Highway

GATE – CIVIL ENGINEERING
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Online Lecture: 8 (18.06.2020)
Prof.B.Jayarami Reddy
Professor and Head
Department of Civil Engineering
Y.S.R. Engineering College of
Yogi Vemana University,
Proddatur, Y.S.R.(Dt.), A.P-516360.
E.mail : bjrcivilgate@gmail.com
Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy
Y.S.R. ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF YOGI VEMANA UNIVERSITY, PRODDATUR
18-06-2020
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

18-06-2020
Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
• determined based on either equivalent deflection or equivalent stress.
• Multiple wheel loads are converted to ESWL and this value is used in pavement
design.
• ESWL is that single wheel load having the same contact pressure which produces
the same value of maximum deflection at the depth z
• ESWL is the single wheel load producing the same value of maximum stress at the
designed depth z

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Graphical Method for ESWL
Equivalent Single Wheel

B
2P
Load (ESWL)
P1
A
P
z d /2 z1 z  2S
Depth Z (log scale)
d : clean gap between the two wheels
S : spacing between the centers of the wheels
ESWL is obtained at any thickness from the graph.
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d
i. Upto depth z  , two loads acts independently.ie. No overlapping of the loads.
2
EAWL=P
ii. Depth z  2S , overlappingof the distribution of stress takesplace

EAWL=2P
d
iii. Between depth z  and z  2 S , ESWL can be obtained by interpolation.
2
log(2 P) - log( P)
log( EAWL)  log( P)  .  log( z ) - log(d / 2) 
log(2 S ) - log( d / 2)

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Design Life for flexible pavements : 10 to 20 years
Design Life for flexible pavements : 20 to 30 years
Design wheel load:
Type of load Flexible pavement Rigid Pavement
Maximum Axle load 8200 kg 10,200 kg
Maximum equivalent single wheel load 4100 kg 5100 kg

Y.S.R. ENGINEERING COLLEGE OF YOGI VEMANA UNIVERSITY, PRODDATUR 6
18-06-2020
Equivalency factor:
4
 actual wheel load 
Equivalency Factor, EF=  
 Standard wheel load 
eg., Actual wheel load=3600 kg

standard wheel load=4100 kg
4
 3600 
EF=   =0.594
 4100 
eg., Actual wheel load=10000 kg
standard wheel load=8000 kg
4
10000 
EF=   =2.212
 8000 
18-06-2020
Load No.of Vehicles/day Equivalency factor
3600 200 0.594
4100 100 1.0
5200 60 2.587
Total number of vehicles in terms of standard vehicle

= 200 × 0.594 + 100 × 1.0 + 60 × 2.587
= 374 vehicles/day

18-06-2020
eg., P =4100kg N1 =5million vehicles
1
P2 =5200kg N 2 =?
P1 N1 =P2 N 2
4100×5=5200×N 2
N 2 =3.94 million vehicles

18-06-2020
Load on each tyre = 4000 kg
c/c distance between tyres = 25 cm
i) At z=10cm, ESWL=?
d 25
z<  10cm <  ESWL=4000kg
2 2
ii) At z=125cm, ESWL=?

z>2S  125cm  2  50  ESWL=2P=2  4000= 8000kg
iii) At z=80cm, ESWL=?

d
log    log  P   log 12.5   log  4000 
2
log  2S   log  2 P   log 100   log 8000 
log  z   log  ESWL   log  80   log  ESWL 
18-06-2020
log  8000   log  4000 
log  ESWL   log  4000   . log 80   log 12.5  
log 100   log 12.5 
ESWL  7426.5 kg

