Antenna Arrays and Their Applications

ANTENNA ARRAYS AND
3
APPLICATIONS
ANTENNA ARRAYS AND APPLICATIONS
Two-element array, Array factor, Pattern multiplication, Uniformly spaced arrays with
uniform and non-uniform excitation amplitudes, Smart antennas.
3.1. Introduction:
An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators and

elements. Each of these radiators functions with its induction field. The elements are placed so
closely that each one lies in the neighboring one’s induction field. Therefore, the radiation
pattern produced by the antenna array will be the vector sum of the individual elements
present in the array. The spacing between the elements and the length of the elements
according to the wavelength is also to be kept in mind while designing these antennas.
The antennas radiate individually and while in an array, the radiation of all the
elements sums up, to form the radiation beam, which has high gain, high directivity, and
better performance, with minimum losses.
Advantages:
The following are the advantages of using antenna arrays
 The signal strength increases
 High directivity is obtained
 Minor lobes are reduced much
 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved

5.2 Antenna Arrays and Applications
 High gain is obtained
 Power wastage is reduced
 Better performance is obtained
Disadvantages:
The following are the disadvantages of array antennas
 Resistive losses are increased
 Mounting and maintenance is difficult
 Huge external space is required
Applications:
The following are the applications of array antennas
 Used in satellite communications
 Used in wireless communications
 Used in military radar communications
 Used in the astronomical study
3.1.1. Types of Arrays:
The basic types of arrays are
 Collinear array
 Broadside array
 End fire array
 Parasitic array
 Yagi-Uda array
 Log-periodic array
 Turnstile array
 Super-turnstile array
Antennas and Microwave Engineering 5.3
3.1.2. Various forms of Antenna Arrays:
3.1.2.1 Broad Side Array
The broadside array is one in which several identical parallel antennas are set up along
a line drawn perpendicular to their respective axes as shown in fig.3.1. In the broadside array,
the individual antennas are equally spaced along a sine and each element is fed with a current
of equal magnitude all in the same phase. By doing so, this arrangement radiates in broadside
directions (i.e., perpendicular to the line of array axis) where there are maximum radiation and
relatively a little radiation in other directions. Hence the radiation pattern of broadside array is
bi-directional as shown in fig.3.2. Broadside array may be defined as an arrangement in which
the principal direction of radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and the plane containing
the array element.
Fig 3.1 Broadside Array
Fig 3.2 Radiation pattern of Broadside Array
The bidirectional pattern of broadside array can be converted into unidirectional by

placing an identical array behind this array at λ/4 fed by current leading in phase by
900 or Π/2 radians.
3.1.2.2.End Fire Array:
The end-fire array is very much like the broadside array from the point of view of the
arrangement. The main difference is in the direction of maximum radiation. In broadside
array, the direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of the array, while in
the end-fire array the direction of the maximum radiation is along(parallel) to the axis of the
array.
Fig 3.3 End Fire Array arrangement
Fig 3.4 Radiation Pattern of End Fire array
In the end-fire array, the number of identical antennas is spaced equally along a line.
All the antennas are fed individually with currents of equal magnitudes, but their phases vary
progressively along the line to make the arrangement unidirectional and hence maximum
radiation along the axis of the array. The end-fire array is defined as an array in which the
direction of maximum radiation coincides with the direction of the axis of the array to get
unidirectional radiation.
3.1.2.3.Co-Linear Array:
In collinear array the elements are arranged co-axially, i.e., antennas are either
mounted end to end in a single line or stacked over one another. The collinear array is also a
broadside array and elements are fed equally in phase currents. But the radiation pattern of a
collinear array has circular symmetry with its main lobe everywhere normal to the principal
axis. This is the reason why this array is called broadcast or Omni-directional arrays. A simple
collinear array consists of two elements: however, this array can also have more than two
elements (Fig.3.5). The performance characteristic of an array does not depend directly on the
number of elements in the array. For example, the power gain for a collinear array of 2, 3, and
4 elements are respectively 2 dB, 3.2 dB, and 4.4 dB. The power gain of 4.4 dB obtained by
this array is comparatively lower than the gain obtained by other arrays or devices.
The collinear array provides maximum gain when the spacing between elements is of
the order of 0.3λ to 0.5λ, but this much spacing results in constructional and feeding
difficulties. The elements that are operated with their ends are much close to each other and
joined simply by an insulator.
Fig. 3.5. Vertical antennas arranged co-linearly
Fig.3.7 shows the radiation pattern of 4 elements of a co-linear array. An increase in

the length of the co-linear array increases the directivity.
Fig 3.6 Horizontal antennas arranged co-linearly
Fig 3.7. Radiation Pattern of 4 element co-linear array

3.2. Two Element Array:
A point source is a radiator that has dimensions of a point in space. Two similar point
sources are arranged in the form of an array. As the elements increase in the array, the
analysis of antenna array becomes complicated and time-consuming. The simplest array
configuration is an array of two-point sources of same polarization separated by a finite
distance d. Based on amplitude and phase conditions of isotropic point sources, there are three
types of arrays:
i) Array with equal amplitude and phases
ii) Array with equal amplitude and opposite phases
iii) Array with unequal amplitude and opposite phases.
3.2.1 Two Point Sources with currents equal in magnitude and phase:
Fig.3.8 Two element Array
Consider two-point sources A1 and A2, separated by distance d as shown in Fig.3.8.

