the primary particle

 Field analysis can be done using the feel method which is

a qualitative analysis of soil texture.
 The 3 Soil Separates
SOIL SEPARATE USDA ISSS DESCRIPTION
DIAMETER DIAMETER
RANGE (mm) RANGE (mm)
Sand 2.0 – 0.05 2.0 – 0.02 Coarse, gritty, cubic
to spherical in shape
Silt 0.05 - 0.002 0.02 – 0.002 Smooth, powdery,
cubic to spherical in
shape
Clay less than 0.002 Less than 0.002 Sticky, plastic when
wet, plate-like or
flake-like, some are
tubular in shape in
shape
 THE 3 TEXTURAL GROUPS AND 12 SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES

A. Sands
1. Sand
2. Loamy Sand
B. Loams
3. Sandy Loam
4. Loam
5. Silt Loam
6. Silt
7. Sandy Clay Loam
8. Silty Clay Loam
9. Clay Loam
C. Clays
10. Sandy Clay
11. Silty Clay
12. Clay
The Soil Textural Diagram
 Loam is the ideal soil texture for crop production where there is equal
proportion of sand, silt, and clay.

Soil texture influences other properties of the soil such as:

SANDY SOILS VS CLAYEY SOILS

• Lower total porosity
• More macro-pores
• Low water holding capacity
• Very good aeration
• Very good drainage
• Easy to till (light soil)
• Non-sticky and non-plastic
• Low nutrient holding capacity
Less fertile
- Higher total porosity
- More micro-pores
- High water holding
capacity
- Poor aeration
- Poor drainage
- Difficult to till (heavy
soil)
- Very sticky and plastic
- High nutrient holding
capacity
- More fertile
 Importance of Soil Texture to Plants
Soil texture is important because of its influence on the physical, chemical or
biological properties of the soil which in turn affect plant growth.

1. Nutrient supplying capacity of the soil – coarse textured soils have low supplying capacity
while fine textured soils have high supplying capacity.

2. Water holding capacity – coarse textured soils have low water holding capacity while fine
textured soils have high water holding capacity.

3. Infiltration and percolation - infiltration and percolation rates are rapid in coarse textured
soils and slow to very slow in fine textured soils.

4. Soil tilth – coarse textured soils are easily tilled while fine textured soils are difficult to till.

5. Soil aeration and drainage – coarse textured soils are well aerated and well drained while
fine textured soil are poorly aerated and poorly drained.

6. Water flow – under saturated conditions, coarse textured soils have higher capacity to
conduct water flow but below saturation point fine textured soils have higher water
conductivity.
 SOIL STRUCTURE
 Soil structure is defined by the way individual
particles of sand, silt, and clay are assembled. Single
particles when assembled appear as larger particles.
These are called peds or aggregates.
•Aggregation of soil particles can occur in different patterns,
resulting in different soil structures.

•The circulation of water in the soil varies greatly according to

structure. Therefore, it is important to know about the structure of
the soil.
Soils posses a structure if the following conditions are satisfied:
A. There is aggregation
B. There is a definite pattern of arrangement

If these conditions are not met, the soil is said to be “structureless”.

For field description of soil structures, the following information are

needed:

A. Shape of peds…………………………… Type of Soil Structure

B. Distinctness or durability of peds………. Soil Structure Grade
C. Size of structural units………………….. Soil Structure Class
 SOIL STRUCTURE GRADES
 (0) Structureless - has no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of
natural lines of weakness, such as:
 Massive structure (coherent) where the entire soil horizon appears cemented in
one great mass;
 Single-grain structure (non-coherent) where the individual soil particles show
no tendency to cling together, such as pure sand;

 (1) Weak structure - is poorly formed from indistinct aggregates that can barely be
observed in place. When removed from the profile, the soil material breaks down into a
mixture of very few entire aggregates, many broken aggregates and much unaggregated
material;

 (2) Moderate structure - is well formed from distinct aggregates that are moderately
durable and evident but not distinct in undisturbed soil. When removed from the profile,
the soil material breaks down into a mixture of many distinct entire aggregates, some
broken aggregates and little unaggregated material;

 (3) Strong structure - is well formed from distinct aggregates that are durable and quite
evident in undisturbed soil. When removed from the profile, the soil material consists
very largely of entire aggregates and includes few broken ones and little or no non-
aggregated material.
CLASSES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
Five distinct classes may be recognized in relation to
the type of soil structure from which they come which
are as follows:
1. Very fine or very thin
2. Fine or thin
3. Medium
4. Coarse or thick
5. Very coarse or very thick
 TYPES OF SOIL STRUCTURE
A. Granular and crumb structures or spheroidal are
individual particles of sand, silt and clay grouped together
in small, nearly spherical grains of not more than 1cm.
Water circulates very easily through such soils. They are
commonly found in the A-horizon of the soil profile
especially those with high OM (FAO, 2015). These are the
only types of aggregation commonly influenced by
practical methods of soil management.
B. Blocky and subangular blocky structures are soil
particles that cling together in nearly square or angular
blocks having more or less sharp edges. Relatively large
blocks indicate that the soil resists penetration and
movement of water. They are commonly found in the B-
horizon where clay has accumulated.

Blocky and Sub-angular Blocky (FAO, 2015)

C. Prismatic and columnar structures are soil particles
which have formed into vertical columns or pillars
separated by miniature, but definite, vertical cracks.
Water circulates with greater difficulty and drainage is
poor. They are commonly found in the B-horizon where
clay has accumulated (FAO, 2015);

Prismatic and Columnar Structures

D. Platy structure is made up of soil particles aggregated in
thin plates or sheets piled horizontally on one another.
Plates often overlap, greatly impairing water circulation. It
is commonly found in forest soils, in part of the A- horizon,
and in claypan soils (FAO, 2015).
Factors affecting aggregation:

1. Cementing materials i.e. clays, oxides of iron and

aluminum, OM
2. Microbial activity
3. Seasonal variations (drying and wetting)
4. Soil moisture variations
5. Cultivation practices
Importance of Soil Structure to Plants

 Soil structure determines the porosity of the soil and

influence water and air movements
 Determines tilth
 Influence root penetration
 Aeration affects bacterial activity

Favorable Soil Structure

 Relatively high porosity

 High water conductivity
 High air permeability
 Stable
 SOIL CONSISTENCY
 Soil consistency is the physical condition of a soil at a given water
content. It is the manifestation of the physical forces of cohesion and
adhesion acting within the soil at various moisture contents.