18-06-2020
Repetition of loads
Equivalent load is a single wheel load equivalent to the repeated applications of any
particular wheel load on a pavement which requires the same thickness and strength
of pavements.
McLeod assumes the pavement thickness design for a wheel load would support 1
million (106) repetition of such load during the life of pavement.
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If N1 : number of repetitions of P1 kg load and
N 2 : number of repetitions of P2 kg load,
Then P1 N1  P2 N 2
Equivalent wheel load factors
Wheel load, No. of repetitions Equivalent to Equivalent
kg to failure 2268 kg load factors
2268 1,05,000 1.0 1
2722 50,000 2.0 2
3175 22,500 4.7 4
3629 13,000 8.2 8
4082 6,500 16.3 16
4536 3,300 32.0 32
4990 1,700 62.0 64
5443 1,000 105.0 128
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2722 kg may be considered equivalent to 2.0 times the load value of 2268 kg.
Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF):
• It is defined as the damage per pass to a pavement by the ith type of axle relative
to the damage for pass of standard axle load.
4
W 
EALF   i 
Wstd  4
 W 
 fi .  i 
Vehicle Damage Factor, VDF   Wstd 
 fi
Wi : Axle load of i th vehicle
Wstd : Axle load of standard vehicle
fi : Number of passes of i th vehicle
 f i : Total number of passes
• If all the vehicles are of axle load less than standard axle load, VDF<1.0
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Elastic moduli
Sub grade modulus
• computed from plate bearing test.
• maximum vertical deflection  at the surface and at the centre of a flexible plate is
1.5 pa
 = (for flexible plate)
Es
p : uniform pressure on the flexible loaded plate of radius ‘ a ’.
Es : modulus of elasticity of the soil.
1.18 pa (for rigid plate)

Es
• If the plate is rigid, the pressure on the surface is not uniformly distributed.
• Burmister elastic layered system analysis is used for computing elastic moduli of
pavement materials.
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The displacement for a two layer system consisting of a pavement layer of thickness
h with elastic modulus E p laid over the sub-grade is
p.a
  1.5 .F2 (For flexible plate)
Es
p.a
 1.18 .F2 (For rigid plate)
Es
F2 : displacement factor
F2 depends on Es , z . z : depth
Ep a
Knowing F2 , h the value of Es is obtained.

a Ep

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Climatic conditions
• Climatic conditions causes the following effects.
a. Variation in moisture condition.
b. Frost action.
c. Variation in temperature.
• Frost heave is the raising portion of the pavement structure due to formation of ice
crystals.
• The overall effects due to frost heave, frost meting and alternate freeze-thaw cycles is
called the frost action.
• The frost action depends on
a. Frost susceptible soil.
b. Depressed temperature below freezing point.
c. Supply of water.
d. Cover.

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Design of flexible pavements
a. Group index method.
b. California bearing ratio method.
c. California R value or stabilometer method.
d. Triaxiual test method.
e. McLeod method.
f. Burmister method.
Group index, CBR, Stabilometer, McLeod methods are empirical methods.
Triaxial test method is a theoretical method using empirical modifications.
Burmister method is a theoretical approach using elastic two layer theory.

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Group index method
GI is a function of
a. Percentage of material passing through 0.075 mm sieve
b. Liquid limit
c. Plasticity index
GI  0.2a  0.005a.c  0.01b.d
a : portion of material passing 0.075mm sieve greater than 35 and not exceeding
75% (0 to 40)
b : portion of material passing 0.075mm sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding
35% (0 to 20)
c : the value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60 (0 to 20)
d : the value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30 (0 to 20)

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• GI vary in the range of 0 to 20.
• Higher the value of GI, poorer is the soil as sub-grade material.
• For sub-grade, minimum CBR value=10%
• For granular sub-base,
Liquid limit: not more than 25%
Plasticity index: not more than 6%

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• Minimum CBR value of 20% for cumulative traffic upto 2 msa and 30% exceeding 2
msa.
• The traffic volume in GI method is divided in three groups
Traffic volume No. of vehicles

(commercial vehicles) per day
Light < 50
Medium 50 to 300
Heavy > 300

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2
California Bearing Ratio method:

• advantage - simplicity of the test procedure.
1/ 2
 1.75 1 
t P  
 CBR p 
1/ 2
(For CBR <12%)
1.75 P A 
t   
 CBR  
t : Pavement thickness, cm
P : Wheel load, kg
CBR: California bearing ratio, percent
p : Tyre pressure, kg/cm2
A : Area of contact, cm
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CBR Design Chart

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IRC Recommendations
• The CBR should be performed on remoulded soils in the laboratory.
• In-situ tests are not recommended for design purposes.
• For design of new roads, the sub-grade soil sample should be compacted at OMC
• Compacted to proctor density to achieve the density in the field. Otherwise the
sample may be compacted to the dry density expected to be achieved in the field.
• For existing roads, the sample should be compacted to field density of sub-grade soil.
• Atleast three samples should be tested on each type of soil at the same density and
moisture content.
• If the maximum variation in CBR values of the three specimens exceeds the specific
limits; the design CBR should be the average of at least six examples.