Both the point sources are supplied with currents equal in magnitude and phase. Consider
point P far away from the array. Let the distance between point P and point sources A1 and A2
be r1 and r2 respectively. As these radial distances are extremely large as compared with the
distance of separation between two-point sources i.e. d, we can assume,
r1= r2 = r
The radiation from the point source A2 will reach earlier at point P than that from
point source A1 because of the path difference. The extra distance is traveled by the radiated
wave from point source A1 than that by the wave radiated from point source A2.
Hence path difference is given by,
Path difference= d cos (3.1)

The path difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength as,
Path difference=(dcos )/λ (3.2)
Hence the phase angle

is given by,
Phase angle = 2π (Path difference)
(3.3)
radian
But phase shift β = 2π/λ, thus equation (3.3) becomes,
radian (3.4)
Let E1 be the far-field at a distant point P due to point source Al.
(3.5)
Similarly, let E2 be the far-field at point P due to point source A2.
(3.6)
Then the total field at point P is the addition of the two field components due to the
point sources A1 and A2. If the phase angle between the two fields is ʋ = βdcos then the far-
field component at point P due to point source A1 is given by,
Note that the amplitude of both the field components is E0 as currents are the same and
the point sources are identical.
The total field at point P is given by,
(3.7)
] (3.8)
Substituting the value of Ψ from equation (3.3), we get,

(3.9)
The above equation represents a total field in intensity at point P. due to two-point
sources having currents of the same amplitude and phase. The total amplitude of the field at
point P is 2E0 while the phase shift is βdcos /2. The array factor is the ratio of the magnitude
of the resultant field to the magnitude of the maximum field
rray factor (3.10)
But maximum field is Ernax =2E0
rray factor (3.11)
The array factor represents the relative value of the field as a function of defines the
radiation pattern in a plane containing the line of the array.
Field Pattern:
To draw the field pattern, the Maxima direction, Minima direction, and half power
points must be calculated using the following equation.
Considering the maximum value of the amplitude becomes,
or
et and
(3.12)
Maxima Direction:
The direction at which maximum radiation occurs is called maxima direction and the
electric field will be maximum at maxima direction. The total electric field E is maximum
when =±1,
=±1
where n=0,1,2….
If n=0, then
or (3.13)
Minima Direction:
The direction at which minimum radiation occurs is called minima direction. The total
electric field E is minimum when =0,
=0
where n=0,1,2…
If n=0,
=±1
= 00 or 1800 (3.14)
Half Power point directions:
When the power is half, the voltage or current is 1/√2 times the maximum value.
Hence the condition for half power point is given by,
√
where n=0,1,2…..
√
If n=0, then
00 or 1200 (3.15)
Fig 3.9 Field pattern for two-point source with spacing d=λ/2 and fed with currents
equal in magnitude and phase.
This is the simplest type of BSA and is also known as broadside couplet as two
isotropic radiations are in phase. If the field pattern between E versus θ is drawn for d = .
3.2.2. Array of two-point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase
Consider two-point sources separated by distance d and supplied with currents equal in
magnitude but opposite in phase. Consider fig.3.8 all the conditions are the same except the
phase of the currents is opposite i.e. 180°. With this condition, the total field at far point P is
given by
E = – E1 + E2 (3.16)
E1 = E2 = E0 (equal amplitudes) (3.17)
(3.18)
] ( ) (3.19)
Substituting the value of Ψ from equation (3.3), we get,
(3.20)
Field Pattern:
To draw the field pattern, the Maxima direction, Minima direction, and half power
points must be calculated using the following equation.
Considering the maximum value of the amplitude becomes,
or
et and
(3.21)
Maxima Direction:
The direction at which maximum radiation occurs is called maxima direction and the
electric field will be maximum at maxima direction. The total electric field E is maximum
when =±1,
=±1
where n=0,1,2….
If n=0, then
±1
or (3.22)
Minima Direction:
The direction at which minimum radiation occurs is called minima direction. The total
electric field E is minimum when =0,
=0
where n=0,1,2…
If n=0,
=0
= 900 (3.23)
Half Power point directions:
When the power is half, the voltage or current is 1/√2 times the maximum value.
Hence the condition for half power point is given by,
where n=0,1,2…..
√
If n=0, then
=
00 or 1200 (3.24)
Fig 3.10 Field pattern for two-point sources with spacing d=λ/2 and fed with
currents equal in magnitude but out of phase by 1800.
3.2.3. Two-point sources with currents unequal in magnitude and with any phase:
Assume that the two-point sources are separated by distance d and supplied with
currents which are different in magnitudes and with any phase difference say α. Consider that
source 1 is assumed to be a reference for phase and amplitude of the fields E1 and E2, which
are due to source 1 and source 2 respectively at the distant point P.
Let us assume that E1 is greater than E2 in magnitude as shown in the vector diagram in
Fig. 3.11.
Fig 3.11 Vector diagram of fields El and E2
Now the total phase difference between the radiations by the two-point sources at any
far point P is given by,
(3.25)
where α is the phase angle with which current I2 leads current Il. Now if α = 0, then the
condition is like the two-point sources with currents equal in magnitude and phase. Similarly,
if α = 180", then the condition is like the two-point source with currents equal in magnitude
but opposite in phase. ssume value of phase difference as 0 < α < 1800. Then the resultant
field at point P is given by,
(3.26)
(3.27)
Where i.e)
Fig 3.12 Two-point sources with unequal magnitude and at any phase α
√ (3.28)
Phase angle at P,
(3.29)
3.3 Array Factor:
The factor by which the array increases the field strength over that of a single
element radiating the same total power is called the Array factor (AF).
The normalized value of the electric field is given by,