 Types of Consistency:

1. Harsh consistency – the consistency of the soil when dry. When dry, the
soil is hard and brittle and has high resistance to tillage.

2. Friable consistency – the consistency of the soil when moist (not dry);
when cultivated, the soil tend to crumble easily and form small soft clods.

3. Plastic consistency – the consistency that allows molding of a soil to any

shape without breaking; when cultivated, it tends to be molded or puddle
into lumps instead of clods and become extremely hard when dry.

4. Sticky consistency – the consistency when the soil is wet (almost at

saturation); if cultivated, the soil becomes a muddy paste.

5. Viscous consistency – the consistency of the soil when fluid (saturated

with water).
 SOIL DENSITY

Soil density is a measure of the degree of compactness

of the soil and its porosity. It is measured by the
weight of the soil per unit volume.

Two Types of Soil Density

1. Bulk Density (Bd)
2. Particle Density (Pd)
 Bulk Density – is the oven dry weight per unit volume
of soil. It is the weight of dry soil per unit of volume
expressed in grams/cm3. Dry weight is the weight of
the soil dried at 105 to 1100C for at least 24 hours.

Bd = ODW/V
Where:
Bd = Bulk Density (g/cm3)
ODW = Oven Dry Weight of the soil (g)
V = Bulk Volume (cm3)

NOTE: Bulk density of most soils ranges from 1.0 to 1.6 g/cm3
Sand (pack more closely) = 1.4 to 1.9 g/cm3
Clay (tend to bridge) = 0.9 to 1.4 g/cm3
Factors affecting Bulk Density:
1. OM decreases the Bd of the soil due to its light
weight and granulating effect;
2. Increasing porosity decreases Bd;
3. Bd increases with soil depth
4. Tillage practices either increase or decrease
surface Bd; Heavy equipment would compact
the soil resulting a Bd of 1.9g/cm3.
5. Soil texture influences Bd; fine textured soils
generally have lower Bd than coase textured
soils.
A RULE OF THUMB ON BULK DENSITY

Low Bd values = less than 1.0g/cm3

High Bd values = more than 1.6g/cm3
 Particle Density –is the oven dry weight of the
soil per unit volume of soil solids only.

Pd = ODW/Vss
Where:
Pd = Particle Density (g/cm3)
ODW = Oven Dry Weight of the soil (g)
V = Volume of Soil Solids alone (cm3)

 Pd is affected by OM and Mineralogical

Composition.
 Pd values of Some Minerals
(Klein & Hurlbut, 1985)
MINERAL Particle Density
(g/cm3)

Quartz 2.65
Gypsum 2.32
Biotite 2.80 – 3.20
Hematite 4.8 – 5.30

Typical Pd values of soils range from 2.5 to 2.8 g/cm3

 POROSITY
Porosity or Pore Spaces is a function of soil texture,
structure and the activity of beneficial soil organisms.
 Water coats the solid particles and fills the smaller pore
spaces.
 Air fills the larger pore spaces (Colorado State University,
2014).

Comparative pore space: Left: soil with large pore

space. Right: Compacted soil lacking large pore
space (Colorado State University, 2014)
 Classes of Pore Spaces
 Coarse or large pores = >10µm
 Medium pores = 0.2 to 10µm
 Fine or small pores = <0.2µm
 A desirable pore size distribution is one where the total pore
volume is divided equally between coarse, medium and fine
pores.

 Total Porosity

%PS = Vp / Vt or %PS = 1 – (Bd/Pd) x 100

Where:
%PS = Total porosity
Vp = Volume of pore space
Vt = Bulk volume or total volume of soil
 SOIL MOISTURE
 Water contained in soil is called soil moisture.
The water is held within the soil pores. Soil water
is the major component of the soil in relation to
plant growth.
 If the moisture content of a soil is optimum for plant
growth, plants can readily absorb soil water.
 Not all the water, held in soil, is available to plants.
Much of water remains in the soil as a thin film.
 Soil water dissolves salts and makes up the soil
solution, which is important as medium for supply of
nutrients to growing plants.
 Importance of Soil Water

1. Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food nutrients for plant growth;
2. Yield of crop is more often determined by the amount of water available rather than
the deficiency of other food nutrients;
3. Soil water acts as a nutrient itself;
4. Soil water regulates soil temperature;
5. Soil forming processes and weathering depend on water;
6. Microorganisms require water for their metabolic activities;
7. Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil;
8. It is a principal constituent of the growing plant;
9. Water is essential for photosynthesis;
 Retention of Water by Soil

•The soils hold water (moisture) due to their colloidal

properties and aggregation qualities.

•The water is held on the surface of the colloids and

other particles and in the pores.

•The forces responsible for retention of water in the soil

after the drainage has stopped are due to surface
tension and surface attraction and are called
SURFACE MOISTURE TENSION.
The Hydrologic Cycle
 Forces Holding Water
The soil holds water in two ways:
 as a film coating on soil particles
 in the pore space between particles (capillary forces)
 When water infiltrates into the soil from rain or irrigation, the pore spaces are
nearly filled with water. During and immediately after a rain or irrigation the
greatest movement of water occurs in the soil.

 After rainfall or irrigation, water movement continues due to gravity and

capillary forces. Capillary forces are also important for retaining water in soil
pores.

 Capillary forces can be illustrated by a group of small capillary tubes with

different diameters. If the capillary tubes are placed with one end in a pan of
water, the water would rise into each tube. The height of the water in each tube
would depend on the diameter of the tube. The smaller the tube, the higher the
rise. The surface tension of the water itself and the diameter of the tube cause the
water to rise. Because this capillary phenomenon can operate in any direction, it is
the key to water retention in soil pores (Klocke & Hergert, 1990).
Capillary force is illustrated by how far water rises in tubes of various
diameters
(Klocke & Hergert, 1990)
 Water and Plant Growth
 Plants need large quantities of water for growth.
 The most important factor driving water movement in plants is a process known as
transpiration.
 Transpiration is the loss of water from plants in the form of vapor (evaporation). Plants
utilize most of the water absorbed from the soil for transpiration (95%), but a small
portion of the water absorbed is used during photosynthesis for producing the
carbohydrates necessary for plant growth (5%).

 Water typically makes up 80 – 95% of the mass of growing plant tissues.