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• Specific limits of maximum variations in CBR are
3 % for CBR values upto 10%
5 % for CBR values upto 30%
10% for CBR values 30 to 60%
• The top 50 cm of sub grade should be compacted at least up to 95 to 100% of
Proctor density.
• Pavements of major roads should be designed at least for 10 years life period.
The design traffic may be estimated by
 n 10 
A  P 1  r 
A : Number of heavy vehicles per day for design (Laden weight > 3 tonnes)
P : Number of heavy vehicles per day at last count.
average of heavy vehicles for 7 days found from 24 hours count.
r : Annual rate of increase of heavy vehicles. (7.5% if r is not available)
n : Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of construction.
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• When sub-base course materials contain substantial proportion of aggregate of size
above 20mm, the CBR value of these materials would not be valid for the design of
subsequent layers above them.
• Thin layers of weaving course up to 2.5 cm thickness should not be counted towards
the total thickness of pavements as they do not increase the structural capacity of the
pavement.

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CBR method of pavement design by cumulative standard axle load
• based on the concept of cumulative standard axle loads
365 A (1  r ) n  1
Ns  D F
r
N s : Cumulative number of standard axle load in million standard axles (msa)
A : Number of commercial vehicles per day, considering the number of lanes.
r : Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles.
n : Design life of pavement, 10 to 15 years.
D : Lane distribution factor
F : Vehicle damage factor, equivalent to number of standards axles per commercial
vehicle on the road stretch.

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D  1.0 Single lane -Two way traffic
=0.75 Two lane -Two way traffic
=0.4 Four lane -Two way traffic -Single carriage way
=0.75 Four lane -Two way traffic -Dual carriage way
=0.60 Six lane -Two way traffic -Dual carriage way
=0.40 Eight lane -Two way traffic -Dual carriage way
The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using the following formula:
A  P (1  r ) x
where P = Number of commercial vehicles as per last count
x = Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of
construction
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Two lane -Two way traffic
Single carriage way
Four lane -Two way traffic Four lane -Two way traffic
Single carriage way Dual carriage way

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Six lane -Two way traffic
Eight lane -Two way traffic Dual carriage way
Dual carriage way
6/18/2020 30
California Resistance value method
K (TI )(90  R)
T
C1/5
T : Total thickness of pavement, cm
K : constant = 0.166
0.11
TI : Traffic index = 1.35 (EWL)
R : Stabilometer resistance value.
C : Cohesiometer value
Equivalent C value
1/ 5
t1  C2 
 
t2  C1 

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where t1 and t2 are the thickness values of any two pavements layers and C1, C2 are
their corresponding cohesiometer values.
Materials C value
Soil cement base course 120 – 230
Bituminous concrete 60 – 62
Open graded bituminous mix 22 – 30
Gravel base course 15

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Triaxial method:
2
 3P 
T    a 2
 2  E 
s 
T : thickness of pavement, cm
P : wheel load, kg
Es : modulus of elasticity of sub grade from triaxial test results, kg/cm2
a : radius of contact area, cm
 : design deflection (0.25 cm)
• Triaxial test is used in determining the values of elastic moduli for various
materials.
• A lateral pressure of 1.4 kg/cm2 is applied in the test to find the E value of the
material.
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2
 3PXY 
TS    a
2
 2 ES  
X : traffic coefficient.
Y : saturation coefficient.
If the pavement and sub grade are considered as a two layer system, a stiffness factor
has to be introduced.
1/3
t1  E2 
1/3
 Es 
2
 3PXY 
Tp     a . 
2
  
 2 E s    Ep  t2  E1 
t1 , t2 : thickness of pavement layers.
E1 , E2 : Elastic modulus of layers.

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McLeod method
P
T  K log10
S
T : Thickness required for gravel base, cm
P : Gross wheel load, kg
K : Base course constant.
S : Sub-grade support, calculated for 30 cm diameter plate at 0.5 cm deflection and
ten repetitions.

