DISEASES AND

IMMUNITY
Chapter-10
(part 2)
OBJECTIVES
 Pathogens
● Pathogens include many bacteria, viruses and some fungi, as well as several Protoctista and
other organisms.
My money dont jiggle jig
● Pathogenic bacteria may cause diseases because of the damage they do to the host’s cells, but
most bacteria also produce poisonous waste products called toxins.

● Toxins damage the cells in which the bacteria are growing. They also upset some of the systems
in the body. This causes a raised temperature, headache, tiredness and weakness, and
sometimes diarrhoea and vomiting.

● The toxin produced by the Clostridium bacteria (which causes tetanus) is so poisonous that as
little as 0.00023 g is fatal.
Some pathogenic bacteria
 Pathogens
● Many viruses cause diseases in plants and animals.
● Human virus diseases include those that cause the common cold, COVID-19, poliomyelitis,
measles, mumps, chickenpox, herpes, rubella, influenza and acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
● Tobacco mosaic virus affects tomato plants as well as tobacco. It causes mottling and
discoloration of the leaves, eventually stunting the growth of the plant.
 Pathogens
● Fungus diseases like blight, rusts or mildews cause large losses to farmers.
● Scientists are always searching for new varieties of crop plants that are resistant to fungus
disease, and for new chemicals (fungicides) to kill parasitic fungi without harming the host.
● A few parasitic fungi cause diseases in animals, including humans.
● One group of these fungi cause tinea or ringworm. The fungus grows in the epidermis of the
skin and causes irritation and inflammation (swelling).
● One type of tinea is athlete’s foot, in which the skin between the toes becomes infected. Tinea
is very easily spread by contact with infected towels or clothing but can usually be cured
quickly with a fungicidal ointment.
Direct contact
• This may involve transfer through blood or other
body fluids.
• Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is
commonly passed on by infected drug addicts,
who inject the drug into their bloodstream.
• HIV: is transmitted through intercourse or
sharing infected needles
• It can be transmitted from a mother to her child
during birth or breast feeding.

• Anyone cleaning up dirty needles is at risk of

infection if they accidently stab themselves.
Surgeons carrying out operations need to be
especially careful not to be in direct contact with
the patient’s blood.
 This may involve infection from
Indirect contact ➢
pathogens on contaminated surfaces, for
example, during food preparation.
➢ Raw meat carries bacteria, which are
killed if the meat is cooked enough.
However, if the raw meat is prepared on a
surface that is then used for other food
preparation, like cutting up fruit or
vegetables that are eaten raw later, then the
pathogens from meat can be transferred to
the fresh food.
➢ The person handling the food can also
transmit disease if he or she does not wash
their hands after using the toilet, moving
rubbish or handling raw produce.
 This may involve infection from
Indirect contact ➢
pathogens on contaminated surfaces, for
example, during food preparation.
➢ Raw meat carries bacteria, which are
killed if the meat is cooked enough.
However, if the raw meat is prepared on a
surface that is then used for other food
preparation, like cutting up fruit or
vegetables that are eaten raw later, then the
pathogens from meat can be transferred to
the fresh food.
➢ The person handling the food can also
transmit disease if he or she does not wash
their hands after using the toilet, moving
rubbish or handling raw produce.
Airborne, droplet or aerosol infection
• When we sneeze, cough, laugh, speak or just breathe out
we send a fine spray of liquid drops into the air.
• These droplets are so tiny that they remain floating in the
air for a long time.
• If the droplets contain viruses or bacteria they may cause
disease when they are eaten with food or inhaled.
• Virus diseases like colds, flu, measles and chickenpox are
spread in this way. So are the bacteria (Streptococcus)
that cause sore throats. When the water in the droplets
evaporates, the bacteria often die as they dry out. The
viruses remain infectious, however, floating in the air for
a long time.
 Contamination by houseflies
• Flies walk about on food. They place their
mouthparts on it and pump saliva onto the food.
Then they suck up the digested food as a liquid.
• This would not matter much if flies fed only on clean
food, but they also visit decaying food or human
faeces.
• Here they may pick up bacteria on their feet or their
mouthparts. They then land on our food and the
bacteria on their bodies are passed to the food.
• Food poisoning, amoebic dysentery and polio can be
spread by houseflies.
 Thank
You
DISEASES AND
IMMUNITY
Chapter-10
(part 2)
OBJECTIVES
 Controlling disease
● Clean water supply