 Mature woody plant tissue water content ranges from 45 – 50% while herbaceous plant
water content ranges from 70 – 95%.

 Turgor pressure contributes to rigidity and mechanical stability of non-woody plant tissue
and is essential for many physiological processes including cell enlargement (plant growth),
gas exchange in the leaves, transport of water and sugars, and many other processes
(Clemson University, 2015).

 Growth is dramatically affected by the timing and amount of water applied during
production.

 Certain stages of plant growth are more sensitive to water stress than others. Plant vigor and
overall resistance to stress from insects and/or disease are influenced by water status.
 Water management is the most important cultural practice of nursery growers
whether growing field or container crops.
 AMOUNT OF WATER IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE PLANT

 Apical portion of root and shoot >90%

 Stem, leaves and fruits 70 - 90%
 Woods 50 - 60%
 Matured parts 15 - 20%
 Freshly harvested grains 15 - 20%

Source: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 2015

 Soil Water Holding Capacity
 Water is held in the soil in various ways (Better Soils,
2012):
1. Gravitational water - is held in large soil pores and rapidly drains
out under the action of gravity within a day or so after rain. Plants
can only make use of gravitational water for a few days after rain.

2. Capillary water - is held in pores that are small enough to hold

water against gravity. This water occurs as a film around soil
particles and in the pores between them and is the main source of
plant moisture. As this water is withdrawn, the larger pores drain
first. The finer the pores, the more resistant they are to removal of
water.

3. Field capacity – is a water condition when a saturated soil is

drained after a day and most of the gravitational water drains out.

4. Wilting Point – is a condition when most capillary water has been

drawn by plants until no more can be withdrawn and the only water
is in the micro-pores.
Critical Moisture Levels in Soils
 Saturation Point - all pore spaces filled with water or
soil is at its maximum water holding capacity
(gravitational water); suction = 0 bar
 Field Capacity – maximum amount of moisture the soil
can hold (capillary water) that can be used by plants;
suction = 1/3 bar
 Permanent Wilting Point – soil can no longer supply
water to plants and plants starts to wilt;
suction = 15 bars
 Hygroscopic Coefficient – water is a thin film held
tightly by soil colloids (hygroscopic water);
suction = 31 bars
Stages of Water Holding in the Soil
The amount of soil water available to plants is
governed by:
 depth of soil that roots can explore (the root zone);
 nature of the soil material.
 particle sizes (texture)
 arrangement of particles (structure)
 Organic matter and carbonate levels and stone content
Water holding capacity (mm/cm depth of soil) of main texture
groups (Better Soils, 2012)

TEXTURE FIELD WILTING POINT AVAILABLE

CAPACITY WATER
Coarse sand 0.6 0.2 0.4
Fine sand 1.0 0.4 0.6
Loamy sand 1.4 0.6 0.8
Sandy loam 2.0 0.8 1.2
Light sandy clay 2.3 1.0 1.3
loam
Loam 2.7 1.2 1.5
Sandy clay loam 2.8 1.3 1.5
Clay loam 3.2 1.4 1.8
Clay 4.0 2.5 1.5
Self-mulching clay 4.5 2.5 2.0
*Figures are averages and vary with structure and organic matter differences
Methods of Expressing Soil Water Content
%MC = FW – ODW X100
ODW
Where:
%MC = percent moisture content
FW = fresh weight of the soil, g
ODW = oven dry weight of the soil, g

Relationship between %MC and Øv:

Øv = %MC x Dw
Bd

Where:
Øv = moisture content by volume
%MC = percent moisture content
Dw = density of water which is 1.0g/cm3
Bd = Bulk density of the soil
 SOIL AERATION
SOIL AIR

Composition Soil Air Soil Atmosphere

N 79.2% 79.0%
O2 20.6% 20.9%
CO2 0.25% 0.03%
• Factors Affecting Soil Air Composition

1. Microbial activity
2. Vegetation
3. Soil water content
4. Drainage condition
5. Soil layering
6. Soil texture

• Mechanisms of Gas Exchange in Soils

1. Convection or Mass Flow – the entire mass of air streaming

from a zone higher pressure to lower pressure. The moving force
is the gradient of the total pressure.
2. Diffusion – movement of individual gas whereby the moving
force is gradient or partial pressure.
 SOIL COLOR
Color in various types of soils is due primarily to the amount
of organic matter and the chemical state of the iron and other
compounds in the mineral fraction of the soil.

•Other minerals such as quartz, granite and heavy black

minerals may also influence soil color.

•Unweathered parent materials tend to be gray in color, or else

will have the color of the natural minerals from which they are
derived.

•The color of subsoils can reveal a great deal about the age and
drainage conditions in the soil. Iron compounds can exist as
oxidized forms (red), hydrated oxides (yellow), and as reduced
forms (gray) (The Mosaic Company, 2013).
The relationship between subsoil color and drainage (The Mosaic Company,
2013)

SUBSOIL COLOR DRAINAGE CONDITION

Red Excellent

Reddish Brown or Brown Good

Bright Yellow Moderately Good

Pale Yellow Imperfect to Fair

Gray Poor

Dark (Black) Variable

•The Munsell Soil Color Chart is one of the most influential
color-modeling systems devised by Albert Henry Munsell, an
American artist.

•His system, which he began in 1898 with the creation of his

color sphere, or tree, saw its full expression with his publication,
A Color Notation, in 1905. This work has been reprinted several
times and is still a standard for colorimetry (the measuring of
color).

•Munsell named three aspects or qualities of color as: Hue,

Value, and Chroma (University of South Carolina, 2000).
 Is soil color a good indicator of soil fertility?

Soil color has little direct effect on plant growth but is an

indicator of properties that do (Broome, 2013).

1. Black - High in organic matter but drainage may be poor

2. Bright red and yellow - well drained with oxidized iron

3. Gray colors - poorly drained reduced iron.

 Soil color can be an indicator of the
following:
1. As indicator of soil fertility or productivity – darker soils
are generally fertile or productive due to the amount of OM
present and leaching of nutrients present;

1. As indicator of parent material – in young soils color is

indicator of parent material; dark colored minerals give rise to
dark soils; light colored minerals give rise to light colored soils.

2. As indicator of drainage – mottling is an indication of

intermittent reduction and oxidation of minerals in the soil due
to water.