norm (3.30)
3.4. Pattern Multiplication:
Statement: The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point
sources in the multiplication of the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of
isotropic point sources each located at the phase centre of the individual source and having the
same relative amplitude and phase, while the total phase pattern is the addition of the phase
pattern of individual sources and the array of isotropic point sources.
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources may be written
(3.31)
E={Multiplication of field pattern } * {Addition of phase pattern}
The principle can be applied to any number of sources provided only that they are
similar
where,
θ- Polar angle, Ф – Azimuth angle
Advantages:
 The principle of pattern multiplication provides a speedy method for sketching the
pattern of complicated arrays just by inspection and thus the principle proves to be a
useful tool in the design of antenna arrays.
 The width of the principle lobe and the corresponding width of the array pattern is the
same.
 The secondary lobes are determined from the number of nulls in the resultant pattern.
 The number of nulls in the resultant pattern is equal to the sum of null of individual
pattern and array pattern.
 This method is exact and point by point multiplication of pattern provides the exact
pattern of the resultant.
This principle may be applied to any number of sources if they are similar the word
similar is used to indicate the variation with absolute angle Ф of both the amplitude and phase
of the field is the same. The maximum amplitudes of the individual sources may be unequal.
If their maximum amplitudes are also equal, then the sources are not only similar but are
identical.
3.4.1 Radiation pattern of 4 isotropic point sources or elements fed in phase spaced λ/2
apart:
Let the 4-elements of isotropic radiators are in a linear array in which elements are
placed at a distance of λ/2 and are fed in phase i.e) α=0. One of the methods to get the
radiation pattern of the array is to add the fields of individual, four elements at a distant point
'P' vectorially but instead alternative method, using the principle of the multiplicity of the
pattern will be shown to get the same.
Fig 3.13 Linear arrays of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and fed in phase
It is already seen that two isotropic point sources spaced λ/2 apart fed in phase
provides a bidirectional pattern shown in fig 3.14.
(a) (b)
Fig 3.14 (a) 4-isotropic elements λ/2 apart (b) Radiation pattern
Now elements (1) & (2) are considered as one unit & is considered to be placed
between the midway of the elements & so the elements ( 3 ) & (4) as another unit assumed to
be placed between the two elements as shown in fig 3.14. These two units have the same
radiation pattern ie, bidirectional & the radiation pattern of two isotropic antennas spaced λ/2
is shown below:
(a) (b)
Fig 3.15 (a) 2 units array where one element is spaced λ (b)Radiation pattern
Thus 4 -element spaced λ/2 apart have been replaced by two units spaced λ, & by
doing so, the problem of determining the radiation of 4 - elements have reduced to find out the
radiation pattern of two antennas spaced λ apart. Then according to the multiplicity of pattern,
the resultant radiation pattern of 4 elements is obtained by multiplying the radiation pattern of
individual elements & array of two units spaced λ as illustrated in fig 3.16.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 3.16 Pattern Multiplication (a) Unit pattern due to two individual elements (b)
Group pattern due to an array of two elements (c) Resultant pattern of 4 isotropic
elements
3.4.2. Radiation Pattern of 8 isotropic elements fed in phase spaced λ/2 apart:
(a) (b)
Fig 3.17 (a) Linear Array of 8 isotropic elements spaced λ/2

(b) Equivalent two units array spaced 2 λ
In this case, 4 isotropic elements are assumed to be one unit and then to find the
radiation pattern of two units spaced a distance 2λ apart as shown in fig.3.17(b). The radiation
pattern of 8 isotropic elements is obtained by multiplying the unit pattern of 4 individual
elements and group pattern of two isotropic radiators spaced 2λ as shown in fig.3.18.
Fig. 3.18. The resultant radiation pattern of 8 isotropic elements by pattern

multiplication
3.5. UNIFORMLY SPACED ARRAY WITH UNIFORM EXCITATION

AMPLITUDES
An array is said to be uniform if the elements are fed with currents of equal amplitude
and having a uniform progressive phase shift along the line. Consider a linear array of n
isotropic point sources in which point sources are spaced equally (say α) are fed with in-phase
current of equal amplitude (say E0) as shown in fig.3.19.
Fig 3.19 Uniform Linear array of n elements

The total far-field pattern at a distant point P is obtained by adding vectorially the field
of individual sources as
(3.32)
(3.33)
Where,
ources.
-
point sources.
Multiplying the eqn.(3.33) by ,
(3.34)
Subtracting eqn.(3.34) with eqn.(3.33), we get
(3.35)
(3.36)
(3.37)
Eqn. (3.36) represents the total far-field pattern of a linear array of n- isotropic point
source with source A1 as a reference point for phase. If the reference point is shifted to the
centre of the array, then is eliminated automatically from the eqn.(3.36).
Hence it reduces to
(3.38)
Where, E0 – individual source pattern
– Array pattern
3.5.1. Broadside Array:
In many applications, it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array

directed normal to the axis of the array (broadside θ=900). To optimize the design the maxima
of the single element & of the array factor should be both directed toward θ=90.
The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished by the judicious choice
of the radiators & those of the array factor by the proper separation & excitation of the
individual radiators.
Thus, to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear array directed
broadside to the axis of the array, all the elements must have the same phase & same
amplitude excitation.
The separation between the elements can be of any value. To ensure that there is no
maximum in other directions which are referred to as "grating lobes" the separation between
the elements must be less than 1λ (dmax < λ).
Fig 3.20 Broadside array arrangement
An array is said to be broadside array if phase angle is such that it makes maximum
radiation perpendicular to the line of array ie 900 and 2700. In broadside, array sources are in
phase ie α=00 and =00 for maximum must be satisfied.
Consider four isotropic point sources are symmetrically situated w.r.t the origin in the
rectangular coordinate system as shown in fig.3.20.
We are to calculate fields at a great distant point at distant (say R) from the origin 'O'
& the origin is taken as a reference point for phase calculation. Waves from source 1 reach the
point ‘P' later than the waves from source 2 because of path difference 1’ 2’ involved between
the two waves. Thus, the fields due to source 1 lags while due to source 2 leads.
Path difference between the two waves 1’2’ is given by,
Path difference metres
metres
wave lengths
The Phase angle is given by,
Phase angle = 2Π (Path difference)
radians
= βd cos θ radians, since β=
The total Phase angle is
Here , between sources are in phase
For maximum =0,
=0
=0
= 900 or 2700
The principal maximum lobe occurs in 900 or 2700
Direction of minor lobe pattern maxima:
For an array of n isotropic point source of equal amplitude and spacing the array factor
is given by,
From (3.38),
This is maximum when the numerator is maximum i.e) is maximum provided