• The intestines contain bacteria and some of these

bacteria will pass out with the faeces. If the
faeces get into streams or rivers, the bacteria
may be carried into reservoirs of water used for
drinking.
• Even if faeces are left on the soil or buried,
rainwater may wash the bacteria into a nearby
stream. If disease bacteria get into water
supplies used for drinking, hundreds of people
can become infected.
• To prevent this method of infection, drinking
water needs to be purified and faeces must be
made harmless, a process involving sewage
treatment.
● Water treatment
On a small scale boiling the water used for drinking will destroy any pathogens.
On a large scale, water supplies are protected by (a) making sure that untreated human sewage
cannot reach them and (b) treating the water to make it safe.
Some sources (e.g. mountain streams) may be almost pure; others (e.g. slow-moving rivers)
may be contaminated.
The object of the treatment is to remove all microorganisms that might cause disease.
This is done by filtration and chlorination. Chlorine kills the pathogens.
 Food hygiene
● Most food poisoning is caused by bacteria.
● The presence of Salmonella bacteria in food is one of the commonest causes of food
poisoning. The bacteria present are killed when meat
● is cooked, or milk is pasteurised.
● Few simple rules can prevent you or anyone else eating food from getting poisoning.
1. Keep your own bacteria and viruses away from food.
2. Keep animals away from food.
3. Do not keep food at room temperature for long periods.
4. Keep raw meat way from other foods.
 Personal hygiene
● Personal hygiene means keeping your body clean.
● Factors increasing the risk of getting or passing on transmissible diseases.
1. Millions of bacteria are inside our mouths.
2. Salmonella bacteria, and bacteria that cause typhoid, are present in the faeces
of infected people. These may reach food from the unwashed hands of the
sufferer.
3. People who handle and prepare food need to be extremely careful about their
personal hygiene.
4. Hand-washing is also important before and after handling raw meat, especially
poultry.
5. Food on display in shops needs to be protected.
6. Some people carry intestinal pathogens without showing any symptoms of
disease. These people are called carriers.
 Waste disposal
Waste from domestic or commercial premises should be stored in dustbins or
garbage cans made of galvanised steel or strong plastic, with a closely fitted lid
to keep out flies and scavenging animals.
If this is not done, pathogens will breed in the waste and become a source of disease
organisms.
The waste is taken away and disposed of by burning or burying deep enough to
prevent rats using it as food, or (less effectively) tightly packed to keep out flies and
vermin.
 Sewage treatment
Sewage contains bacteria from the human intestine that can be harmful.
These bacteria must be destroyed to prevent the spread of intestinal diseases.
Rainwater from the streets is also combined with the sewage.
Inland towns must make their sewage harmless in a sewage treatment plant
before discharging the effluent into rivers. A sewage works removes solid
and liquid waste from the sewage so that the water leaving the works is safe
to drink.
 Mechanical Barriers
● Think of mechanical barriers as the defensive walls around a fort. They physically prevent
things from entering before they can do damage.

● Skin is a layer covering your entire body and it prevents many pathogens from reaching the
cells and tissues that they could damage.

● Nostril hairs look pretty weird, but they're important. They traps pathogens (and dust) before
they can get into the body.
 Chemical Barriers
● Mucus is produced by cells in the trachaea (the tube that takes air in from the mouth). It traps
much of the material that gets breathed in. Little hair-like things called cilia* on the ciliated
epithelial cells wave along like a Mexican wave to move mucus up and out of the trachaea,
where it can then be swallowed or spat out (seriously though, don't do that).