3. As indicator of climatic condition – in mature soil, color is

an indicator of the climate in which they developed; warm
climate brings about red soils; light color is a result of leaching
of iron.
 SOIL TEMPERATURE
 Importance of Soil Temperature:
 It affects plant growth directly, that is all crops practically slow
down their growth below the soil temperature of about 90C
and above the soil temperature of 500C. Temperature range of
Agricultural crops is 150C – 400C.
 Germination of different seeds requires different ranges of soil
temperature e.g. maize begins to germinate at soil temperature
of 7 - 100C.
 Most of the soil organisms function best at an optimum soil
temperature of 25 – 350C.
 The optimum soil temperature for nitrification is about 320C.
 It also influences soil moisture content, aeration and
availability of plant nutrients.
 Temperature directly affects the activity of the soil
biota by determining the rate of physiological activity
such as enzyme activity and indirectly by affecting
physico-chemical properties such as diffusion and
solubility of nutrients, mineral weathering and
evaporation rates (Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, 2015).

For common soil organisms the temperature

range at which they can be active ranges from
about 0°C to 60°C.
 Soil temperature plays an important role in:
1. Soil formation
2. Weathering
3. Soil OM balance
4. Soil chemical reactions
5. Microbial activity
6. Plant growth
 Soil temperature controls the following:
1. Intensity of biophysical, biochemical and
microbiological processes in the soil
2. Rate of mineralization of OM
3. Physical processes of diffusion and viscous flow
4. Germination of seeds
5. Root growth and water and nutrient absorption
6. Respiration in plants and animals

SOIL TEMPERATURE

13 to 380C is favorable for seed germination and plant

growth
0 to 50C most biological activities cease and inactive
 SOIL TILTH
 Soil tilth refers to the physical condition of the
soil as it relates to plant growth. It includes all soil
physical conditions that influence plant growth.

1. Favorable tilth implies good conditions for seed

germination and root proliferation.
2. A soil with good tilth facilitates other processes, such
as water infiltration and aeration.
3. Good soil tilth is usually equated with aggregation.
SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Soil Reaction: Acidity and Alkalinity
2. Buffering Capacity
3. Cation and Anion Exchange Capacity
4. Base Saturation
5. Soil Fertility
 SOIL REACTION
• Soil reaction refers to whether the soil is acidic,
alkaline or neutral.
• The term pH is the scale used to designate the acidity
or basicity (alkalinity) of solutions expressed as the
logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).
• The pH scale runs from 1 to 14.

Extremely Acid Very Strongly Strongly Acid Medium Acid Slightly Acid Neutral Mildly Alkaline Moderately Alkaline Strongly Very Strongly
Acid Alkaline Alkaline

<4.5 4.5–5.0 5.1–5.5 5.6–6.0 6.1-6.5 6.6-7.3 7.4-7.8 7.9-8.4 7.9-8.4 >9.1
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING the pH
THE pH REQUIREMENT OF SOME FRUITS

FRUITS APPROXIMATE pH RANGE

Apple 5.0 – 6.0

Grapes 5.0 - 7.0
Laurel, mountain 4.5 - 6.0
Lemon 6.0 - 7.5
Orange 6.0 - 7.5
Peach 6.0 - 7.0
Pear 6.0 - 7.5
Raspberry, red 5.5 - 7.0
 THE pH REQUIREMENT OF SOME VEGETABLES

VEGETABLE APPROXIMATE pH RANGE

Beans (pod) 6.0-7.5

Broccoli 6.0-7.0
Cabbage 5.5-7.0
Carrots 5.5-7.0
Cauliflower 6.0-7.0
Celery 5.8-6.5
Corn 5.5-7.0
Cucumber 5.5 - 7-0
Eggplant 6.0 - 7.0
Garlic 6.0 - 7.5
Green Beans 6.0 – 7.5
Lettuce 6.0 – 7.0
Okra 5.5 – 6.5
Onion 6.0 – 7.0
Peas 6.0 – 7.0
Peppers 5.5 – 7.0
Potato 5.0 – 6.5
Pumpkin 5.5 – 7.5
Radish 6.0 – 7.0
Spinach 6.0 – 7.0
Squash 6.0 – 7.0
Sweet Potato 5.5 – 6.0
Tomato 5.5 – 7.5
Turnip 6.0 – 7.0
Zucchini 6.0 – 7.0
General pH Effect on Nutrient Availability
Acid-Forming Factors:
OM decomposition forms organic and inorganic acids.
Organic acid such as carbonic acid (H2CO3) is very weak acid
and does not account for the low pH values of soils.

Inorganic acids such as sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HNO3)

acids from organic decay and from microbial action on some
fertilizer materials such as sulphur and ammonium
sulphate are potent suppliers of hydrogen ions in the soil.

Acid rainwater from oxides of nitrogen and sulphur coming

from the combustion of coal, gasoline and other fossil fuels.

Leaching of salts and replacement by percolating acids.

Base-Forming Factors:

 Weathering process releasing calcium, magnesium,

potassium and sodium ions from rocks and minerals
containing these bases.
 Liming

 Irrigation water that contains salts

 ACTIVE vs EXCHANGE ACIDITY

Active acidity is due to the hydrogen ion

concentration of the soil solution.
Exchange acidity refers to the hydrogen and
aluminum ions adsorbed on the soil colloids.
Exchange acidity is 1000x more than active acidity!
Determination of Soil Ph

The two most common procedures to determine soil

pH are the following:

 Electrometric Method – i.e. pH meter

 Dye methods – i.e. litmus papers, Soil

Test Kit
 BUFFERING CAPACITY
 Buffering capacity is the ability of the soil to resist change in its
pH.

 A buffer is a substance that, when present in the solution, has a

large capacity to absorb H+ ions and thus hold the pH relatively
constant.

 Soil buffering is the ability of the soil to stop nutrient or pH

changes by absorption. For soils, it is the capability of absorbing
nutrients and also releasing them (high cation exchange
capacity).

 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) or humus and clay minerals have

good buffer qualities (Terracult, 2015).

 Limestone (CaCO3) is a natural buffer.

 Importance of Buffering
 Stabilization of soil pH
 Determination of amendments required to change the soil
pH.
 PERCENT BASE SATURATION
 Base saturation is defined as the percentage of the soil exchange sites
(CEC) occupied by basic cations such as potassium (K), magnesium
(Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na) (AgSource Laboratories, 2012) or
“the relative proportions of the adsorbed hydrogen and aluminum and
the exchangeable bases of a colloidal complex” (Brady, 1985).