≠ 0.
=1 (3.39)
where N=1,2,3
While N=0 corresponds to major lobe maxima
(3.40)
Sub
Sub β=2Π/λ
} (3.41)
et n=4, d=λ/2,
Then
If N=1,
or (3.42)
Thus + ,+ ,- and - are the four minor lobe maxima of the array
of 4 isotropic sources in phase spaced λ/2 apart.
Direction of minor lobe pattern minima:
The directions of minima of minor lobes in the array of n isotropic sources of equal
amplitude and phase are given as
=0
=1 provided sin /2 ≠ 0
= where N=1,2,3
Sub
Sub β=2Π/λ
} (3.43)
et n=4, d=λ/2, N=1
Then
[ ]
or
If N=2,
[ ]
or (3.44)
Thus are the six minor lobe minima of the array of 4

isotropic sources in phase spaced λ/2 apart. No other minima exist because cosine function
becomes more than one which is not possible.
Beamwidth of major lobe:
It is defined as
1. The angle between the first nulls or
2. Double the angle between the first null and major lobe maximum directions.
It is denoted by the complementary angle γ= -θ because the beamwidth of the

major lobe is usually small. Thus,
Beamwidth of major lobe = 2 * angle between first null and maximum of the major
lobe
BWFN = 2 * γ (3.45)
or
From the equation of minor lobe minima,
Taking cos on both sides,
if γ is very small, sin γ= γ and the above equation becomes,
(3.46)
First null occurs when N=1,
BWFN = 2 *
BWFN = (3.47)
If the broadside array is large Nλ >> nd then,
2 =
Since L- total length of the array in meter = (n-1) d = nd (if n is large)
BWFN = radian (or) (3.48)
degrees
BWFN= degrees (3.49)
The half-power beamwidth is,

HPBW= BWFN/2
BWFN= degrees (3.50)
The directivity D for BSA is
D=2( /λ) (3.51)
Fig 3.21 Radiation pattern of BSA
3.5.2. End Fire Array:
For an array to be end-fire the phase angle is such that makes the maximum radiation
in the line of array ie θ= 00 or θ =1800. Thus, for an array to be end-fire = 0 and θ= 00 or θ
=1800.
This requires,
(3.52)
(3.53)
This indicates that the phase difference between the sources of an end-fire is retarded
progressively by the same amount as the spacing between the source in radians.
Direction of minor lobe pattern maxima:
The array factor is given by,
This is maximum when the numerator is maximum i.e) is maximum provided

≠0
sub where
(3.54)
If
If
* +
not exist
If N=2,
[ ]
Direction of minor lobe pattern minima:
The array factor is given by,
This will be minimum when the numerator is equal to zero provided ≠ 0.
=0
Sub
( )
√ (3.55)
If n=4, d= and sub N=1,

If N=2,
If N=3,
Thus the minima are located at +600 ,+900, +1200,-600,-900 and -1200
Beamwidth of major lobes:
The beamwidth is defined as
Beamwidth = 2 * angle between first nulls and maximum of major lobes
= 2 * θmin
we know √
√
If the array is long of length L then L=(n-1) d
L=nd
If N=1,
BWFN √ radian
BWFN √ degrees
√ (3.56)
The HPBW is half of BWFN. So,
HPBW=
√ (3.57)
The Directivity D of an End fire array is
D=4( /λ) (3.58)

Fig 3.22 Radiation pattern of EFA
3.6. UNIFORMLY SPACED ARRAY WITH NON-UNIFORM EXCITATION

AMPLITUDE
There are four types of amplitude distributions. They are
 Uniform distribution
 Binomial distribution
 Edge distribution
 Tchebyscheff polynomial distribution
3.6.1. Uniform Distribution
 A uniform distribution yields the maximum directivity
 The minor lobes are relatively large
 The amplitude of the first minor lobe is 24% of the major lobe maximum
 In some applications, this minor lobe amplitude may be undesirably range.
 The pattern has a half- large.
3.6.2. Binomial Array
To reduce the sidelobe level, John stone proposed that sources have amplitude
proportional to the co-efficient of a binomial series of the form,
(3.59)
Where n is the number of sources. It is found that with a uniform linear array, as the
array length is increased to increase the directivity, the secondary or minor lobes also appear.
But for certain applications, secondary lobes should be eliminated or reduced to the minimum
desired level in comparison to the principal or main lobes. This can be accomplished by
arranging the arrays in such a way that radiating sources in the centre of the broadside array
radiated more strongly than the radiating sources at the edges. The secondary lobes can be
eliminated if the following two conditions are satisfied.
i) Spacing between the two consecutive radiating sources does not exceed λ/ 2
ii) The current amplitudes in radiating sources are proportional to the coefficients of the
successive terms of the binomial series.
These two conditions are necessarily satisfied in binomial arrays & the co-efficient
which corresponds to amplitudes of the sources are obtained by putting n=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8…..
in the eqn.(3.59).
For example, relative amplitudes for the arrays of 1 to 6 radiating source are as
follows:
These coefficients for any number of radiating sources can be obtained from Pascal's
triangle.
Fig 3.23 Pascal’s Triangle