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Burmister (layered system) method
Eb  Esb  Es (layered analysis)
Eb  Esb  Es (Bousinesq’s analysis)
Assumptions:
1. The materials are isotopic, homogeneous and elastic.
2. The surface layer is infinite in horizontal direction and finite in vertical direction.
3. The underlying layer in two layered system is considered infinite in both
directions.
4. The layers are in continuous contact. The top layer is free of shearing and normal
stresses outside the loaded area.

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DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
• Cement concrete pavements represents rigid pavements.
• Load carrying capacity is due to the rigidity and high modulus of elasticity of the slab
i.e. slab action.
• The upward reaction is proportional to the deflection.
p  K .
2
K : Modulus of sub grade reaction, kg/cm per cm deflection i.e. kg/cm3

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Westergaards’s Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
Modulus of sub grade reaction (K) is defined as the pressure sustained per unit
deformation of subgrade at specified deformation or pressure level, using specified
plate size.
If p is the pressure sustained in kg/cm2 by the rigid plate of diameter 75 cm at a
deflection  = 0.125 cm, the modulus of subgrade reaction K is given by
p p
K  kg/cm3
 0.125
The pressure deformation characteristic of rigid pavement is a function of relative
stiffness of slab to that of sub grade.

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Correction for Modulus of Subgrade Reaction
1.Correction for subsequent soaking condition of subgrade:
p
The correction factor for soaking is taken as s which will be less than 1.0.
p
ps
Therefore, Modulus of subgrade for soaking condition is K s  K .
p
2. Correction for plate size
A heavy reaction load is required for soils with high K value when a plate of diameter
75 cm is used for testing. If the reaction load is to be reduced a plate of smaller
diameter has to be used.
If K1 : Modulus of subgrade of smaller size plate
a1: Diameter of the smaller plate
6/18/2020 39
K : Modulus of subgrade to the standard plate
a : Diameter of the standard plate (75 cm)
K1.a1
K
a
Radius of relative stiffness (by westergard) is
1/4
 E h3 
l 

12 K 1   2  
l : Radius of relative stiffness

2
E : Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete, kg/cm
 : Poisson’s ratio for concrete = 0.15
h : Slab thickness, cm
3
K : Sub-grade modulus or modulusProf.of B.
sub grade reaction,
Jayarami Reddy
kg/cm
6/18/2020 40
The stresses acting on a rigid pavement are
i. Wheel load stresses, and
ii. Temperature stresses.
Critical load positions are interior, edge and corner.
Interior loading:
When load is applied in the interior of the slab surface at any place remote form all the
edges.
Edge loading:
When load is applied on an edge of the slab at any place remote from a corner.

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Corner loading:
When the loaded area is at the corner touching the two corner edges.
Equivalent radius of resisting section,
b  1.6a 2  h 2  0.675h
b : Equivalent radius of resisting section, cm
when a  1.724 h
a : Radius of wheel load distribution, cm
when a  1.724 h , b  a
Maximum stress produced by a wheel load at corner occurs at a distance ‘ X ’ along
the corner bisector
X  2.58 al
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X : distance from apex of slab corner to section of maximum stress along the
corner bisector, cm
l : Radius of relative stiffness, cm

6/18/2020 43
Wheel Load Stress
• Concrete slabs may fail at the corners.
• Gold beck’s ay formula for stress due to corner load is,
3P
Sc  2
h
S c : Stress due to corner load, kg/cm2
P : Corner load assumed as a concentrated point load, kg
h : Thickness of slab, cm

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Westergaard’s stress equation for wheel loads
Interior loading:
0.316 P  l 
Si   4log10    1.069 
b
2
h  
Edge loading:
0.572 P  l 
Se   4 log10    0.3559 
b
2
h  
Corner loading:
3P  a 2 
0.6
Sc  2 1    
h   l  
 

6/18/2020 45
Si , Se , Sc : maximum stress at interior, edge and corner loading respectively, kg/cm2
p : Wheel load, kg
b : Radius of resisting section, cm.

