External Flows  41

It is possible to calculate average Nusselt number as

h̄L p
Nu = = 2A ReL (2.69)
k
Let us revisit the thermal conditions for the wall again.We consider the case where:

Tw = T∞ + Cxλ

i.e.,

Tw − T∞ = Cxλ (2.70)

C and λ being constants. The heat transfer rate at the wall is as before given by

′′ ∂T
qw = −k |y=0 (2.71)
∂y

′′ ∂θ ∂η
qw = −k(Tw − T∞ ) |η=0
∂η ∂y

r
′′
λ U∞ ∂θ
qw = −kC x |η=0
νx ∂η

√
′′ −kC U∞ ′
qw = √ θ (0)xλ−1/2 (2.72)
ν
For the constant heat flux along the wall, the expression should be independent of
x or in other words, we can say
1
λ= (2.73)
2

2.5 APPROXIMATE METHODS FOR FLAT PLATE BOUNDARY LAYER


Flow over a heated flat plate for different Prandtl numbers δδT ∼ (P r)1/3 for P r > 1

or δδT ∼ (P r)1/2 for P r < 1 has been illustrated in Fig. 2.4. Governing equations
are

∂u ∂v
+ =0 (2.74)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v 1 dp ∂2u
u +v =− +ν 2 (2.75)
∂x ∂y ρ dx ∂y
42  Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer

Pr<1 (δ < δ ) Pr>1 ( δ> δ )

T T

U T U T

8
8

8
8
y
y

δT δ
δT
δ
x x
Tw Tw

Figure 2.4 Velocity and thermal boundary layers (a) for δ < δT (b) for δ > δT

∂T ∂T k ∂2T
u +v = (2.76)
∂x ∂y ρcp ∂y 2
The boundary conditions are:

at y = 0, u = 0 = v, T = Tw
at y = δ, u = U∞ , at y = δT , T = T∞

Integral method due to von Karman and Pohlhausen can be used to integrate
Eq. (2.75)
Z δ Z δ Z δ Z δ 2
∂u ∂u 1 dp ∂ u
u dy + v dy = − dy + ν 2 dy (2.77)
0 ∂x 0 ∂y 0 ρ dx 0 ∂y
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
I II III IV
Term III is zero for flow over flat plate (because dp/dx = 0). Term II may be written
as
Z δ h i Z δ ∂u
δ ∂v
[vu]0 − udy = vu|δ − vu|0 + u dy (from continuity)
0 ∂y 0 ∂x
From continuity equation, one can write
∂u ∂v
=−
∂x ∂y
or
Z δ Z δ
∂v ∂u
dy = − dy
0 ∂y 0 ∂x
or
Z δ
∂u
v|y=δ = − dy
0 ∂x
 External Flows  43

Term II finally becomes

Z δ Z δ
∂u ∂u
−U∞ dy + u dy
0 ∂x 0 ∂x
Equation (2.77) can be written as
Z δ Z δ
∂u ∂u ∂u
2 u dy − U∞ dy = −ν |y=0
0 ∂x 0 ∂x ∂y
or Z Z
δ δ
d d ∂u
u2 dy − U∞ udy = −ν |y=0 (2.78)
dx 0 dx 0 ∂y
Equation (2.78) is the momentum integral equation for flow over a flat plate. The
terms on the left-hand side are to be noted. In these terms, differentiation with
respect to x, and integration with respect to y is interchanged as the upper limit
of integration is independent of x. Momentum integral equation for a non-zero
pressure gradient surface will be discussed later.
Let us assume the velocity profile as

u = C0 + C1 y + C2 y 2 + C3 y 3
u
= C0 + C1 η + C2 η2 + C3 η3 , where η = y/δ
U∞
We already know that η is called similarity parameter; despite the growth of bound-
ary layer in x direction, u/U∞ remains similar for same yδ at any x.

Boundary conditions:
Application of the condition,
u
at y = 0, u = 0, or, at η = 0, = 0, makes C0 = 0
U∞

Application of the condition,

∂2u  ∂u ∂u ∂2u 
at y = 0, = 0 comes from u + v = ν ,
∂y 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2
∂ 2 (u/U∞ )
or, at η = 0, = 0,
∂η2
or, [2C2 + 6C3 η]at η=0 = 0 yields C2 = 0

Application of the condition,

u
at y = δ, u = U∞ , or, at η = 1, =1
U∞
 
or, C1 η + C3 η3 η=1 = 1, makes, C1 + C3 = 1
44  Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer
 
∂u ∂ u
at y = δ, = 0 or, at η = 1, =0
∂y ∂η U∞
or, [C1 + 3C3 η2 ]η=1 = 0, yields C1 + 3C3 = 0