● Hydrochloric acid is found in the stomach. It's pretty strong (very acidic), and kills most
pathogens that reach the stomach. This destroys pathogens in food and also pathogens in the
mucus that leave the trachaea.
 Cells
● When bacteria get through the mechanical and chemical barriers, the body has two more
ways of defending itself – white blood cells and antibodies, produced by white blood cells.
● One type of white blood cells fights infection by engulfing bacteria (a process called
phagocytosis) and digesting them.
● Another type produces antibodies that attach themselves to bacteria, making it easier for
other white blood cells to engulf them.
 Questions
1. What is a pathogen?
2. List three diseases caused by pathogen?
3. Describe three ways in which pathogens can be transmitted from
one person to another.
4. Outline 4 ways in which the body prevents pathogens from entering.
Antibodies and immunity
 The immune system
● Antibodies
➢ Each lymphocytes produces a different sort of antibody.
➢ An antibody is a protein molecule with a particular shape which is just right to fit
into another molecule called antigen present on the outside of a pathogen.
➢ When antibody molecules lock onto the pathogen they kill the pathogen either by
alerting the phagocytes or antibodies start a series of reactions in blood which
produce enzymes to digest the pathogens.
 Antibodies and antigens
On the surface of all cells there are chemical substances called antigens, which have
specific shapes.
Specific antibodies also have complementary shapes that fit specific antigens.
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. They produce proteins called antibodies
that directly attack the antigens of bacteria or any alien cells or proteins that invade
the body.
They also attach to the antibodies, marking the surface of the bacteria and making it
easier for the phagocytes to find and ingest them. Then they clump the bacteria
together or neutralise the toxins (poisonous proteins) that the bacteria produce.
 Memory cells
● When a lymphocyte clones itself not all cells make antibodies.
● Some of them simply remain in the blood and other parts of the body
for a very long time.
● These are called memory cells.
 Vaccination
● The material that is injected or swallowed is called a vaccine
● The vaccines immunize children against diseases caused by pathogens.
● Adults can also be given vaccinations if they are at risk of getting particular diseases.
● A vaccine contains weakened or dead viruses or bacteria that normally contains a disease.
● These pathogens have the same antigens as the normal ones but they are not able to cause
a disease.
 Immunity
● Active immunity occurs when the person's own lymphocytes make the antibody. This could be
natural, as a result of the person having previously had the disease and forming B or T memory
cells. It could also be artificial, as a result of vaccination. This involves introducing weakened
pathogens into the body. The lymphocytes react to the antigens on the pathogens by producing
antibodies and memory cells.
● Passive immunity occurs when antibodies from elsewhere are introduced into the
body. In a young baby this can be natural, as the baby acquires antibodies from its
mother in breast milk or through the placenta during pregnancy. It can also be
artificial, as the result of an injection of antibodies obtained from another animal.
● Memory cells are not produced in passive immunity
● Active immunity lasts much longer than passive immunity, because memory cells
last a long time, whereas individual antibodies do not. Injections of antibodies,
however, can be useful if a person requires instant immunity, for example if an aid
worker is about to travel to an environment where risk of a disease such as hepatitis
is high.
 How cholera causes diarrhoea

When the Vibrio cholera bacteria are ingested, they reproduce in the
small intestine and invade its epithelial cells.
As the bacteria become embedded they release toxins (poisons), which
irritate the intestinal lining.
This results in the secretion of large amounts of water and salts,
including chloride ions.
The salts decrease the osmotic potential of the gut contents, attracting
more water from surrounding tissues and blood by osmosis.
This makes the undigested food much more watery, leading to serious
diarrhoea.
The loss of body fluids and salt leads to dehydration and kidney failure.
 Thank
You
 CHAPTER 11
GAS EXCHANGE IN
HUMANS
OBJECTIVES
Gas exchange in humans