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IRC formulas
P  l 
2    10  
Se  0.529 1  0.54  4 log  log10 b  0.4048 
h   b  
3P  a 2 
1.2
Sc  2 1    
h   l  
 
S e : Load stress at the edge region, kg/cm2

S c : Load stress at the corner region, kg/cm2
P : Design wheel load, kg
h : Thickness of cc pavement slab, cm
 : Poisson’s ratio of the cc slabs
E : Modulus of elasticity of the cement concrete, kg/cm2
6/18/2020 47
K : Modulus reaction of pavement foundations, kg/cm3
1/4
 Eh 3 
 

12 K 1   2  
b : Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure, cm

b  a when a  1.724 and
b  1.6 a 2  h 2  0.675 h when a  1.724
a : Radius of load contact, cm

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Temperature stresses
• Temperature stresses are developed due to variation in slab temperature.
• Daily variation - variation in temperature across the depth of the slab.
Seasonal variation - overall increase or decrease in slab temperature
• During the day - top of pavement - high temperature
bottom of pavement - low temperature
• During the night - top of pavement - low temperature
bottom of pavement - high temperature
• Maximum difference in temperature between the top and bottom pavement slab
occur at some period after the mid-noon.
• Warping occurs due to difference in temperature.
• During summer - concrete pavement expands - compressive stress developed.
• During winter - concrete pavement contracts - tensile stress developed.

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• Frictional stresses are developed due to seasonal variation in temperature.
• The frictional stress will be zero at the free ends and at expansion joints and increases
up to a maximum value towards the interior and there after remains constant.
• Temperature causes
i. Warping stresses C
ii. Frictional stresses
T
During day T2  T1
T
C
During night T2  T1
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Warping stresses
• When the top and bottom surfaces of a concrete posses different temperature, the
slab tends the wrap downward or upward.
• The difference in temperature between the top and bottom of the slab depends on the
slab thickness and climatic conditions of the region.
 tE  Cx   C y 
St ( i )   
2  1  2 
2
St (i) : Warping stress at interior, kg /cm
E : Modulus of elasticity of concrete, kg/cm2
 : Thermal coefficient of concrete , per °C
t : Temperature difference between the top and bottom of the slab in °C
Lx
C x : Coefficient based on in designed direction.
l
6/18/2020 51
Ly
C y : Coefficient based on in right angle to the above direction.
l
 : Poisson’s ratio (0.15)
Lx , Ly : dimensions of the slab along the length and width of the slab.
l : Radius of relative stiffness
The warping stress at the edge region is
C   .t.E
St ( e )  x or
2
C y   .t.E (whichever is higher)
=
2

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The warping stress at corner region is
 .t.E a
St ( c ) 
3(1   ) l
a : Radius of contact

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Frictional stresses
• The expansion / contraction of a slab due to rise / fall of temperature prevents by
developing frictional resistance, which induces frictional stresses between the bottom
of slab and soil subgrade.
• Total force developed in the cross section of concrete pavement due to movement
= S f .h.B
L
Frictional force due to sub grade restraint in half the length of the slab= B. .h. . f
2
S f .h.B = B. L .h. . f
2
 .L. f
Sf 
2

6/18/2020 54
S f : Frictional stress developed in cement concrete pavement
 : Unit weight of concrete (25 KN/m3)
f : Coefficient of sub-grade restraint = 1.5 (max.value)
L : Slab length
B : Slab width
h : Slab thickness
Compressive stress
Raise of Temperature induced at bottom
Fall of Temperature Tensile stress

induced at bottom
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Combination of stresses
Critical combinations are
a. During summer
• critical combination at interior and edge regions during mid day occurs when the
slab tends to wrap downwards.
• maximum tensile stress is developed at the bottom fiber due to warping.
• frictional stress is compressive during expansion.
• load stress at edge region is higher than the interior.
• critical combination of stress = load stress + warping stress - frictional stress.

