DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOMATIC ENGINEERING

Fluid mechanics III

Solutions for Problem Sheet 1
1. Free convection is the motion of a fluid, which is originally at rest in the gravitational
field, caused by changes of density due to variations of the temperature. The small change
of density can be expressed as δρ = −ρ β δT , where β is the volumetric thermal expansion
coefficient, δT is a small variation of the temperature from an average level T0 , ρ is the
density at T0 .
(a) Modify the vertical momentum equation of the Navier-Stokes equations to include
the additional buoyancy force applied to a fluid particle due to variations of the
temperature.
(b) Fluid is placed between two parallel horizontal plates. The distance between the
plates is d and the temperature difference between them is Θ. The fluid is originally
at rest. Demonstrate that the convective fluid motion between the plates is controlled
by the Grashof number
g β Θ h3
Gr = .
ν2
Solution:
(a) The vertical momentum equation without a temperature term is
 2
∂2v

∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂p ∂ v
+u +v =− −g+ν + .
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
The left-hand side of the equation represents the total fluid acceleration (temporal plus convec-
tive), and the right-hand side is the force per unit mass of the fluid. Let the fluid is originally
at rest in the gravitational field, its temperature is T0 and the density at this temperature is
ρ. The equilibrium pressure distribution is P0 = −ρ g y. Let T and P are fluctuations of the
temperature and the pressure from equilibrium values. The weight of a fluid particle of unit
mass is G = −g and at the equilibrium the buoyancy of that particle should balance the gravity,
that is B = g. If the temperature of the particle changes by the value T the corresponding
change of the density is δρ = −ρ β T . The weight of the particle remains the same, but its
volume becomes
1
V = V0 + δV = ,
ρ + δρ
where V0 = 1/ρ is the equilibrium volume (the unit mass m = 1 over the equilibrium density
ρ), δV is the change of the volume due to change of the density and V = 1/(ρ + δρ) is the
new volume (the unit mass m = 1 over the new density ρ + δρ). For a small change of density
δρ/ρ = ε we can use a Taylor series with respect to ε to express the change of the volume as
ε → 0. We have
1 1 1 δρ
V = → ( 1 − ε ) = V0 − 2 ,
ρ 1+ε ρ ρ
which gives δV = −δρ/ρ2 . The additional buoyancy force due to the change of the volume is
then
−ρ β T
δB = ρ g δV = −ρ g = gβT .
ρ2
Using the pressure in the form p = −ρ g y + P and adding δB to the right-hand side we obtain
the vertical momentum equation for the Boussinesq model of free convection
 2
∂2v

∂v ∂v ∂v 1 ∂P ∂ v
+u +v =− +gβT +ν + .
∂t ∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2

1
Note, that apart from the momentum equations and the continuity equation the model includes
an equation describing heat transmission due to convection and thermal conductivity (one more
variable T ⇒ one more equation).
(b) For free convection between two plates the distance between the plates h can be used as the
length scale L = h and the temperature difference Θ gives the temperature scale. The problem
does not have an explicit velocity scale, and it must be constructed using problem parameters,
e.g. U = ν/L = ν/h. Non-dimensional variables can now be introduced as

L ∗ h2 ∗ ν ∗ ∗ ρ ν2 ∗
t= t = t ; (x, y) = h (x∗ , y ∗ ); (u, v) = (u , v ); T = Θ T ∗; P = ρ U2 P∗ = P ,
U ν h h2
where the asterisk denotes nondimensional values. After substitution into the momentum equa-
tion we have
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ν 2 ∂P ∗
 2 ∗
ν2 ν2 ∂ 2v∗
 
∂v ∗ ∂v ∗ ∂v ∗ ∂ v
+u +v =− 3 + gβ ΘT + 3 +
h3 ∂t∗ ∂x∗ ∂y ∗ h ∂y ∗ h ∂x∗ 2 ∂y ∗ 2

and finally
∂v ∗ ∗ ∗ ∂P ∗ ∂ 2v∗ ∂ 2v∗
 
∗ ∂v ∗ ∂v
+ u + v = − + Gr T ∗ + + ,
∂t∗ ∂x∗ ∂y ∗ ∂y ∗ ∂x∗ 2 ∂y ∗ 2
where Gr = g β Θ h3 /ν 2 is the Grashof number, the nondimensional parameter representing the
importance of buoyancy forces caused by the temperature variation of the density.