Finally we get
3 1 u 3 1
C1 = , C3 = − . The velocity profile can be written as, = η − η3 .
2 2 U∞ 2 2
By making use of the velocity profile, the first term in Eq. (2.78) can be evaluated
as
Z δ 2 Z 1
2 U∞
u dy = [9η2 + η6 − 6η4 ] δdη
0 4 0

2
  2
δU∞ 9 1 6 68 δU∞
= + − =
4 3 7 5 35 4

Evaluation of the second term of Eq. (2.78) produces

Z δ Z 1
U∞ 5 U∞ δ
udy = [3η − η3 ] δdη =
0 2 0 4 2

The third term of equation (2.78) −ν ∂u

∂y |y=0 becomes
  
ν ∂ 3 1 3
=− U∞ η− η |η=0
δ ∂η 2 2

3 νU∞
=−
2 δ
Finally Eq. (2.78) can be written as
2
 
U∞ dδ 68 5 3 U∞ ν
− =−
4 dx 35 2 2 δ

which reduces to
dδ 140 ν
δ =
dx 13 U∞
On integration this gives
1 13 2 νx
δ = +C (2.79)
2 140 U∞
The initial condition: at x = 0, δ = 0 gives C = 0. Finally,
280 νx
δ2 =
13 U∞
 External Flows  45

which gives
r
νx
δ = 4.64
U∞
U∞ x
On substituting Rex = ν we get
x
δ = 4.64 √ (2.80)
Rex
The integral form of thermal boundary layer equation may be written as
Z δT Z δT Z δT
∂T ∂T k ∂2T
u dy + v dy = dy (2.81)
0 ∂x 0 ∂y 0 ρcp ∂y 2
Integrating the second term by parts and applying continuity, we get
Z δT Z δT  δ
∂T δT ∂v k ∂T T
u dy + [vT ]0 − T dy =
0 ∂x 0 ∂y ρcp ∂y 0

or
Z δT Z δT
∂T ∂u k ∂T
u dy + T dy + T∞ v|δT = − |y=0
0 ∂x 0 ∂x ρcp ∂y
Rδ
where v|δT = − 0 T ∂u
∂x
dy or
Z δT   Z δT
∂T ∂u ∂u k ∂T
u +T dy − T∞ dy = − |y=0
0 ∂x ∂x o ∂x ρcp ∂y
or
Z δT
∂ k ∂T
[u(T − T∞ )]dy = − |y=0
0 ∂x ρcp ∂y
or
Z δT
d k ∂T
[u(T − T∞ )]dy = − |y=0 (2.82)
dx 0 ρcp ∂y
This equation is called the energy integral equation. In order to solve this, let us
y
assume the temperature profile, θ = TT∞−T 2 2
−Tw = C0 +C1 ζ +C2 ζ +C3 ζ where ζ = δT
w

is a similarity parameter.
Applying thermal boundary conditions;

at y = 0; T = Tw , or at ζ = 0, θ = 0 we get C0 = 0
∂2T d2 θ
at y = 0; 2 = 0, or at ζ = 0, 2 = 0 we get C2 = 0
∂y dζ
at y = δT ; T = T∞ , or at ζ = 1, θ = 1 we get C1 + C3 = 1
∂T dθ
at y = δT ; = 0, or at ζ = 1, = 0 we get C1 + 3C3 = 0
∂y dζ
46  Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer

Solving for C1 and C3 we get C1 = 32 , and C3 = − 12 . Therefore,

T − Tw 3 1
= ζ − ζ3 (2.83)
T∞ − Tw 2 2
We can also write
T − Tw − T∞ + Tw T − T∞
θ−1 = =
T∞ − Tw T∞ − Tw
or

(T − T∞ ) = (θ − 1) (T∞ − Tw )

First term of the energy integral (Eq. (2.82)) can be reduced to

Z δT
d
(T∞ − Tw ) u(θ − 1)dy
dx 0

Z δT   
d 3 1 3 1 3
U∞ (T∞ − Tw ) η − η3 ζ − ζ − 1 dy
dx 0 2 2 2 2

Z δT    "    3 #
d 3 y 1  y 3 3 y 1 y
U∞ (T∞ − Tw ) − − − 1 dy
dx 0 2 δ 2 δ 2 δT 2 δT