It may be noted the elimination of secondary lobes takes place at the cost of
directivity. Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of Binomial array is more than that of a
uniform array for the same length of the array. For example, for radiating source n=5,
spaced λ/2 apart HPBW of binomial arrays & uniform arrays are respectively 230 &
310 as shown in fig.3.24. Thus, in a uniform array, secondary lobes appear but
principal lobe is sharp & narrow whereas in John stone's binomial array width of beam
widens but without secondary lobes.
Fig 3.24 HPBW Comparison
Disadvantages:
 HPBW increases and hence the directivity decreases
 For the design of a large array, the larger amplitude ratio of sources is required
3.6.3. Edge Distribution:
In edge distribution only the end sources of the array are supplied with power, the
three central sources being either omitted or inactive. The relative amplitude of the 5 sources
is 1, 0, 0, 0, 1. The array has degenerated to two sources 2λ apart. The beamwidth between
half-power points of the main lobe is 150 but minor lobes are the same amplitude as the main
lobe.
Fig. 3.25 Edge Distribution
3.6.4. Tchebyscheff Polynomial:
While designing antenna arrays, it is necessary to determine the current ratios which
results in the smallest sidelobe level for specified beamwidth. But these two characteristics of
the antenna are related to each other in such a way that improvement in any one characteristic
deteriorates the other one.
Prof. C.L. Dolph suggested that for a linear in phase broadside arrays, for a specified
side lobe level, it is possible to minimize the beamwidth of main lobe and vice versa. This
improvement in the antenna characteristics is based on Tchebyscheff polynomials. With the
help of Tchebyscheff current distribution, it is possible practically to design an array with
high gain and narrow beamwidth for the sidelobe levels up to 20-30 dB in UHF and VHF
bands.
The Tchebyscheff polynomial with variable x is denoted by Tm(x) and it is defined by,
(3.60)
Where m is integer constant ranging from 0 to ∞.
et
(3.61)
The above equation becomes,
If
If
If
If
If
Further polynomial of higher terms can be derived using the recursive formula given
by,
(3.62)
To determine T5(x)
=2x [ ]–[
Properties of Tchebyscheff Polynomial:
1. All the polynomials in the range 1<x<1 oscillate between the value -1 and +1
2. In the range |x|<1, the mth order polynomial crosses the axis m times
3. In the range |x|>1, the polynomials go on increasing without limit at the rate
proportional to xm.
For example, when the polynomial is even,
Let n=4,
The Tchebyscheff polynomial is
Variation of the Tchebyscheff polynomial with respect to x is listed in the below table:
Fig 3.26 Variation of T4(x) with x
From the graph, it’s clear that,
2. In the range |x|<1, the 4th order polynomial crosses the axis 4 times
3. In the range |x|>1, the polynomials go on increasing at the rate proportional to x4.
when the polynomial is odd,
Let n=3,
Variation of the Tchebyscheff polynomial with respect to x is listed in the below table:
Fig 3.27 Variation of T3(x) with x
From the graph, it’s clear that,
2. In the range |x|<1, the 3rd order polynomial crosses the axis 3 times
3. In the range |x|>1, the polynomials go on increasing at the rate proportional to x3.
3.7. Smart Antennas:
A smart antenna is a multi-element antenna where the signals received at each antenna
element are intelligently combined to improve the performance of the wireless system. The
reverse is performed on transmit. These antennas can increase signal range, suppress
interfering signals, combat signal fading, and increase the capacity of wireless systems.
Smart antennas are the antenna arrays with smart signal processing algorithms used to
identify spatial signal signature such as the direction of arrival (DOA) of the signal and use it
to calculate beamforming vectors to track and locate the antenna beam on the mobile target.
Smart antenna techniques are used in acoustic signal processing, track and scan radar, radio
astronomy, radio telescopes, and mostly in cellular systems like W-CDMA and UMTS.
3.7.1. Types of smart antennas:
1. Switched beam systems: This is the simplest technique and comprises only a basic
switching function between separate directive antennas or predefined beams of an
array. The setting that gives the best performance, usually in terms of received power,
is chosen. Because of the higher directivity compared to a conventional antenna, some
gain is achieved.
Pros and cons:
 These antennas are easier to implement in existing cell structures than the more
sophisticated adaptive arrays, which also means low cost.
 The signal strength can degrade rapidly during the beam switching. Also, if the
interferer is at the centre of the selected beam and the user is away from the centre, the
interfering signal can be enhanced far more than the desired signal.
2. Dynamically phased arrays : By including a direction of arrival (DOA) algorithm for

the signal received from the user, continuous tracking can be achieved, and it can be
viewed as a generalization of the switched beam concept.
Pros and cons:
 In this case, the received power is maximized.
 It does not nullify the interference.
3. Adaptive arrays : The adaptive approach utilizes sophisticated signal processing

algorithms to continuously distinguish between desired signals, multipath and
interfering signals as well as calculate their directions of arrival. The adaptive
approach continuously updates its beam pattern based on changes in both the desired
and interfering signal locations. The ability to smoothly track users with main lobes
and interferers with nulls ensures that the link budget is constantly maximized - a
maximum signal to interference ratio (SIR) is achieved.
Pros & cons:
 Best performance in the three types of smart antennas mentioned above.
 Transceiver complexity, resource management, physical size, etc
3.7.2. Phased Array Antenna:
A phased array antenna is an array antenna whose single radiators can be fed with
different phase shifts. As a result, the common antenna pattern can be steered electronically.
The electronic steering is much more flexible and requires less maintenance than the
mechanical steering of the antenna.
The elements of any antenna array must be phased in some manner, the term phased
array means an array of many elements with the phase of each element being a variable,
providing control of the beam direction & pattern shape including side lobes.
Specialized phased arrays given different names are the
1) Frequency scanning array,
2) The retro array &

3) Adaptive array.
In the scanning array, the phase change is accomplished by varying the frequency.
These frequency scanning arrays are among the simplest phased arrays since no phase
control is required at each element. A retro array is one that automatically reflects an
incoming signal toward its source.
3.7.2.1 Phased Array Design:
An objective of a phased array is to accomplish beam steering without the mechanical