2. Derive an expression for the volume flow rate of a liquid over a V notch of given angle
θ. Experiments show that for water flowing over 60◦ V notch a useful practical formula
is Q = 0.762 h2.47 , where h is in meters and Q is in cubic meters per second. What
limitations would you expect in the validity of this formula? Find the head over a similar
notch when a liquid with a kinematic viscosity 8 times that of water flows over it at the
rate of 20 liters/s.

Solution:
Parameters of the problem with dimensions (surface tension is neglected):

Flow rate: Q [L3 T −1 ]

Head: h [L]
Notch angle: θ [1]
Gravity acceleration: g [LT −2 ]
Kinematic viscosity: ν [L2 T −1 ]
There is no mass in dimensions and angle is already nondimensional. Therefore, we have 4
parameters Q, h, g, ν and two basic dimensions [L] and [T ]. The number of nondimensional
parameters is then 4-2=2. We chose Q and h as main parameters, and g and ν as repeating
variables. Nondimensional parameters are:

Nondimensional flow rate:

π1 = Q g α ν β ;
[1] = [L3 T −1 ] [LT −2 ]α [L2 T −1 ]β ;
3 + α + 2 β = 0; −1 − 2 α − β = 0 ⇒ α = 1/3 ; β = −5/3 .
Q g 1/3
π1 =
ν 5/3

2
Nondimensional head:
π2 = h g α ν β ;
[1] = [L] [LT −2 ]α [L2 T −1 ]β ;
1 + α + 2 β = 0; 2α − β = 0 ⇒ α = 1/3 ; β = −2/3 .
h g 1/3
π2 =
ν 2/3
General form of the solution:
ν 5/3 g 1/3
Q= Φ( h, θ ) .
g 1/3 ν 2/3
Experimental formula for shows that for water with notch angle θ = 60◦ function Ψ has the
form Φ(x, θ) = K x2.47 , where K is some constant. Then we can write
!2.47
ν 5/3 g 1/3
Q = K 1/3 h2.47 = K g 0.49 ν 0.02 h2.47 .
g ν 2/3

This formula can be applied for both fluids. We will use subscript 1 for water and 2 for another
fluid. We have Q2 = Q1 = 20 × 10−3 m3 /s, ν2 = 8 ν1 , and

Q2 K g 0.49 (8 ν)0.02 h2.47

= 2
=1 ⇒ h2.47
2 = h2.47
1 /8
0.02
.
Q1 K g 0.49 ν 0.02 h2.47
1

The experimental formula gives for water

h2.47
1 = Q1 /0.762 = 20 × 10−3 /0.762 ;

h2.47
2 = 20 × 10−3 /0.762/80.02 = 0.0251 ;
h2 = 0.225 m .

3. A disc of diameter D immersed in a fluid of ρ and viscosity µ has a constant rotation speed
N . The power required to drive the disc is P . Show that P = ρ N 3 D5 f ( ρ N D2 /µ ) . A
disc 225 mm diameter rotating at 23 rev/s in water requires a driving torque of 1.1 N m.
Calculate the corresponding speed and the torque required to drive a similar disc 675 mm
diameter rotating in air. Viscosities: air 1.86 × 10−5 Pa s; water 1.01 × 10−3 Pa s. Densities:
air 1.20 kg/m3 ; water 1000 kg/m3 .

Solution:
Parameters and dimensions:
Power: P [M L2 T −3 ]
Rotation speed: N [T −1 ]
Diameter: D [L]
Density: ρ [M L−3 ]
Viscosity: µ [M L−1 T −1 ]
We have the viscosity µ and the velocity scale N D among dimensional parameters. Thus,
Reynolds number should be one of nondimensional groups:

ρ (N D) D
π1 = Re = .
µ

3
This excludes viscosity from further consideration. Therefore, we have 4 parameters and 3 basic
dimensions, which gives 4-3=1 nondimensional parameter. We use the power P as the main
parameter, and N , D, ρ as repeating variables.
Nondimensional group proportional to the power (power number):

π2 = P ρα N β Dγ ;

[1] = [M L2 T −3 ] [M L−3 ]α [T −1 ]β [L]γ ;