δT
Substituting ξ = , rearranging and integrating, we get
δ
  
d 3 2 3 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4
U∞ (T∞ − Tw ) δ ξ − ξ − ξ + ξ − ξ + ξ
dx 4 20 20 28 4 8

  
d 3 2 3 4
= U∞ (T∞ − Tw ) δ − ξ + ξ
dx 20 280

The RHS of energy integral equation (Eq. (2.82)) is evaluated in the following way:
"    3 #
3 y 1 y
(T − Tw ) = (T∞ − Tw ) −
2 δT 2 δT

 
∂T 3 1 3 y2
= (T∞ − Tw ) −
∂y 2 δT 2 δT3
or
k ∂T 3 (T∞ − Tw )
− |y=0 = −α
ρcp ∂y 2 δT
 External Flows  47

δT δ
δ δT

δ Pr ~ δ , Pr > 1 δ > δT
Pr ~
δT , Pr < 1 δT > δ δT

Figure 2.5 Different situations with P r < 1 and P r > 1

Now Eq. (2.82) becomes

  
d 3 2 3 4 3 α(T∞ − Tw )
(T∞ − Tw )U∞ δ − ξ + ξ =− (2.84)
dx 20 280 2 δT
Figure 2.5 explains different situations pertaining to the growth of boundary layers
for various Prandtl numbers.
For P r > 1, δ > δT , ξ = δδT becomes small, and so ξ 4 << ξ 2 . Therefore, for
P r > 1 (Fig. 2.5), Eq. (2.84) becomes
 2
d ξ α
δU∞ δ =
dx 20 2ξ
or
10α dδ d
= δ ξ2 + δ2 ξ2
U∞ ξ dx dx
where
dδ 140 ν 280 νx
δ = , and δ 2 = (from Eq.(2.79))
dx 13 U ∞ 13 U∞
Finally, on substitution of the above two relations, Eq. (2.84) becomes
d 2 13 1
ξ 3 + 2xξ (ξ ) = (2.85)
dx 14 P r
dχ dξ
Put χ = ξ 3 ; dx = 3ξ 2 dx ; substituting in Eq. (2.85)
4x dχ 13 1
χ+ =
3 dx 14 P r
or
dχ 3 13 1 3
+ χ=
dx 4x 14 P r 4x
This linear differential equation for which the integrating factor is evaluated as
3 dx
e| 4 x = e(3/4)ln x = x3/4
dχ 3 χ 3/4 13 × 3 1 −1/4
x3/4 + x = x (2.86)
dx 4 x 14 × 4 P r
48  Fundamentals of Convective Heat Transfer

or
d 3/4 39 1 −1/4
(x χ) = x (2.87)
dx 56 P r
13 1
χ= + bx−3/4 (2.88)
14 P r
where b is the constant of integration.

δT

x
x0

Figure 2.6 Flat plate situation with unheated initial length

Analyzing the boundary conditions as described in Fig. 2.6, we consider a short

unheated length x0 so that at x = x0 , δT = 0, ξ = 0; and so, at x = x0 , χ = 0.
Substituting in Eq. (2.88), we get

13 1 3/4
b=− x (2.89)
14 P r 0
After substituting in Eq. (2.88) for b, we get

13 1 13 1  x0 3/4
ξ3 = χ = −
14 P r 14 P r x
or
  x 3/4 1/3
δT 1 −1/3 0
=ξ= (P r) 1−
δ 1.026 x

For x0 → 0, we finally have

δ
δT = (P r)−1/3 (2.90)
1.026
Again we know that
∂T
h(Tw − T∞ ) = −k |y=0
∂y
 External Flows  49

∂T
On substituting for | ,
∂y y=0
we get

−k (T∞δ−T
T
w) 3
2
h=
(Tw − T∞ )
or
3 1.026
h=k (P r)1/3 (Rex)1/2
2 4.64x
(after invoking Eqs. (2.80) and (2.90)). The above expression leads to

hx
= 0.332(Rex)1/2 (P r)1/3
k
The local Nusselt number can be expressed as

N ux = 0.332(Rex)1/2 (P r)1/3 (2.91)

RL RL
Now the average heat transfer coefficient h̄ = 0
hx dx/ 0
dx and so the average
Nusselt number
h̄L
N uL = = 0.664(ReL)1/2 (P r)1/3 (2.92)
k
ρU∞ L
where ReL = µ

2.6 VISCOUS DISSIPATION EFFECTS ON LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER

FLOW OVER FLAT PLATE
For the high speed flows, the effects
p due to viscous dissipation have to be considered.
′
Now, u = U f (η) and η = y/ (νx)/U, and so the the viscous dissipation term is
"  #
2
∂u
µ + ......
∂y

" 2 #
∂u ∂η
=µ + ......
∂η ∂y

 r !2 
′′ U
= µ U f + ......
νx

′′ U
= µU 2 (f )2
νx