Reference:

SKINNER, B.J., and PORTER, S.C. “The Dynamic Earth [4th Edition] Wiley
and Sons Inc. 1999.
CHERNICOFF, S. and VENKATAKRISHNAN, R. “Geology” Worth. 1995.
Ti sets Geology
Time G l apart from
f most off the
h other
h science
i because
b
of the an appreciation of time is fundamental to the
understanding of both the Physical and the Biological history of
the earth.
earth

The understandingg and acceptance

p of enormityy of ggeologic
g time
is one of the major contributions geology has made to the
sciences.

Geology uses two different frames of reference when discussing

geologic time.
Relative Dating involves placing geologic events in a sequential order as
d t
determined
i d from
f their
th i position
iti ini the
th geologic
l i record.
d Relative
R l ti dating
d ti will
ill nott
tell how long ago a particular event occurred but only that one event preceded
another.

Absolute Dating results in specific dates for rock units or events expressed in
years before the present. This is the most common method of obtsining
absolute
abso ute ages. Such
Suc ages are
a e calculatred
ca cu at ed from
o natural
atu a rates
ates of
o decay of
o various
va ous
radiometric elements present in some rocks.

Today Geologic time scale is really dual scale i.e relative scale based on rock
sequence with radiometric dates expressed in years before the present
Geologic Time Scale
D
Developed
l d in
i 1800
1800s f
from relative
l ti dating
d ti of f rocks
k
More recently, radiometric techniques have allowed us to determine
ages of units in years before present.
M
Many of
f th
the names relate
l t back
b k tot llocalities
liti iin EEngland
l d (E
(Ex: D
Devonian
i
from Devonshire)

Divisions
Di isi s of
fGGeologic
l i Tim
Time Scale:
S l :
Eons Eras:
Paleozoic -- Mesozoic -- Cenozoic
Oldest
ld -----------------> Youngest

Periods of the Phanerozoic: Paleozoic Era

Permian (youngest)
Pennsylvanian together with Mississippian are called "Carboniferous" in
Great Britain

Epochs of Tertiary and Quaternary

PaleoceneEoceneOligoceneMiocenePliocenePleistocene
 Most recent
“Ice Age”
“Humans”
Humans
arrive

Major Mass
Extinction

Age
g of
Dinosaurs
Major Mass
Extinction
Age of Coal
Formation

Age of Fishes

First multi
multi--
celled
Th Geologic
The G l i Time
Ti Scale
S l
organisms
Origin of the Earth
4.55 Billion years
Dimensions and surface relief

Th radius
The di off the
h Earth
E h at the
h equator is
i 6370 km
k andd the
h polar
l radius
di isi
shorter by about 22 km; thus the Earth is not quite a perfect sphere.
The planet has a surface area of 510x106km2, of which some 29 per cent is
land.
If to this is added the shallow sea areas of the shelf which surrounds the
continents, the total land area is nearly 35 per cent of the whole surface.
In other words, nearly two-thirds of the surface is covered by deep ocean.
Surface relief is very varied; mountains rise to several kilometres above sea
level, with a maximum of 8.9 km at Everest.
The average height of land above sea level is 0.86 km and the mean depth
of the ocean floor is about 3.8
3 8 km.
km
The extremes of height and depth are small in comparison with the Earth's
radius,
di andd are found
f d only
l in
i limited
li i d areas.
The oceans, seas, lakes and rivers are collectively referred to as the
hydrosphere; and the whole is surrounded by a gaseous envelope, the
atmosphere.
COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH
• A sliced view of the Earth reveals layers of differing
composition. Starting from the inside there are the
following layers:

(i) Core: A spherical mass composed largely of metallic

iron with some nickel and other elements.
(ii) Mantle: A layer of rocky matter, less dense than the
core but more dense than the crust.
(iii)Crust: Rocky matter differing greatly in composition
andd thi
thickness.
k Beneath
B th the
th oceans it is
i rather
th thin
thi (5 to
t
8 km thick), and below the continents it varies from 25
to 70 km thick.
 DRIFTING CONTINENTS
.
(500 MILLION YEARS AGO

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

• Convection currents are thought to occur in the Earth in a
similar manner to those in a sauce-pan, but act much
slower.
slower
• Geothermal gradients thus exist with depth. The
g g from 5oC/km
gradients varyy from pplace to pplace, ranging
g
to 70oC/km in some places. These gradients tend to
reduce at very great depths.
[Note: iit iis calculated
[N l l d that
h the
h temperature at the
h centre off
the earth is 5000oC]
• These thermal currents have a fundamental effect on the
near-surface materials of the planet. They cause them to
move, so called “Drift”.
GEOTECHNICAL GRADIENTS AND CONVECTION
VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE WITH DEPTH
DRIFTING PLATES
Relatively recently, a theory has emerged which
suggests/explains the processes that led to the development
and distribution of the continents and oceans. It suggests that
the continents are “drifting” across the surface of the planet
and that the oceans are expanding in some places and
contracting in other places.
places
Thus it is now believed that the LITHOSPHERE (the upper
layer
y of cool,, rigid,
g , brittle crust)) floats on the
ASTHENOSPHERE (the underlying hot, weak, plastic layer
of the crust).
The Lithosphere is not a continuous layer but a series of
sections (known as PLATES) that move slowly in various
directions and interact with each other where they come into
contact. All this is known as TECTONICS.
Six large plates and many small plates comprise the Earth’s surface and move in the
directions shown, at rates up to 12cm/year.

PLATES OF THE
LITHOSPHERE
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) first proposed the theory of Plate
Tectonics. It was initially ridiculed but is now generally accepted. He
suggested that 225 million years ago, a SUPERCONTINENT existed,
called PANGAEA.

Since then various sections of this super-continent “broke-off” and

d ift d across the
drifted th lithosphere.
lith h Where
Wh twot parts
t collided
llid d they
th
reformed and sometimes they broke down again. Sometimes the
parts were near the Equator and sometimes near the Poles. They
are still moving!
The theory of Plate Tectonics comprises FOUR basic concepts:

(i) The Lithosphere comprises rigid units called Plates

(ii) The
Th Plates
Pl t move
(iii) Most of the planet’s large scale geological activity, (such as
earthquakes and volcanoes), occurs at or near Plate
Boundaries.
(iv) The interior of Plates are relatively quiet geologically.
MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH’S TECTONIC PLATES
THE PACIFIC PLATE BOUNDARIES
MAJOR PLATES OF THE EARTH
 TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

The various plates move in different directions and at

different rates. Where they meet they form various
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, such as:

a)) Convergent
C Pl B
Plate Boundaries
d i

b) Divergent (or Rifting) Plate Boundaries

c)) Transform Plate Boundaries

A DIVERGENT (RIFTING) PLATE BOUNDARY
 A CONVERGENT AND SUBDUCTING BOUNDARY

[Note: The denser plate sinks below the less dense plate. Often the oceanic plates are
denser than the continental plates]
CONVERGING BOUNDARIES INVOLVING CONTINENTAL
COLLISION
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES
An idealized cross section illustrating the relationship between the
lithosphere and the underlying asthenosphere and the three
principal
i i l types
t off plate
l t boundaries:
b d i divergent,
di t convergent,
t andd
transform
End