Transmission lines

Dinesh Sharma
An updated version of notes by prof. M.P. Desai

At high frequencies, the inductance and capacitance associated with an interconnect is no

more negligible. Therefore, transmission along the wire is described by wave equations, rather
than simple circuit laws. Different models can be used for describing an interconnect. The
simplest of these is for a lossless transmission line.

1 A lossless transmission line

Assume that we have a driver driving a wire with zero resistance but with non-zero inductance
and capacitance which is distributed along its length (Figure 1). The driver is often represented
Transmission Line

+ Driver I Receiver
− V

Return Path

Figure 1: A transmission line

as a voltage source with series resistance. We assume that the wire has length l and is uniform
in its geometry. We characterize the wire with
1. inductance per unit length L0 , and

2. capacitance per unit length C0 .

L0 is calculated as the inductance of the wire divided by its length, while C0 is the capacitance
between the wire and the return path, divided by the wire length. The voltage difference
between the wire and the return path at point x and time t is represented by V (x, t). The
current through the wire at point x and time t is I(x, t). Now consider a segment of this wire
of length dx at point x as shown in Figure 2. The change in voltage and current as the signal
traverses this segment is given by
∂I ∂V
dV = −L0 dx and dI = −C0 dx
∂t ∂t
Therefore, the voltage and the current satisfy the following coupled differential equations:
∂V ∂I
= −L0 (1)
∂x ∂t
∂I ∂V
= −C0 (2)
∂x ∂t

1
 L0dx
V(x,t)
I(x,t)
C0dx

Figure 2: A
segment of the lossless transmission line with infinitesimal length dx.

To decouple these equations, we take the partial derivative with respect to x one more time.
That gives

∂2V ∂ ∂I ∂2V
 
= −L0 = L 0 C0 2 (3)
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t
∂2I ∂ ∂V ∂2I
 
= −C0 = L 0 C0 2 (4)
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t
Now the equations in V and I are decoupled. These are the wave equations in one dimension.
Notice that V and I follow exactly the same equations. Of course, the solutions will not be
the same because of different boundary conditions.

Notice that L0 and C0 are the inductance and capacitance per unit length. Therefore L0 C0
has the dimensions of 1/velocity 2 . Let us define
s
1
v≡ (5)
L 0 C0

Then the wave equations may be written as

∂2V 1 ∂2V
= (6)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2
∂2I 1 ∂2I
= (7)
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2

1.1 General solutions to the wave equation

∂u
Consider any function of the form f (x − vt). If we define u ≡ x − vt, we have ∂x = 1 and
∂u
∂t = −v which gives
∂ d ∂u d
= =
∂x du ∂x du
while
∂ d ∂u d
= = −v
∂t du ∂t du
Using these,
∂2f d2 f ∂2f 2
2d f
= and = v
∂x2 du2 ∂t2 du2
and so,
∂2f 1 ∂2f
=
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2

2
Therefore any such function f is a solution to the wave equations.

Similarly, consider any function of the form g(x + vt). If we define u ≡ x + vt, we have
∂u
∂x = 1 and ∂u
∂t = v. This leads to
∂ d ∂u d
= =
∂x du ∂x du
while
∂ d ∂u d
= =v
∂t du ∂t du
Using these,
∂2g d2 g ∂2g 2
2d g
= and = v
∂x2 du2 ∂t2 du2
or
∂2g 1 ∂2g
=
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2
Therefore functions of type g(x + vt) are also solutions to the wave equations.

Consider solutions of the type f (x − vt). At a higher value of t, there exists a higher value
of x such that the argument x − vt and hence the function f have the same value. Thus,
the solution describes a function which moves forward in x as time advances. This is called a
forward wave solution.

In case of solutions of the type g(x + vt), for a higher value of t there exists a lower value
of x where the argument of the function is the same, and hence the function g has the same
value. This solution describes a function which moves backwards in x with time and is there-
fore termed the backward wave solution.

Apart from these, the wave equations can have other solutions which are not traveling
waves. For example, V = xt is one such solution. The actual solution in any particular case
is constructed by taking a sum of all the general solutions with appropriate coefficients such
that the boundary conditions for the particular case are met.

1.2 Characteristic Impedance

Let us represent the forward wave solutions to the wave equation by V + and I + and the
backward solutions by V − and I − . The other solutions are designated as Vrest and Irest .
Then a general solution to the wave equations is given by
V (x, t) = V + (x − vt) + V − (x + vt) + Vrest (x, t) (8)
+
I(x, t) = I (x − vt) + I (x + vt) + Irest (x, t)
−
(9)
If a relationship exists between V (x, t) and I(x, t), That relationship should be individually
followed by (V + , I + ), (V − , I − ) and (Vrest , Irest ). This is because the relationship should be
true for all values of x and t, while the arguments of the three components are independent.
In particular, (V + , I + ), (V − , I − ) and (Vrest , Irest ) should each follow equations 1 and 2. Take
the case of equation 1 for (V + , I + ). Let us define u ≡ x − vt, so that ∂u ∂u
∂x = 1 and ∂t = −v.

∂V + ∂I + ∂V + ∂I +
= −L0 So = L0 v (10)
∂x ∂t ∂u ∂u

3
Which gives s
+ + L0 +
V = L0 vI = I (11)
C0
We define s
L0
Z0 ≡ (12)
C0
Using this, we can see that V + = Z0 I + , which is like the circuit equation for Ohm’s law. Z0
is called the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.