• All the processes carried out by the body, like movement, growth and reproduction,
require energy. In animals, this energy can only be obtained from the food they eat.
Before the energy can be used by the cells of the body, it must be set free from the
chemicals of the food by a process called respiration.
• Aerobic respiration needs a supply of oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a
waste product. So, all cells must be supplied with oxygen and must be able to get rid
of carbon dioxide.
• In humans and other mammals, the oxygen is gained from the air by means of the
lungs. In the lungs, the oxygen dissolves in the blood and is carried to the tissues by
the circulatory system .
 Features of respiratory surfaces

• The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface, as in the
lungs, depends on the diffusion of these two gases.
• Diffusion occurs more rapidly if there is a large surface area exposed to the gas, the
distance across which diffusion takes place is small ,there is a good blood supply and
there is a big difference in the concentrations of the gas at two points achieved by
ventilation.
Large surface area

• The presence of millions of alveoli in the lungs provides a very large surface for
gaseous exchange.
Thin epithelium

• There is only a two-cell layer, at the most, separating the air in the alveoli from the
blood in the capillaries.
• One layer is the alveolus wall; the other is the capillary wall. So, the distance for
diffusion is very short.
 Good blood supply

• The alveoli are surrounded by networks of blood capillaries.

• The blood in these capillaries removes oxygen all the time,
keeping the oxygen concentration low.
• In this way, a steep diffusion gradient is maintained. This helps
the rapid diffusion of oxygen from the air passages to the
alveolar lining.
• Carbon dioxide from the blood is delivered continuously into
the alveoli. It is removed from the air passages by ventilation,
maintaining a diffusion gradient in the same way. This
encourages the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the alveolar
lining into the bronchioles.
 Ventilation

• Ventilation of the lungs helps to maintain a steep diffusion gradient between the air at the end of the air
passages and the alveolar air.
• The concentration of the oxygen in the air at the end of the air passages is high because the air is constantly
replaced by the breathing actions.
• The respiratory surfaces of land-dwelling mammals are moist.
• Oxygen must dissolve in the thin film of moisture before passing across the epithelium.
 Lung structure

• The lungs are found in the thorax (chest region).

• They have a spongy texture and can be expanded and compressed by
movements of the thorax so that air is sucked in and blown out.
• The back of the mouth connects to the larynx, which joins onto the
windpipe or trachea.
• The trachea divides into two smaller tubes, called bronchi (singular
= bronchus), which enter the lungs and divide into even smaller
branches.
• When these branches are only about 0.2 mm in diameter they are
called bronchioles .
• These fine branches end in a mass of little, thin-walled, pocket-like air
sacs called alveoli .
• A flap of tissue (epiglottis) and other structures at the top of the
 trachea stop food and drink from entering the air passages when we

• The ribs, shown in cross-section, form a

cage, which has two main functions:
• To protect the lungs and heart.
• To move to ventilate the lungs.
Alveoli

• The alveoli have thin elastic walls made of a single-cell layer or epithelium.
• Over the epithelium is a dense network of capillaries supplied with deoxygenated blood.
• This deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery
• In humans, there are about 350 million alveoli, with a total absorbing surface of about 90
m2.
• This large absorbing surface makes it possible to take in oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide at a rate to meet the body’s needs.
 Gaseous exchange