and inertial problems of rotating the entire array. In principle, the beam steering of a phased
array can be instantaneous and with suitable networks, all beams can be formed
simultaneously.
However, the look angle or field & view of a planar phased array may be more
restricted than for a steerable array. Also, the beam of a rotatable array maintains its shape
with a change in direction whereas a phased array beam may not. Another objective of the
phased array is to provide beam control at a fixed frequency or any number of frequencies
within a certain bandwidth in a frequency-independent manner. In simple, a beam-steering of
a phased array can be done by mechanical switching.
Consider a 3-element array in which each element is a λ/2 dipole.
Fig 3.28(a) Transmission lines or cables
An incoming wave arriving broadside as shown in the fig.3.28(a) will induce voltages
in the transmission lines in the same phase so that if all cables are of the same length
the voltages will be in phase. By connecting all the three cables to a common point
as shown in fig.3.28(b) the three-element array will act as a broadside array.
Fig 3.28(b) Design of phased array
For an impedance match, the cable to the receiver should be 1/3 the impedance of the
3 cables, or a 3 to 1 impedance transformer can be inserted at the common junction will all
cables of the same impedance. Point Now consider a wave arriving at an angle of 45 0 from
broadside as in fig.3.28(c).If the wave velocity v=c on the cables the in-phase line is parallel
to the wave front of the incoming wave, as suggested in fig.3.28(c). However, if v<c, the
lengths must be increased as suggested for all phases to be the same. Then if cables of
these lengths are joined as in fig 3.28(d) the 3-element array will have its beam 450 from
broadside.
(c) (d)
Fig 3.28 Design of phased array
By installing a switch at each antenna element & one at the common feed point as in
fig.3.28(e) & mechanically ganging all switches together the beam can be shifted from
broadside to 450 by operating the ganged switch. By adding more switch points & more
cables of appropriate length the beam can be steered to an arbitrarily large number of
directions with more elements, narrower beams can be formed. With diodes (PIN) type in
place of mechanical switches, control can be electronic. However, even with these
modifications, it is obvious that for precision beam steering with many antenna elements, the
required number of interconnecting cables can become astronomic.
Fig 3.28(e) Switches for shifting from broadside to 450 reception
Many schemes have been proposed to reduce the number of interconnecting cables
one of these is called a Butler (1, 2) matrix, which is a cable connected matrix which is the
hardwire equivalent of a Discrete Fast Fourier Transform. For an N-element N-output-port
matrix, forming N simultaneous beams the number of required cables is reduced from N2 to
N. In N, resulting in a significant economy for large values of N. Computers can do the same
thing by appropriate programming of sampled signals.
Instead of controlling the beam by switching cables, a phase shifter can be installed at
each element. Phase-shifting may be accomplished by a ferrite device. The same effect may
be produced by the insertion of sections of the cable by electronic switching. Thus, insertion
of cables of λ/4, λ/2, 3λ/4, and no cable provide phase increments of 900. For more precise,
phasing cables with smaller incremental differences are used.
Fig.3.28(f) shows the schematic diagram of a phased array with a phase shifter and
attenuator at each element. The feed cables are all equal length in a corporate structure
arrangement.
Fig 3.28(f) Schematic of phased array fed by the corporate structure

fig 3.28(g) shows an end-fed phased array also with individual element phase shifter
and attenuator. Such a progressive phase shift is introduced between elements with a
frequency change, the phase shifters must introduce opposing phase changes to
compensate in addition to making the desired phase changes.
Fig 3.28(g) Line feed
fig 3.28(h) shows a 4 -element end-fed phased from receiving array with each element
fed from a transmission line via a directional coupler. The transmission line has a
matched termination so that there is a pure traveling wave on the line. Phasing is
accomplished by physically sliding the directional couplers along the line. Element
amplitude is controlled by changing the closeness of coupling. Reduction of amplitude
can control or eliminate minor lobes as with a 1: 3: 3: 1 (binomial) amplitude
distribution.
Fig 3.28(h)Phased array with each element fed from a matched transmission line with a
directional coupler
Advantages:
 high antenna gain with large side-lobe attenuation
 very fast change of beam direction (in range of microseconds)

 high beam agility
 arbitrary space scanning
 freely selectable dwell time
 multi-function operation by simultaneous generation of multiple beams
 failure of some components does not result in a complete system failure.
Disadvantages:
 limited scanning range (up to max. 120° in azimuth and elevation)
 Deformation of the antenna pattern during beam steering
 low-frequency agility
 very complex structure (computer, phase shifter, data bus to each radiator)
 high costs
Applications:
 Broadcasting
 Radar applications
 Space Probe Communication
 Weather research
 Optics
 Satellite Broadband Internet Transceiver
 Radiofrequency Identification
 Human Machine Interfaces
3.8. Adaptive array:
Adaptive arrays have an awareness of their environment & adjust to it in the desired
fashion. Thus, an adaptive array can automatically steer its beam toward the desired signal
while steering a null toward an undesired or interfering signal. In a more adaptive array, the
output of each element is sampled, digitized, and processed by a computer which can be
programmed to accomplish tasks limited mainly by the sophistication of the computer
program & the available computer power. Such an array may be called a "smart antenna". The
antenna elements and their transmission-line interconnections discussed so far produce a
beam or beams in predetermined directions. Thus, when receiving these arrays look in each
direction regardless of whether any signals are arriving from that direction or not.
However, by processing the signals from the individual elements, an array can become
active & react intelligently to its environment, steering its beam toward the desired signal
While simultaneously steering a null toward an undesired, interfering signal & thereby
maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio of the desired signal. The term adaptive array is applied
to this kind of antenna.
Also, by suitable signal processing, performance may be further enhanced, giving

simulated patterns of higher resolution & lower side lobes. Also, by appropriate sampling &
digitizing the signals at the terminals of each element & processing them with a computer, a
very intelligent or smart antenna can in principle be built. For a given number of elements,
such as antennas capabilities are limited mainly by the ingenuity of the programmer & the
available computer power.
Thus, for example, multiple beams may be simultaneously directed toward many
signals arriving from different directions within the fields of view of the antenna. These
antennas are sometimes called "Digital Beam Forming" (DBF) antennas.
An example of an adaptive array, a simple 2 - element system is shown in fig 3.29

with λ/2 Spacing between the elements at the signal frequency fs. et each element be a λ/2
dipole seen end -on in fig 3.29 so that the patterns of the elements are uniform in the plane.
with elements operating in phase, the beam is broadside. Consider now the case of a signal at
300 from broadside as suggested in fig 3.29 so that the wave arriving at element 2 travels λ/4
farther than to element 1, thus retarding the phase of the signal 1 by 900 at element 2. Each
element is equipped with its mixer, Voltage - Controlled Oscillator (VCO), intermediate
frequency amplifier & phase detector.
An oscillator at the intermediate frequency fo is connected to the phase detector as