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b. During winter
• occurs at the bottom fiber when the slab contracts and slab wraps downwards during
the mid day.
• frictional stress is tensile during contraction.
• critical combination of stress = load stress + warping stress + frictional stress
• since the differential temperature‘t’ is of lower magnitude during winter than in
summer, the combination (a) may be worst for most of the regions.
c. At corner region
• occurs at the top fiber of the slab, when the slab warps upwards during the mid
nights.
• no frictional stress at the corner region.
• critical combination of stress = load stress + warping stress

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Design of joints in cement concrete pavements
• to reduce the temperature stress.
• If the expansion and contraction joints are properly designed and constructed, there
is no need of providing warping joints.
• Expansion joint spacing is designed based on the maximum temperature variations
expected and the width of joint.
• Contraction joint spacing design is governed by the anticipated frictional resistance
and allowable tensile stress in concrete during the initial curing period or the amount
of reinforcement.
• Dowel bars are provided at expansion joints (sometimes at contraction joints also)
• longitudinal joints in cement concrete pavements are constructed with suitable tie
bars.

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Spacing of expansion joints
• The width or the gap in expansion joint depends up on the length of slab.
• The use of wide expansion joint space should be avoided because
i. It would be difficult to keep them properly filled in when the gap widens during
winter season.
ii. The dowels would develop high bending and bearing stresses with wider
openings.
• gap  2.5 cm
• maximum spacing between expansion joints  140 m.
  L (T  T )  
2 1
 : Maximum expansion /contraction

L : Length of the slab
 : Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, per °C

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T  T2  T1 = temperature rise / fall
The joint filler may be compressed up to 50% of its thickness.
Expansion joint gap = 2 × allowable expansion in concrete ( 2 )

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Spacing of contraction joints:
The contraction is resisted by the sub-grade drag or friction between the bottom fiber
of the slab and the sub-grade.
The maximum stress occurs at half the length.
L
Frictional resistance up to half the length of the slab = B. .h. . f
2
Allowable tension in cement concrete = S f .h.B
2S f
Lc 
. f
Lc : Slab length or specfing between contraction joints, m
h : Slab thickness,
f : Coefficient of friction

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 : Unit weight of cement concrete, (24 kN/m3)
S f : Allowable stress in the tension in cement concrete, kg/cm2
Contraction or shrinkage cracks develop mainly during initial period of curing.
L/2 L/2
h

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Spacing of contraction joints when reinforcement is provided
It is assumed that the reinforcement takes the entire tensile force in the slab.
Lc 2 S s As
B. .h. . f  S s As L 
B.h. . f
c
2
As : total area of steel, across the slab width
S s : Allowable tensile stress in steel,

6/18/2020 64
Design of dowel bars
• Dowel bars allow opening and closing of the joint and load transfer is effected from
one slab to the other.
• The stresses caused in loaded slab is greater when there are no dowels than the slab
joint with dowel bars.
• The capacity of the dowel system depends on pavement thickness, sub-grade modulus,
relative stiffness and spacing and size of dowels.
• As per IRC, the dowel bar system is designed based on Bradbury’s analysis for load
transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in shear, bending and bearing in concrete.
For shear in bar, P  0.785 d 2 .Fs

6/18/2020 65
2 d 3 . Ff
For bending in bar, P 
Ld  8.8
Fb .L2d .d
For beaming on concrete, P 
12.5  Ld  1.5  
P : Load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar, kg
d : Diameter of dowel bar, cm
6/18/2020 66
Ld : total length of embedment of dowel bar, cm
 : Joint width.
2
Fs : permissible shear stress in dowel bar, kg/cm
Ff : permissible flexural stress in dowel bar, kg/cm2
Fb : permissible bearing stress in concrete, kg/cm 2
The load capacity of dowel bar in bending and beaming depend on the total
embedded length Ld on both the slabs.
1/ 2
 Ff Ld  1.5  
Ld  5d  . 
 b d
F L  8.8  
Minimum dowel length = Ld  

6/18/2020 67
• The load capacity of the dowel system or group is assumed to be 40% of the design
wheel load.
• The distance on either side of the load position up to load transfer is taken as 1.8 times
the radius of relative stiffness.
• Dowel bars are provided in slab of thickness 15 cm or more.

6/18/2020 68
Design of tie bars
• Tie bars are used across the longitudinal joints of cement concrete pavements.
• Tie bars are not designed to act as load transfer devices.
• Tie bars are designed to withstand tensile stresses.
• The maximum tensile force in the bars is equal to the force required to overcome
frictional force between the bottom of the adjoining pavement slab and the soil
sub grade.

6/18/2020 69
B.h. . f
Diameter: As .Ss  B.h.. f ; As 
Ss
d . Ss
Length: Lt =
2 Sb
S s : allowable stress in tension.
S b : allowable bond stress in concrete.