 %BS approaching 8o to 100% are soils that are neutral to alkaline.

 %BS of way below 80% are soils that are acidic.

 Corelation exists between %BS and pH. Higher %BS means neutral to
alkaline soil conditions. Lower %BS means acidic soil conditions.
Ex:
% Base saturation pH
50 5.5
80 6.5
100 7.0
 % Base Saturation =
 EXCHANGEABLE SODIUM
PERCENTAGE
 Exchange Sodium Percentage is a measure of the
degree to which the exchange complex is saturated
with sodium ions.
 This parameter is very important for saline, sodic, and
saline-sodic soils.
 The presence of sodium in an exchangeable form has a
deleterious effect on the chemical and physical
properties of the soil and in turn on plant growth.
 x 100

•The adverse effects of exchangeable sodium are moderated by levels of

exchangeable calcium and magnesium.

•SAR (sodium adsorption ratio) is the best measure of potential

hazards from high sodium levels; it is a cation ratio that takes calcium
and magnesium as well as sodium into consideration.

SAR =
 ANION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
 Anion Exchange Capacity – is the total exchangeable
anions that a soil can adsorb.
 It is measured as milliequivalents per 100 grams of soil
(meq/100g).
 In contrast to CEC, AEC is the degree to which a soil
can adsorb and exchange anions.
 LIME REQUIREMENT OF SOILS
 Lime requirement of soils is defined as the quantity of
limestone needed to increase the pH of a soil to the
optimal pH (target pH) for the crop or crop rotation.

 Soil acidity and the conditions accompanying it result

when there is a deficiency of bases relative to hydrogen
and aluminum.

 To decrease the acidity of the soil there is a need to replace

hydrogen and aluminum by adding oxides, hydroxides or
carbonates of calcium and magnesium.

 These compounds are called liming materials. These

materials are inexpensive and have no objectionable
residues on the soil.
 Examples of Liming Materials
 Oxides of Lime – commercial oxides of lime include
burned lime (CaO) or quick lime (MgO); purity
ranged from 85 to 98%. Impurities include chert, clay
and iron compounds.
 Hydroxide of Lime – form of lime commonly referred
to as hydrate or slaked lime (CaCO3.H2O) with the
addition of water. Purity is 95%.
 Carbonate of Lime – this is pulverized or grounded
limestone. Other examples are bog lime or marl, oyster
shells and precipitated carbonates or lime-carbonates
which are byproduct of industries. Limestone contains
the two important minerals:

• Calcite (CaCO3)
• Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)
 Chemical Guarantee of Liming Materials

 Conventional Oxide Content or Calcium Oxide

Equivalent

 Neutralizing power or Calcium Carbonate

Equivalent

 Percentages of Ca and Mg
 Effects of Lime on the Soil

 Physical effect – i.e. improved soil structure/granulation

 Chemical effect – i.e. pH will increase; H+ ions will decrease

and OH- will increase; solubility of Fe, Al, and Mn will decline;
availability of P and Mo will increase; exchangeable Ca and Mg
will increase.

 Biological effect – lime stimulates the microorganisms in the

soil and favors the formation of humus, N fixation by legumes,
etc.
 Amount of Lime to Apply

The five major factors to consider in deciding what

kind of liming material to apply:
1. Chemical guarantees of the liming material
2. Cost per ton
3. Rate of reaction with the soil
4. Fineness of the limestone
5. Handling, storage, etc.
Response of Plants to Liming

 Plants grow better in limed soils. Legumes are stimulated

by lime. Plants grow satisfactorily in limed soils due to the
following:
1. Direct nutritive or regulatory action of the Ca and Mg;
2. Removal or neutralization of toxic organic or inorganic
compounds
3. Retardation of plant diseases;
4. Increased chemical availability of plant nutrients; and
5. Encouragement of microorganism activities.
Effects of Over Liming:

 Deficiencies of available iron, manganese, copper and

zinc;
 Phosphate availability will decrease due to formation
of insoluble calcium phosphates;
 Restricted absorption of phosphorus by plants;
 Uptake and utilization of Boron will be hindered;
 Drastic change of pH may in itself is detrimental.
 SOIL FERTILITY
 Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to supply
essential plant nutrients and soil water in adequate
amounts and proportions for plant growth and
reproduction in the absence of toxic substances which
may inhibit plant growth (FAO, 1999).

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential nutrients to

plants in sufficient and balanced amount.

Soil productivity is the ability of the soil to produce desired quantities

of plant yield.

Plant nutrition refers to the supply and absorption of chemical

elements or compounds required by the plants.

Nutrients are chemical elements or compounds required by plants for

normal growth.
The 16 Essential Nutrients
ELEMENTS AVAILABLE FORM

Carbon (C) CO2

Hydrogen (H) H2O, H2
Oxygen (O) O2
Nitrogen (N) NH4+, NO3-
Phosphorus (P) H2PO4-,HPO4=, PO4=
Potassium (K) K+
Calcium (Ca) Ca++
Magnesium (Mg) Mg++
Sulfur (S) SO4=
Iron (Fe) Fe++
Manganese (Mn) Mn++
Zinc (Zn) Zn++
Copper (Cu) Cu++
Boron (B) BO3=
Molybdenum (Mo) MoO4=
Chlorine (Cl) Cl -
 Classification of Plant Nutrients
Macronutrients

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium,

Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur

Micronutrients
Iron, Manganese, Boron, Molybdenum, Copper, Zinc, Chlorine

Criteria of Essentiality

A chemical element is considered essential if:

• It is involved in metabolic processes of the plant or animal;
• The plant or animal cannot complete its life cycle if it is deficient or absent.
Order of Relative Concentration of Nutrient
Elements in Plants
 Analysis of plant tissues reveals the relative
concentration of the various nutrients in plant tissues
that also indicates their relative importance:

H >O>C>N>K>Ca>Mg>P>S>Cl>Fe>B>Mn>Zn>Cu>Mo
Soil Fertility vs Soil Productivity
Soil Fertility Soil Productivity
It is an index of available nutrient It is used to indicate crop yields.
to plants
Influenced by the physical, Depends upon fertility and location.
chemical and biological factors of
the soil.

It is the function of available It is the function of soil fertility,

nutrients of the soil. management and climate.

All fertile soils are not productive. All productive soils are fertile.