• Ventilation means the movement of air into and

out of the lungs.
• Gaseous exchange is the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide, which takes place between the air
and the blood vessels in the lungs
• The capillaries carrying oxygenated blood from the
alveoli join up to form the pulmonary vein .
• This vein returns blood to the left atrium of the
heart. From here the blood enters the left ventricle
and is pumped all around the body, so supplying
the tissues with oxygen.
Table shows changes in the composition of air as
it I breathed in and out.
 Differences in composition of inspired and
expired air
• Air in the atmosphere contains about 21% oxygen.
• Some of this is absorbed into the bloodstream when it enters the alveoli, resulting in a reduction of oxygen in
exhaled air to 16%.
• The remaining 79% of the air is mainly nitrogen and does not change much during breathing.
• Inspired air contains 0.04% carbon dioxide.
• Cells of the body produce carbon dioxide as a waste product during aerobic respiration.
• The percentage breathed out is 4%, 100 times greater than the percentage breathed in.
• The oxygen dissolves in a film of moisture that lines the alveoli. Some of this moisture evaporates into the
alveoli and saturates the air with water vapour. So, the air you breathe out always contains a lot more water
vapour than the air you breathe in.
Lung capacity and breathing rate
Ventilation, role of intercostal muscles and
diaphragm
• There are 2 sets of muscles which
help you to breath:
• - intercostal: between the ribs
• - diaphragm: a large sheet of
muscle and elastic tissue,
underneath the lungs and heart.
Figure below shows the relationship between
intercostal muscles, diaphragm and ribcage to achieve
ventilation of the lungs.
 1. Breathing in (inspiration)

● The external intercostal muscles contract,

they move the ribcage upward and outward
---> ↑ volume of the thorax.
● The diaphragm muscles contracts --->
diaphragm moves down
● ↑ volume of the thorax
● ↓ air pressure in the thoracic cavity
● air rush into the lungs through the mouth
or nose
 2. Breathing out (expiration)

● The opposite happens:

● The internal intercostal muscles
contract
● The diaphragm muscles relax --
-> diaphragm moves up
● ↓ volume of the thorax
● ↑ air pressure in the thoracic
cavity
Label the following
Link between physical activity and rate and
depth of breathing
when you run, muscles in your legs use up a lot of energy and cells in the muscles need a
●
lot of O2 very quickly.
● they combine O2 + glucose as fast as they can, to release energy for muscle construction
---> a lot of O2 is needed
● you breath deeper and faster to get more O2 into your blood and your heart beast faster
to get O2 to the leg muscles as quickly as possible.
● a limit is reached - the heart and the lung can not supply O2 to the muscles any faster.
● some extra energy (not much) is produced by anaerobic respiration: some glucose is
broken down without combing with O2:
● Glucose ---> lactic acid + energy.
● CO2 and lactic acid concentration in tissue and in the blood ↑ ---> blood pH ↓
● Brain senses the change ---> nerve impulses sent to the diaphragm and the intercostal
muscles, stimulating them to contract harder and more often ---> faster and deeper
breathing.
Protection of the gas exchange system from
pathogens and particles

• Pathogens are disease-causing organisms

• Pathogens (e.g. bacteria) and dust particles are
present in the air we breathe in and are
potentially dangerous if not actively removed.
• There are two types of cells that are specialised
to help do this.
 1.Goblet cells

• Goblet cells are found in the epithelial lining

of the trachea, bronchi and some bronchioles
of the respiratory tract.
• Their role is to secrete mucus. The mucus
forms a thin film over the internal lining.
• This sticky liquid traps pathogens and small
particles, preventing them from entering the
alveoli where they could cause infection or
physical damage.
 2.Ciliated cells

• Ciliated cells are also present in the epithelial

lining of the respiratory tract.
• They continually move in a flicking motion to
move the mucus, secreted by the goblet cells,
upwards and away from the lungs.
• When the mucus reaches the top of the trachea
it passes down the gullet during normal
swallowing.
Question

• State how each feature labeled on the diagram of an alveolus makes the process of
gaseous exchange efficient. [5 marks]
Answer

● Wall of alveolus – one cell thick (or very thin) so that diffusion
happens quickly.
● Moist surface- allow O2 to dissolve making diffusion faster.
● Blood is moving – so that’s concentration gradient is maintained
for O2 and CO2
● Wall of capillary – one cell thick (or very thin) so that’s diffusion
happens quickly.
● Red blood cells – contain haemoglobin to transport O2 away from
the lungs.
Questions