6/18/2020 70
15.4 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS
Previous GATE Questions

18-06-2020
1. For an axle load of 15 tonne on a road, the Vehicle Damage Factor (round off to two
decimal places), in terms of the standard axle load of 8 tonne, is……
GATE CE 2020
01. 12.36
Axle load on road W = 15 t
Standard axle load , Wsat  8t
Vehicle damage factor , VDF = ?
4
 W   15 
4
VDF        12.36
 wsol   8 

6/18/2020 72
15.4 Design of Flexible and Rigid Pavement
01. A dowel bar is placed at a contraction joint. When contraction occurs, the concrete slab
cracks at predetermined location(s). Identify the arrangement, which shows the correct
placement of dowel bar and the place of occurrence of the contraction crack(s).
GATE CE 2020
a. b.
c. d.

6/18/2020 73
02. A flexible pavement has the following class of loads during a particular hour of the
day.
i. 80 buses with 2-axles (each axle load of 40 kN)
ii.160 trucks with 2-axles (front and rear axle loads of 40 kN and 80 kN,
respectively)
The equivalent standard axle load repetitions for this vehicle combination as per
IRC: 37-2012 would be CE2 2019
a.180 b. 240 c. 250 d. 320
02.a
For buses with 2 axles, N1 =80×2 = 160, W1 = 40 kN
For trucks with 2 axles
Front axle N 2 =160 W2 =40 kN
Rear axle N 3 =160 W3 =80 kN
6/18/2020 74
Standard axle load, W =80 kN
4
 Wi 
Equivalent standard axle load repetitions, N S   Ni  
 std 
W
4 4 4
 40   40   80 
 160    160    160   =10+10+160=180
 80   80   80 

6/18/2020 75
03.Tie bars of 12 mm diameter are to be provided in a concrete pavement slab. The
working tensile stress of the tie bars is 230 MPa, the average bond strength between
a tie bar and concrete is 2 MPa, and the joint gap between the slabs is 10 mm.
Ignoring the loss of bond and the tolerance factor, the design length of the tie bars
(in mm, round off to the nearest integer) is…… CE1 2019
03. 700
Diameter of the bar,  =12mm
Working tensile stress of the tie bar,  ft =230MPa
Average bond strength between a tie bar and concrete, bd =2MPa
Joint gap between the slabs =10 mm
Design length of tie bar, L =?

6/18/2020 76
Ld : Development length of bar
 st 12  230
  =345mm
4 bd 4 2
Length of tie bar, L  Ld  joint gap  Ld = 2×345+10=700mm

6/18/2020 77
04. The initial concavity in the load-penetration curve of a CBR test is not due to
a. uneven top surface b. high impact at start of loading
c. inclined penetration plunger d. soft top layer of soaked soil. CE2 2018
04. b
The initial concavity in the load penetration curve of a CBR test is due to
i. Top layer of soaked soil is too soft or slushy after soaking in water.
ii. The top surface of the specimen is uneven .
iii. Inclination of the penetration plunger resulting the bottom surface of the
plunger not horizontal and contact with the top surface of the specimen may
not full.
iv. Imperfect compaction of soil.

6/18/2020 78
05. As per IRC:37-2012, in order to control subgrade rutting in flexible pavements,
the parameter to be considered is CE2 2018
a. horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of bituminous layer
b. vertical compressive strain on top of subgrade
c. vertical compressive stress on top of granular layer
d. vertical deflection at the surface of the pavement.
05. b
As per IRC 37-2012, in order to control subgrade rutting in flexible pavements,
the parameter to be considered is vertical compressive strain on the top of
subgrade.