1 + α = 0; 2 − 3α + γ = 0; −3 − β = 0; ⇒ α = −1; β = −3; γ = −5;
P
π2 = .
ρ N 3 D5
General form of the solution:
P = ρ N 3 D5 f (Re) .
For two similar discs both nondimensional groups should be the same. We use subscript 1 for
the water and 2 for the air.
Reynolds number similarity:
ρ1 N1 D12 ρ2 N2 D22
= ;
µ1 µ2
ρ1 D12 µ2 1000 × 2252 1.86 × 10−5
N2 = N1 = 23 × × = 39.23 rev/s .
µ1 ρ2 D22 1.01 × 10−3 1.2 × 6752

Power for torque T and rotation speed N is P = 2π N T , and the similarity of power numbers
gives
N1 T1 N2 T2
3 5 = ;
ρ1 N1 D1 ρ2 N23 D25
ρ2 N22 D25 1.2 × 39.232 × 6755
T2 = T1 = 1.1 × = 0.933 N m .
ρ1 N12 D15 1000 × 232 × 2255

4. The flow through a closed, circular-sectioned pipe may be metered by measuring the speed
of rotation of a propeller having its axis along the the pipe center-line. Derive the relation
between the volume flow rate and the rotational speed of the propeller in terms of the
diameters of the pipe and the propeller and of the density and viscosity of the fluid. A
propeller of 75 mm diameter, installed in a 150 mm pipe carrying water at 42.5 liters/s,
was found to rotate at 20.7 rev/s. If a geometrically similar propeller rotates at 10.9 rev/s
in air flow through a pipe of 750 mm diameter, estimate the volume flow rate of the air.
Water and air parameters are as in the previous problem.

Solution:

Something for you to think about

5. A torpedo-shaped object 900 mm diameter is to move in air at 60 m/s and its drag to be
estimated from tests in water on a half-scale model. Determine the necessary speed of the
model and the drag of the full-scale object if that of the model is 1140 N. Fluid properties
are as in problem 2.

Solution:
Parameters and dimensions:

4
 Drag: D [M LT −2 ]
Velocity: V [LT −1 ]
Diameter: d [L]
Density: ρ [M L−3 ]
Viscosity: µ [M L−1 T −1 ]
We have the viscosity µ and velocity V among parameters. Therefore, one of nondimensional
groups should be the Reynolds number:
ρV d
π1 = .
µ
We have 4 parameters left with 3 basic dimensions. Thus, there is 4-3=1 nondimensional group.
We use the drag D as the main parameter, and ρ, V and d as repeating variables.
Nondimensional group proportional to the drag force (drag coefficient):

π2 = D ρ α V β d γ ;

[1] = [M LT −2 ] [M L−3 ]α [LT −1 ]β [L]γ ;

1 + α = 0; 1 − 3α + β + γ = 0; −2 − β = 0 ⇒ α = −1; β = −2; γ = −2;
D
π2 = .
ρ V 2 d2
General form of the solution:
D = ρ V 2 d2 Φ(Re) .
The conventional form of this relationship is

ρV 2
D=A CD (Re) ,
2
where for bodies of revolution A = π d2 /4 is the cross section area, and CD is the drag coefficient.
Nondimensional groups should be equal for both the model and the prototype. Subscript 1 is
used for the model (water), and subscript 2 for the prototype (air).
Reynolds number:
ρ1 V 1 d 1 ρ2 V 2 d 2
= ;
µ1 µ2
ρ2 d2 µ1 1.2 × (2 d1 ) 1.01 × 10−3
V1 = V2 = 60 × × = 7.82 m/s .
µ2 ρ1 d1 1.86 × 10−5 1000 × d1
Drag coefficient:
D1 D2
2 2 = ;
ρ1 V 1 d 1 ρ2 V22 d22
ρ2 V22 d22 1.20 × 602 × (2d1 )2
D2 = D1 = 1140 × = 322 N .
ρ1 V12 d21 1000 × 7.822 × d21

6. In a 1/100th-scale model of a harbour what length of time should correspond to the

prototype tidal period of 12.4 hours?

5
Solution:
This is the gravity driven flow. Parameters are the linear scale L, tidal period T and gravity
acceleration g. The nondimensional group proportional to T

g 1/2
π1 = T
L1/2
should be the same for the model (1) and the prototype (2)

T1 g 1/2 T2 g 1/2
1/2
= 1/2
;
L1 L2
r r
L2 1
T2 = T1 = T1 = 12.4/10 = 1.24 h .
L1 100