It is an inherent property of the It is not the inherent property of the

soil. soil.
 Liebig’s Law of the Minimum
 Liebig's Law suggests that plant growth is controlled,
not by the total amount of nutrients or resources
available, but by the availability of
the scarcest resource.
 Liebig's Law is often described as being like a wooden
barrel with different length staves, where each stave
represents a different resource.
 The amount of water able to be held in the barrel (an
analogy for plant growth) is quite obviously
determined by the length of the shortest stave (the
availability of the scarcest resource).
Liebig’s law of the Minimum
 Mitscherlich’s Equation
 In 1909, Mitscherlich developed an equation relating
growth to the supply of plant nutrients.
 He observed that if plants were supplied with adequate
amounts of all nutrients save one, their growth was
proportional to the amount of this limiting element which
was added to the soil.
 Plant growth increased as more of the element was added,
but growth was not directly proportional to the amount of
the growth factor added.
 He observed that the total increase in growth became less
as increments of the growth factor were increased.
 Mitscherlich’s Equation
= (A – y) c

Where:

dx = an increment of the growth factor; X1, X2, X3, or Xn

dy = the increase in yield due to an increment of the
growth factor dx
A = the maximum yield possible obtained by supplying all
growth factors in optimum amounts
y = yield obtained after any given quantity of the factor x
has been applied
c = a proportionally constant which depends on the nature
of the growth factor
 100

DY = increase in yield
% of Y3 DX = increase in input
maximum Y2
yield A = maximum possible yield
Y = actual yield
Y1
C = constant depending on
nature of x (whether N, P,
K etc.)

1 2 3 4

Units of input X
 Mechanisms of Nutrient
Absorption
1. Mass Flow – movement of nutrients to the roots due to uptake and
transpiration of water.

Ex: N, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Zn, B, Fe, Mn, and Mo

2. Diffusion – movement of nutrient ions from a zone of high

concentration to low concentration.

Ex: P, K and Zn move in the soil by diffusion

3. Root Interception or Contact Exchange – direct exchange between

root surface and colloid surface.

Ex: Zn
 ACTIVE vs PASSIVE UPTAKE

 Active Uptake – transport of ions into the inner cells

require energy due to the higher concentration of ions
inside the root which is against an electrochemical
gradient. The process is selective.

 Passive Uptake – occurs in the outer walls of the

epidermal and cortical cells of the roots. Uptake is by
diffusion and ion exchange and is controlled by
concentration and electrical gradient. These
processes are non-selective and do not require energy.
NUTRIENT UPTAKE MOBILITY
N active mobile
P active mobile
K active mobile
Ca passive immobile
Mg passive mobile
S active moderate (mainly
upward)

Fe active immobile
Mn active immobile
Zn active very low mobility
Cu active moderately mobile
Mo active moderately mobile
B passive immobile
Cl active moderately mobile
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS
 The soil contains a vast array of life forms ranging from
microscopic organisms like bacteria, actinomycetes,
some fungi and algae, and viruses to earthworms,
insects, and large burrowing animals.
 These organisms make the soil a living ecosystem.
A. Soil Microorganisms

•Soil microorganisms occur in huge numbers and display an

enormous diversity of forms and functions.

•Major microbial groups in soil are bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi,

algae (including cyanobacteria) and protozoa.

•Soil microbes can occur in numbers ranging up to several million or

more
in a gram of fertile soil.

•The bacteria are clearly the most numerous of the soil microbes.

•It is the soil fungi which tend to contribute the most biomass among
the microbial groups. In fact, it is because of their large contribution
to the biomass that they are generally regarded as being the dominant
decomposer microbes in the soil.
Nutrient cycling by soil microbes:

Soil microbes exert much influence in controlling the quantities

and forms of various chemical elements found in soil.

Most notable are the cycles for

Carbon,
Nitrogen,
Sulfur
Phosphorus;

Mineralization (i.e. the conversion of organic forms of the

elements to their inorganic forms) of organic materials by soil
microbes liberates carbon dioxide, ammonium, sulfate, phosphate
and inorganic forms of other elements.

This is the basis of nutrient cycling in all major ecosystems of

the world.
The Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Sulfur Cycle
 PROBLEM SOILS
Problem soils are soils that due to prevailing climatic conditions
in the area, nature of the mineralogical composition of the parent
material from where the soil came from and/or human activities
resulted to conditions not favorable to plant growth.

COMMON PROBLEM SOILS

1. Acid Soils
2. Calcaereous Soils
3. Sodic Soils
4. Saline-Sodic Soils
5. Organic Soils
6. Heavy Cracking Clay Soils
7. Gypsiferous Soils
8. Sandy Soils
9. Steeplands
 ACID SOILS
 Acid soils are those that have a pH value of less than
5.5 for most of the year.
 They are associated with a number of toxicities
(Aluminum) as well as deficiencies (Molybdenum) and
other plant restricting conditions.
 Many of the acid soils belong to Acrisols, Alisols,
Podzols and Dystric subgroups of other soils.
 An extreme case of an acid soil is the acid sulfate soil
(Thionic Fluvisols and Thionic Cambisols).
 CALCAEREOUS SOILS
 Calcareous soils have often more than 15% CaCO3 in
the soil that may occur in various forms (powdery,
nodules, crusts etc…).
 Soils with high CaCO3 belong to the Calcisols and
related calcic subgroups of other soils.
 They are relatively widespread in the drier areas of the
earth.
 The potential productivity of calcareous soils is high
where adequate water and nutrients can be supplied.
 The high calcium saturation tends to keep the
calcareous soils in well aggregated form and good
physical condition.
 However where soils contain an impermeable hard pan (petricalcic
horizon) they should be deeply ploughed in order to break the pan.
This should be followed by the establishment of an efficient drainage
system.

 Furrow irrigation is better than basin irrigation on slaking calcareous

soils.

 On undulating lands, contour and sprinkler irrigations are better

options than flood irrigation. Drip irrigation may also be practiced.

 Calcareous soils generally have low organic matter content and lack
nitrogen. Nitrogen fertilizer may be applied any time from just before
planting up to the time the plant is well established.

 Ammoniac sources of nitrogen and urea should not be left on the

surface of calcareous soils, since considerable loss of ammonia through
volatilization may occur, and they should be incorporated in the soil
instead.
 Phosphorous is often lacking in calcareous soils. Amounts to apply
depend on how deficient the soil is and the crop requirements. Excess
applied phosphorus may lead to deficiency of zinc or iron.