reference. The phase detector compares the phase of the downshifted signal with the phase of
the reference oscillator & produces a voltage proportional to the phase difference.
This voltage, in turn, advances or retards the phase of the VCO output to reduce the
phase difference to zero (phase locking). The voltage for the VCO of element 1 would ideally
be equal in magnitude but of opposite sign to the voltage for the VCO of element 2 so that the
downshifted signals from both elements are locked in phase, making
Where,
= Phase of downshifted signal from element 1
= Phase of downshifted signal from element 2
=Phase of a reference oscillator
With equal gain from both IF amplifiers the voltages V1 & V2 from both elements
should be equal so that
Fig 3.29 Two element adaptive array with signal processing circuitry
Making the voltage from the summing amplifier proportional to 2V1=2V2 and
maximizing the response of the array to the incoming signal. In our example 450 phase
corrections of the opposite sign would be required by the VCOs ( + For element 1,- For
element 2 ).
In a 2-element example, the beam will be in the 00 direction for a signal from the 00
direction & at a 300 for a signal from that direction, as shown by the patterns in fig.3.30 If
interfering signals are arriving from the 2100 & 3300 directions when the main signal is at 300,
the nulls at 2100 & 3300 will suppress the interference.
However, an interfering signal at 1500 would be at a pattern maximum, the same as the
desired signal at 300. To provide more effective adaptation to its environment, an array with
more elements & more sophisticated signal processing is required. For example, the main
beam may be steered toward the desired signal by changing the progressive phase difference
between elements, while independently one or more nulls are steered toward interfering
signals by modifying the array element amplitudes with digitally controlled attenuators.
Fig 3.30 Radiation pattern of 2 element adaptive array
Solved Problems:
1. Calculate the directivity of a given linear broadside uniform array of 10 isotropic

elements with a separation of between the elements.
Solution:
For broadside array, D= , where L is the length of the array
Now L=nd
Given n=10, d=
D=2 * 10*
D=5
2. A Linear broadside array consists of four equal isotropic in phase source with
spacing. Find the directivity and beamwidth.
Solution:
For broadside array,
Beamwidth between first nulls =
Half Power Beamwidth=
3. A uniform linear array consists of 16 isotropic point sources with a spacing of .

If the phase difference is -900 calculate the directivity, HPBW, and beam solid
angle.
Solution:
Since phase shift is specified the array is an end-fire array.
Given,
N=16, d= , L=(n-1)d= (16-1) = 15
Directivity:
D= =4* = 15
Directivity in dB = 10 log10 (15) = 11.76 dB
HPBW:
√ degree
Sub L=15 , we get
Effective aperture:
Beam solid angle:
4. A Broadside array consists of four identical half-wave dipoles spaced 50cm apart.
If the wavelength is 0.1 m and each element carry rf current of equal magnitude
of 0.25 A and the same phase, calculate power radiated and a half-power
beamwidth of the major lobe.
Solution:
Given,
N=4, λ=0.1m, d=0.5 m, I=0.25
Power radiated:
Where Rrad is the Radiation resistance of antenna in the array
For half-wave dipole Rrad= 73 Ω
=18.25 watts
HPBW:
The length of the array is L=nd=4 * 0.5 = 2 m

= 0.1 radian
Half Power Beamwidth = = = 0.05 radian
5. Find the minimum spacing between the elements in a broadside array of 10

isotropic radiators to have directivity of 7 dB.
Solution:
Given, GDmax= 7 dB, n=10
GDma in dB = 10 log10 |GDmax|
7=10 log10 |GDmax|
GDmax= 5.0118
The directivity is,
= 0.25λ
6. Find the length and BWFN for the broadside and end-fire array if the directive
gain is 15.
Solution:
For Broadside array,
L= 7.5 λ
BWFN is given by,
BWFN=
For end-fire array,
=3.75 λ
BWFN is given by,
BWFN= √
= 83.690
Two Marks Questions and answers
1) What is an antenna array?
An antenna array is a radiating system of similar antennas spaced properly to achieve

greater field strength in the desired direction at a point at a far distance from the
radiating system.
2) What is the need for antenna array?
In the point to point communication, it is desired to have most of the energy radiated in
one direction. This means it is desired to have greater directivity in the desired
direction particularly which is not possible with a single dipole antenna. Hence to
increase field strength in the desired direction antenna array is used which consists of a
group of similar antennas properly spaced and oriented in the desired direction.
3) What is a linear array?
The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of the antenna array are equally
spaced along a straight line.
4) What is meant by a uniform linear array?
The linear antenna array is said to be a uniform linear array if all the elements are fed
with a current of equal magnitude with a progressive uniform phase shift along the
line.
5) What are the advantages of antenna array?
An antenna array is used to obtain maximum field strength in the desired direction
while canceling the individual field strength in all other directions to get maximum
directivity in the desired direction.
6) What are the different types of antenna array?
Most used various types of practical array are as follows:
i) Broadside array
ii) End fire array
iii) Collinear array
iv) Parasitic array

7) Define Broadside array.
Broadside array is defined as an arrangement in which the principle direction of

radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and the plane containing the array element.
The phase difference between adjacent elements is zero.
8) Define End fire array.
End fire array is defined as an arrangement in which the principle direction of

radiation coincides with the array axis and there exists a phase difference between
adjacent elements.
9) Differentiate Broadside array and End fire array.
S.No Broadside Array End Fire Array
1 The array is said to be broadside array The array is said to an end-fire array
if the direction of maximum radiation is if maximum radiation is along the
perpendicular to the array axis. array axis.
2 In broad side, phase difference α = 0 In end-fire, the phase difference

between adjacent element is α= -βd
3 Directivity of broadside array is, Directivity of an end-fire array is,

D=2 D= 4
4 Beamwidth between first nulls is, Beamwidth between first nulls is

BWFN=57.3 degree BWFN=114.6 degree
5 In End fire array, all elements are

In broadside array, all elements are
equally
equally spaced along the array axis and
spaced along the array axis and fed
fed with a current of equal magnitude
with a current of equal magnitude
and same phase.
but their phases are different.
6 The radiation pattern of the broadside The radiation pattern of the

array is bidirectional broadside array is Unidirectional
7 In broadside array, In end-fire array,

φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=0) φ =βdcosθ+α (since α=-βd)
Therefore φ =βdcosθ Therefore φ =βd(cosθ-1)
10) Write down the expression for BWFN for BSA and EFA.
For BSA, BWFN is given by,
radians
For EFA, BWFN is given by,
√ radians
Where,
n – number of antennas
d- distance between adjacent elements
λ – wavelength
11) Write down the expressions for minor lobe maxima and minima for BSA and
EFA.
inor lobe maxima minor