• a) The composition of the air inside the lungs changes during

breathing.
i) State three differences between inspired and expired air.
[3 marks]
ii) Gaseous exchange in the alveoli causes some of the changes to the
inspired air. Describe three features of the alveoli which assist
gaseous exchange.
[3 marks]
b) i) State what is meant by anaerobic respiration
[2 marks]
ii)Where does anaerobic respiration occur in human? [1mark]
Answer

• a) i) Inspired air contains more O2, less CO2, and less water vapor then expired air.
• ii) Three features from:
• - the wall of the alveolus is one cell thick (or very thin)
• - there is a moist surface to the alveoli
• - there are large number of alveoli
• - the air in the alveoli is constantly being replaced.

• b) i) The release of energy by cells without the use of oxygen.

• ii) In muscle cells.
 CHAPTER 9
(PART 1)

TRANSPORT IN
ANIMALS
 Circulatory systems
• The main transport system of human is the
circulatory system, a system of tubes (blood
vessels) with a pump (the heart) and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.
• Its functions:
• To transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells.
• To remove waste and carbon dioxide from the
cells.
• To provide for efficient gas exchange.
 The circulatory system
• The blood, pumped by the heart, travels
all around the body in blood vessels.
• It leaves the heart in arteries and
returns in veins.
• Valves, present in the heart and veins,
ensure a one-way flow of the blood.
• As blood enters an organ, the arteries
divide into smaller arterioles, which
supply capillaries.
• In these vessels the blood moves much
more slowly, allowing the exchange of
materials like oxygen and glucose,
carbon dioxide and other wastes. Blood

THE HEART CHAMBERS

Left Atrium
Receives oxygen rich
C
blood from the lungs

Right Atrium
Receives oxygen poor DLeft Ventricle
A Body
blood from the Pumps oxygen rich
blood to the body

Right Ventricle
Pumps oxygen poorB
blood to the lungs
Single circulation of fish
• Fish have the simplest circulatory
system of all the vertebrates.
• A heart, made of one blood-
collecting chamber (the atrium) and
one blood-ejection chamber (the
ventricle), sends blood to the gills
where it is oxygenated.
• The blood then flows to all the parts
of the body before returning to the
heart
• This is called a single circulation
because the blood goes through the
heart once for each complete
Double circulation of mammals
• The route of the circulation of
blood in a mammal is shown in
Figure
• The blood passes twice through
the heart during one complete
circuit: once on its way to the
body and again on its way to the
lungs.
• On average, a red blood cell
would go around the whole
circulation in 45 seconds.
• A double circulation has the advantage
of maintaining a high blood
• pressure to all the major organs of the
body.
• The right side of the heart collects blood
from the body, builds up the blood
pressure and sends it to the lungs to be
oxygenated.
• The pressure drops during this process.
• The left side of the heart receives
oxygenated blood from the lungs, builds
 Double and single circulatory systems
• There are two types of
circulatory system:
• A Single Circulatory System is
a simple loop in which blood
flows: Heart > Gills > Body >
Heart
• A Double Circulatory System is
a double loop in which blood
flows: Heart > Lungs > Heart >
Body > Heart
● • Fish
In have
a double a single
circulatory system, circulatory
the loop that goes to the
lungs is called the Pulmonary Circuit, while the loop that
system, while mammals have a
goes to the body is called the Systemic Circuit.
double circulatory system.
 The importance of a double circulation
• The double circulatory system is advantageous because
in the single circulatory system the blood pressure is
limited by the delicate nature of the tiny capillaries in
the gills.
• In the double circulatory system the blood pressure can
be high in the systemic circuit while remaining low and
safe in the pulmonary circuit.
• This allows animals with a double circulatory system to
be more active, since blood can reach their respiring
tissues faster due to the higher pressure.
• Fish are not as active as other animals, so their single
circulatory system is sufficient for their needs, while
more active animals like mammals need a double
circulatory system.