 To be effective on calcareous soils, applied phosphorus fertilizer should

be in water soluble form. Band application of phosphate is more
effective as compared to broadcast application. Application at the time
of seeding has been found to be most appropriate since phosphorus is
required mostly during the younger stages of plant growth.

 Calcareous soils usually suffer from a lack of micronutrients,

especially zinc and iron. Zinc deficiency is most pronounced in maize,
especially under high yield intensive cultivation systems.

 Zinc sulphate is an effective zinc source and is the most popular form in
use. For soil application, zinc sulphate is broadcast and incorporated in
soil. A single application lasts for several years. Foliar applications of zinc
are used on fruit trees. Heavy applications of animal manure are helpful
in preventing deficiency of iron and zinc.
 SODIC SOILS
 These soils do not contain any great amount of neutral
soluble salts. The toxicity is due to Na ions and
hydroxyl.
 The high pH (>8.5) is largely due to the hydrolysis of
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
 Sodium occupies more than 15% of the CEC of the
soil.
 Electrical Conductivity is less than 4 dS/m; also
known as “black alkali” due to the discoloration of
the surface of the soil by humus brought about by
capillary water movement to the surface.
 SALINE SOILS
 These soils contain a concentration of neutral soluble
salts sufficient to interfere with the growth of most plants;
 Electrical Conductivity is >4 decisiemens per meter
(dS/m) (also expressed as millimhos per centimeter
(mmho/cm);
 less than 15% of the Cation Exchange Capacity of the soil
is occupied by Na ions; pH is below 8.5; also called white
alkali; excess soluble slats are ch;orides and sulfates of Na,
Ca, and Mg. These salts can be leached out by irrigation
water as practical management. Salinization is the term
used in reference to the natural processes that result in the
accumulation of neutral soluble salts.
SALINE SOIL
 SALINE-SODIC SOIL
 Soils that contain appreciable quantities of neutral
soluble salts and adsorbed Na ions that seriously
affect most plants.
 More than 15% of CEC is occupied by Na ions.
 pH is still below 8.5.
 Electrical Conductivity is 4 dS/m;
 Unlike saline soils, leaching by irrigation will raise the
pH of saline-sodic soils unless Ca or Mg salt
concentrations are high in the soil or irrigation water.
 When other neutral salts are leached, Na toxicity will
happen.
 ORGANIC SOILS
 Soils rich in organic matter and undecomposed plant material
are Histosols.

 They occur particularly in areas where decomposition of organic matter is

hampered by cold temperatures (in Boreal climates) or where the
decomposition is hampered by continuous wet conditions (in the Wet
Tropics).

 The fertility of Histosols is normally low when the natural vegetation is

abruptly replaced with agricultural crops. The cycling of plant nutrients is
interrupted and leads to chemical exhaustion. Especially micronutrients
such as boron, copper and zinc may be lacking.

 To reclaim Histosols shallow drainage ditches need to be built. The natural

vegetation is left standing for a while in order to speed up the drying of the
peat. Drains can be 1 metre-deep at 20-40 metre intervals.

 Small-scale farmers sometimes carry out controlled burning of the peat to

free nutrients and to raise the pH of the surface soil. Burning stimulates
plant growth but burning and its precise effects are still open to discussion
(FAO, 2015).
ORGANIC SOIL
 HEAVY CRACKING CLAYS
 Soil water management, tillage, cropping systems, and nutrient management pose
special problems in heavy cracking clays.

 These soils mainly belong to Vertisols and vertic subgroups of other soils and
occur mainly in (sub) tropical areas with a pronounced dry season.

 Management of soil water is the important aspect of soil management in the semi-
arid tropics. The poor internal drainage and extremely slow hydraulic conductivity,
leads to water logging, and delay in planting.

 Extreme consistency properties of the soil permit tillage operations within a

narrow soil moisture range only: because soils are sticky when wet and hard
when dry. Use of tillage implements under wet conditions may result in soil
sticking to implements and the formation of large clods.

 Wide deep cracks in the dry season, permit easy entry of rainfall and water moves
freely into the cracks.

 Although chemically rich these, soils under sustained, high-input systems, may
suffer from fertility problems on account of limited availability of N, P, and
micronutrients.
 GYPSIFEROUS SOIL
 Soils with more than 25 percent of gypsum may
hamper plant growth. The soil material then lacks
plasticity, does not stick together and becomes
completely unstable in water. Consequently erosion
of gysiferous soils can be very severe.

 Soils with significant amounts of gypsum particularly

occur in the driest areas on earth (FAO, 2015).
GYPSIFEROUS SOIL
 SANDY SOILS
 Sandy soils are those that are generally coarse
textured until 50 cm depth and consequently retain
few nutrients and have a low water holding capacity.
 Soil management practices which lead to an increase
in the fine fraction are helpful in improving soil
properties and crop productivity (FAO, 2015).
SANDY SOILS
 STEEP LANDS
 Steep lands often pose specific problems to agriculture
and the environment because the steep slopes and
accidental relief result in shallow soils that are very prone
to erosion and landslides.
 In the tropics most of the steep land areas are settled by
small-scale farming families where livelihoods may be
endangered by land degradation and associated loss of
productivity.
 The translation of the concepts and principles of good land
husbandry into field practice require practical actions that
are well adjusted to the site and farmer-specific conditions
where they would be applied (FAO, 2015).
 FERTILIZERS AND OTHER SOIL
AMMENDMENTS
What is a fertilizer?
 Any material applied to the soil or plants that supply
nutrient elements required for plant nutrition and
growth.
Purpose of Fertilizers
 The amount of available nutrients from the natural
fertility of the soil is not enough to meet crop needs;
 Nutrients in the soil is not in available form;
 There is continuous loss of soil nutrients;
 There is a need to increase production and income.
CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS
 Inorganic Fertilizers
 Inorganic fertilizers are primarily derived from chemical
compounds, either mineral or synthetic.
 They typically come as a powder, pellets, granules or a
liquid.
 Most inorganic, concentrated fertilizer is rated based on
the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium.
 Other chemicals that might be included in
inorganic fertilizers include calcium, sulfur, iron, zinc
and magnesium.
 Chemicals are generally lighter and easier to transport than
their organic counterpart (Whirlston Machinery, 2015).
TYPES OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
 Single nutrient fertilizers or straight fertilizers – supply
one primary nutrient.
Ex: Urea (45-0-0), Ammonium Sulfate (21-0-0),
Muriate of Potash (0-0-60)

 Multi-nutrient fertilizers or complex/compound/mixed

fertilizers – supply two or three primary nutrients.
Ex: Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)

 Complete fertilizers – supply three primary nutrients.