6/18/2020 79
06. Given the following data: design life n =15 years, lane distribution factor
D =0.75, annual rate of growth of commercial vehicles r =6%, vehicle damage
factor F = 4 and initial traffic in the year of completion of construction =3000
Commercial Vehicles Per Day (CVPD). As per IRC:37-2012, the design traffic
in terms of cumulative number of standard axles (in million standard axles, up to
two decimal places) is…. CE1 2018
06. 76.46
Design life, n = 15 years
Lane distribution factor, D = 0.75
Annual rate of growth of commercial vehicles, r = 6%
Vehicle damage factor, F = 4
Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction, = 3000 cvpd
6/18/2020 80
365 A (1  r ) n  1
Design traffic, N   VDF  LDF
r
365  3000 (1  0.06)15  1
N  4  0.75
0.06
= 76.46× 106 sa = 76.46 Msa

6/18/2020 81
07. The radii of relative stiffness of the rigid pavements P and Q are denoted by l p
and lq respectively. The geometric and material properties of the concrete slab
and underlying soil are given below: CE2 2017
Concrete
Pavement Length Breadth of Thickness of Modulus of Poisson’s Soil
of Slab Slab Slab Elasticity Ratio
P L B h E  k
Q L B 0.5h E  2k
The ratio (upto one decimal place) of lP is

lQ

6/18/2020 82
07. 2
1/ 4
 Eh  3
Radian of relative stiffness l   2 
 12 k (1   )
1/ 4
h  3
l  
k 
1/ 4

lP  hP 
3
 kQ    h 2k 
3 1/ 4
 2 
1/ 4
   .   .   3
4 1/ 4
  2  2
lQ  hQ   k P  
3
 (0.5h) k   (0.5) 


6/18/2020 83
08. In the context of the IRC 58-2011 guidelines for rigid pavement design, consider
the following pair of statements. CE2 2016
I. Radius of relative stiffness is directly related to modulus of elasticity of
concrete and inversely related to Poisson’s ratio.
II. Radius of relative stiffness is directly related to thickness of slab and modulus
of sub grade reaction.
Which one of the following combinations is correct?
a. I true, II true b. I false, II false c. I true; II false d. I false, II true
08. b
1/ 4
 Eh 3

Radius of relative stiffness, l   2 
 12 k (1   )
Statement I: False
Statement II: False
6/18/2020 84
09. A traffic survey conducted on a road yields an average daily traffic count of 5000
vehicles. The axle load distribution on the same road is given in the following
table:
Axle load (tonnes) Frequency of traffic (%)
18 10
14 20
10 35
8 15
6 20
The design period of the road is 15 years, the yearly traffic growth rate is 7.5% and
the load safety factor (LSF) is 1.3. If the vehicle damage factor (VDF) is calculated
from the above data, the design traffic (in million standard axle load, MSA) is
___________ CE1 2014

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09. 309.1
Average daily traffic count, A  5000 vehicles
Axial load (tones) Frequency of traffic (f)
18 10
14 20
10 35
8 15
6 20
Design period of the road, n  15 years
Yearly traffic growth rate, r  7.5 %
Load safety factor, LSF  1.3
Vehicle damage factor, VDF  ?
6/18/2020 86
Design traffic, N s  ?
Standard axle load, Ws  80 kN =8160kg  8.2 t
4 4 4 4 4
 W1   W2   W3   W4   Ws 
4
 Wi 
f1    f 2 .   f 3    f 4    f s . 
 Ws   Ws   Ws   Ws   Ws   Fi  
VDF    Ws 
f1  f 2  f 3  f 4  f 5  fi
4 4 4 4 4
 18   14   10   8   6 
10   20   35   15   20 
 
8.2   8.2   8.2   8.2   8.2 
10  20  35  15  20
VDF  4.989

6/18/2020 87
365 A (1  r ) n  1
Ns  VDF  LSF
r


365  5000 1  0.075  1
15
 4.989  1.3

0.075
 309.1106 SA
Ns  309.1 MSA

6/18/2020 88

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GATE – CIVIL ENGINEERING

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Equivalent Single Wheel

ii. Depth z  2S , overlappingof the distribution of stress takesplace

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

eg., Actual wheel load=3600 kg

Total number of vehicles in terms of standard vehicle

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

ii) At z=125cm, ESWL=?

iii) At z=80cm, ESWL=?

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Knowing F2 , h the value of Es is obtained.

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Traffic volume No. of vehicles

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

California Bearing Ratio method:

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

l : Radius of relative stiffness

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

S e : Load stress at the edge region, kg/cm2

b : Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure, cm

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Fall of Temperature Tensile stress

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

 : Maximum expansion /contraction

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy

Prof. B. Jayarami Reddy