For BSA,
inor lobe minima minor
inor lobe maxima

For EFA,
inor lobe minima √
12) Write down the expression for directivity for BSA and EFA.
For
For EF , D
13) Write down the expression for half-power beamwidth (HPBW) for BSA and
EFA.
For degree.
For EF , HPBW √ degree
14) Define the beamwidth of a major lobe.
It is defined as,
i) The angle between the first nulls or
ii) Double the angle between the first null and major lobe maximum directions.
15) How to convert a BSA radiation pattern into unidirectional.
The BSA radiation pattern can be converted into unidirectional by installing an

identical array behind this array at a distance and exiting it by current leading in
phase by 900 or radians.
16) What is an array factor?
The factor by which the array increases the field strength over that of a single element
radiating the same total power.
norm
17) Define the principle of pattern multiplication.
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar point sources is the
multiplication of the individual source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic
point sources, each located at the phase centre of the individual source and having the
same relative amplitude and phase while the total phase pattern is the addition of the
phase pattern of the individual sources and the array of isotropic point sources.
18) Write down the expression for pattern multiplication.
It is written as,
E={Multiplication of field pattern } * {Addition of phase pattern}
The principle can be applied to any number of sources provided only that they are
similar
where,
θ- Polar angle, Ф – Azimuth angle
19) Draw the radiation pattern of BSA.
20) Draw the radiation pattern of EFA.

21) Write the advantages of pattern multiplication.
1. It provides a speedy method for sketching the pattern of complicated arrays just by
inspection.
2. It is a useful tool in the design of antenna arrays.
3. This method provides the exact pattern of the resultant.
4. The secondary lobes are determined from the number of nulls in the resultant
pattern.
22) State the disadvantage of pattern multiplication.
1. It is the technique that is useful only for arrays containing identical elements.
2. It is not useful for very larger arrays.
23) What is a phased array?
The phased array has come to mean an array of many elements with the phase of each
element being a variable, providing control of the beam direction and pattern shape
including side lobes.
24) Give the various types of specialized phased arrays.
The specialized phased arrays given different names are the frequency scanning array,
the retro array, and the adaptive array.
25) Define a scanning array.
In the scanning array, the phase change is accomplished by varying the frequency.
These frequency scanning arrays are among the simplest phased arrays since no phase
control is required at each element.
26) Define retro array.
A retro array is one that automatically reflects an incoming signal toward its source.
27) What is the main objective of the phased array?
The main objective of the phased array is to provide beam control at a fixed frequency
or any number of frequencies within a certain bandwidth in a frequency-independent
manner.
28) Define adaptive array.

Adaptive arrays have an awareness of their environment and adjust to it in the desired
fashion. Thus, an adaptive array can automatically steer its beam toward the desired
signal while steering a null toward an undesired or interfering signal. Such an array
may be called a smart antenna.
29) Draw the schematic of the phased array.
30) Draw the diagram for a two-element adaptive array.

Review Questions
1) Derive the expression for an array factor of n - element linear array.
2) Explain in detail about BSA and EFA.
3) Compare BSA and EFA.
4) Derive the expression for pattern maxima, minima, and half-power beamwidth for
broadside array.
5) Derive the expression for pattern maxima, minima, and half-power beamwidth for an
end-fire array.
6) Explain in detail the principle of pattern multiplication.
7) Explain in detail the concept of phased arrays.
8) Describe the working principle of an adaptive array.
9) Explain in detail about binomial array.
10) In a linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and with equal currents fed in
phase, plot the radiation pattern.
11) In a linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and with equal currents fed
out of phase, plot the radiation pattern.
12) Explain in detail the concept of smart antennas with an example.

Antenna Arrays and Their Applications

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Antenna Arrays and Their Applications

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ANTENNA ARRAYS AND

An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators and

The following are the advantages of using antenna arrays

 The signal strength increases

 High directivity is obtained

 Minor lobes are reduced much

 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved

 High gain is obtained

 Power wastage is reduced

 Better performance is obtained

The following are the disadvantages of array antennas

 Resistive losses are increased

 Mounting and maintenance is difficult

 Huge external space is required

The following are the applications of array antennas

 Used in satellite communications

 Used in wireless communications

 Used in military radar communications

 Used in the astronomical study

3.1.1. Types of Arrays:

The basic types of arrays are

 End fire array

3.1.2. Various forms of Antenna Arrays:

3.1.2.1 Broad Side Array

Fig 3.1 Broadside Array

Fig 3.2 Radiation pattern of Broadside Array

The bidirectional pattern of broadside array can be converted into unidirectional by

3.1.2.2.End Fire Array:

Fig 3.3 End Fire Array arrangement

Fig 3.4 Radiation Pattern of End Fire array

Fig. 3.5. Vertical antennas arranged co-linearly

Fig.3.7 shows the radiation pattern of 4 elements of a co-linear array. An increase in

Fig 3.6 Horizontal antennas arranged co-linearly

Fig 3.7. Radiation Pattern of 4 element co-linear array

3.2. Two Element Array:

i) Array with equal amplitude and phases

ii) Array with equal amplitude and opposite phases

iii) Array with unequal amplitude and opposite phases.

Fig.3.8 Two element Array

Consider two-point sources A1 and A2, separated by distance d as shown in Fig.3.8.

Hence path difference is given by,

Path difference= d cos (3.1)

The path difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength as,

Path difference=(dcos )/λ (3.2)

Hence the phase angle

Phase angle = 2π (Path difference)

But phase shift β = 2π/λ, thus equation (3.3) becomes,

Let E1 be the far-field at a distant point P due to point source Al.

Similarly, let E2 be the far-field at point P due to point source A2.

The total field at point P is given by,

Substituting the value of Ψ from equation (3.3), we get,

rray factor (3.10)

But maximum field is Ernax =2E0

rray factor (3.11)

Considering the maximum value of the amplitude becomes,

Half Power point directions:

E1 = E2 = E0 (equal amplitudes) (3.17)

Considering the maximum value of the amplitude becomes,

Half Power point directions:

Hence the condition for half power point is given by,

Fig 3.11 Vector diagram of fields El and E2

3.3 Array Factor:

The normalized value of the electric field is given by,