Ex: 14-14-14, 15-15-15
WHAT IS A FERTILIZER GRADE?
 This refers to the weight percentage of the nutrients contained in
a fertilizer.

 Also referred to as the guaranteed minimum analysis of the plant

nutrients in terms of

 % Total N, %P2O5 (phosphoric acid) and % K2O (soluble

potash)

WHAT IS A FERTILIZER RATIO?

 This is the relative proportion of N, P2O5 and K2O in a fertilizer

material.
Ex: 14-14-14 = 1:1:1
6-24-24 = 1:4:4
 NITROGEN FERTILIZERS
These are N-containing fertilizers. The most popular commercial
nitrogen fertilizers are given below.

NAME OF FERTILIZER FORMULA % ELEMENT

1. Urea CO(NH2)2 45 – 46
2. Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO4 20 – 21
3. Ammonium nitrate NH4 NO3 33
4. Calcium cyanamide CaCN3 22
5. Anhydrous ammonia NH3 82
6. Ammonium phosphate NH4H2PO4 11
7. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 26
PROCESS OF PRODUCING N
FERTILIZERS

HABER-BOSCH PROCESS
Basic process developed in 1913 to produce nitrogen fertilizers.
High Pressure (14,700psi)
N2 + 3H2 5000C 2NH3
Catalyst
 PHOSPHOROUS FERTILIZERS
These are P-containing fertilizers. The most popular
commercial phosphorous fertilizers are the following:

NAME OF FERTILIZER FORMULA % P2O5

(%N)
1. Superphosphates Ca(H2PO4)2 16 - 50
2. Ammonium Phosphate NH4H2PO4 48 (11)
3. Diammonium Phosphate (NH4)2HPO4 46 – 53 (21)
4. Superphosphoric Acid H4P2O7 76
5. Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 54
 Other phosphate fertilizers:

1. Basic slag (CaO)5.P2O5.SiO2 15 - 25

2. Steamed bone meal Ca3(PO4)2 23 - 30
3. Rock phosphate Flouro and Chloro- apatites 25 – 30
 MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHOROUS FERTILIZER

Ca10(PO4)6F2 + 7H2SO4 = 3CaH4(PO4)2 . H2O + 7CaSO4 + 2HF

(Rock Phosphate) (OSP)

Ca10(PO4)6F2 + 14H3SO4 = 10Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2HF

(Rock Phosphate) (TSP)

 POTASSIUM FERTILIZERS
These are K-containing fertilizers. The popular
commercial potassium fertilizers are given below.

NAME OF FERTILIZER FORMULA % ELEMENT

Muriate of Potash KCl 60

Potassium Nitrate KNO3 45
Potassium Sulfate K2SO4 50
Potassium-Magnesium Sulfate K2SO4 . 2MgSO4 21
Potassium Carbonate K2CO3 63
 CALCIUM FERTILIZERS
These are the Calcium-containing fertilizers. Some commercial Ca-
containing fertilizers are shown below.

NAME OF FERTILIZER FORMULA % ELEMENT

Calcitic Lime CaCO3 34

Dolomitic Lime CaCO3.MgCO3 17
Burned Lime CaO 70
Hydrated Lime Ca(OH)2 50
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 22
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 36
 MAGNESIUM FERTILIZERS
These are the Mg-containing fertilizers. Below are the
commercially available magnesium fertilizers.

NAME OF FERTILIZER FORMULA % ELEMENT

Kieserite MgSO4.H2O 18.2

Epsom MgSO4.7H2O 91
Langbeinite K2SO4.2MgSO4 11.2
Magnesium Oxide MgO 45
Dolomite CaMg(CO3) 12
 METHODS OF INORGANIC FERTILIZER APPLICATION
1. BROADCAST – the fertilizer material is spread mechanically or by hand uniformly over the soil surface.

2. BAND – the fertilizer material is spread on a narrow strip along the side of the row of plants mechanically
or by hand.

3. IN-THE-ROW – the fertilizer material is applied along the bottom of the furrow also mechanically or
manually.

4. RING – the fertilizer material is applied around the base of the plant. This usually done for orchard farms
or trees.

5. HOLE – the fertilizer material is dropped in holes made by digging sticks or machines along rows,
furrows or around the tree.

6. SPOT – the fertilizer material is dropped in small amounts on the side of each hill or plant.

7. BASAL – is the application of fertilizers on the soil before planting crops.

8. TOPDRESS – this refers to the application of fertilizers sometime after plants have emerged.

9. FOLIAR – the application of liquid fertilizers by spraying on leaves.

10. FERTIGATION – is the method of applying fertilizers (that have been dissolved in the irrigation tank)
through the irrigation system of the farm. In drip irrigation, a fertilizer tank is separate from the water
tank but are joined and released together through the same irrigation pipes delivering water and fertilizer
all at the same time.
 EFFICIENCY OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

Optimum benefits from fertilizer use or fertilizer efficiency can

be achieved by:
1. Following the proper rate/dose of application;
2. Right timing of application;
3. Proper method of application;
4. Using the right kind of fertilizers
 GENERAL FORMULA FOR FERTILIZER
COMPUTATION

Ex:
Recommended rate for Nitrogen for rice using Urea (45-0-0) fertilizer is
90kg/ha.

Amount of Urea = = 200 kg/ha

In bags:
= 4 bags
 Problems Associated with
Inorganic Fertilizers
The continuous use and sometimes excessive use of inorganic fertilizers have brought about
a number of environmental problems as follows:

1. Ill effects on human and animal health such as cancer due to contamination
of drinking water (groundwater sources) and food by nitrates from nitrogen
fertilizers.
2. Nitrate poisoning among livestock through contaminated water and feeds.
3. Eutrophication of lakes and river systems due to nutrient loading from fertilizers
causing algal bloom.
4. Acid rain brought about by reaction of fertilizers to the air in the atmosphere.
5. Stratospheric ozone depletion by nitrous oxides.
6. Global warming
7. Other forms of pollution in water, soil and air.