Similarly, we can use equation 1 for (V − , I − ). This time, we define u ≡ x + vt, so that
∂u
∂x = 1 and ∂u
∂t = v. Then,

∂V − ∂I − ∂V + ∂I −
= −L0 So = −L0 v (13)
∂x ∂t ∂u ∂u
Which gives s
+ + L0 −
V = −L0 vI =− I = −Z0 I − (14)
C0
This implies that at any position x and any time t, the ratio of absolute values of voltage
and current is Z0 . Different signs in case of I + and I − indicate that while I + flows in the
positive x direction, I − flows along negative x.

1.3 Solution for a particular case: the impulse response

Suppose that the driver is a voltage source
√ Vs (t) in series with a resistor Rs , and the load is a
resistor of value RL . Let tpd = l/v = l L0C0. To understand the impulse response, we make
Vs (t) = Vs δ(t). Then:

1. The response of the line for t < 0 can be assumed to be 0.

2. At time t = 0, the source becomes active and a voltage is impressed on the transmission
line. This will result in a single forward wave V + , I + . The forward solution requires
that I + = V + /Z0 . The circuit at the left requires that V (0, t) = Vs (t) − Rs I(0, t). In
particular, at t = 0,
Rs + Rs
 
+ +
V = Vs − Rs I = Vs − V or 1+ V + = Vs
Z0 Z0
which gives
Z0 1
V+ = Vs and I+ = Vs (15)
Rs + Z 0 Rs + Z 0

3. At time t = tpd , the forward wave V + reaches the right end of the line at x = l. The
wave equation demands that I + (l, tpd ) = V + (l, tpd )/Z0 . The circuit equation at the right
requires that the current through the load be V (l, tpd )/RL . These two conditions can be
reconciled only by adding a negative going reflection V +− such that

V (l, tpd ) = V + (l, tpd ) + V +− (l, tpd )

4
 Then the conditions for matching currents is

V + (l, tpd ) + V +− (l, tpd )

I + (l, tpd ) + I +− (l, tpd ) =
RL
or
V + (l, tpd ) V +− (l, tpd ) V + (l, tpd ) + V +− (l, tpd )
− =
Z0 Z0 RL
Collecting terms in V + and V +− , we get
1 1 1 1
   
+
− V (l, tpd ) = + V +− (l, tpd )
Z0 RL Z0 RL
Which gives
RL − Z 0 +
V +− (l, tpd ) = V (l, tpd ) = Γl V + (l, tpd ) (16)
RL + Z 0
Where Γl is the reflection coefficient at x = l, given by
RL − Z 0
Γl ≡ (17)
RL + Z 0

4. Now at t = 2tpd , the forward and the reflected wave reach x = 0. Again, we have to add
a forward wave V +−+ , I +−+ in order to meet the boundary conditions. This will give
the voltage at x = 0 as

V (0, 2tpd ) = V + (0, 2tpd ) + V +− (0, 2tpd ) + V +−+ (0, 2tpd )

and the current into the transmission line as

V + (0, 2tpd ) V +− (0, 2tpd ) V +−+ (0, 2tpd )
I(0, 2tpd ) = − +
Z0 Z0 Z0
The external circuit equations demand that

Vs − Rs I(0, 2tpd ) = V (0, 2tpd )

or !
V + V +− V +−+
V s − Rs − + = V + + V +− V +−+
Z0 Z0 Z0
Therefore
Rs + Rs Rs
   
Vs − V −V+ = 1+ V +− + 1 − V +−+
Z0 Z0 Z0
Substituting for V + from equation 15
Rs + Rs Z 0 + RS Z0
 
LHS = Vs − V − V + = Vs − 1 + V + = Vs − Vs = 0
Z0 Z0 Z0 RS + Z0
This leads to
Rs Rs
   
0= 1+ V +− + 1 − V +−+
Z0 Z0
or
Rs + Z0 +− Rs − Z0 +−+
V = V
Z0 Z0

5
 which gives
Rs − Z0 +−
V +−+ = V = Γ0 V +− (18)
Rs + Z 0
where
Rs − Z 0
Γ0 ≡ (19)
Rs + Z 0
This pattern of reflections will continue after each traversal of the line. At each arrival at
either end of the line, a new component is added to the line voltage and current. The new
component has a magnitude determined by the relevant reflection coefficient at either end,
relative to the previous addition. However, notice that
RL − Z 0 Rs − Z0
Γl = which is < 1 and Γ0 = which is also < 1
RL + Z 0 Rs + Z0
Therefore the incremental modification to the voltage and current at either end diminishes as
time advances. Eventually, voltage and currents stabilize to some steady state value. This is
process can be shown as a “bounce diagram” shown in Figure 3. As t → ∞, the total voltage
0 V+
V+- tpd
Time

2tpd V+-+
3tpd
V+-+-
...
4tpd 5tpd

x=0 x=l

Figure 3: A bounce diagram, showing new waves generated at either end of the transmission.

at any point will be given by

V + + Γl V + + Γl Γ0 V + + Γl 2 Γ0 V + + Γl 2 Γ0 2 V + + Γl 3 Γ0 2 V + + · · ·
Collecting odd and even terms of this infinite series
h n oi
V = V + 1 + Γl Γ0 + (Γl Γ0 )2 + · · · + ΓL 1 + Γl Γ0 + (Γl Γ0 )2 + · · ·

Since Γl Γ0 < 1, we can write the sum of the geometric progressions as:
1 Γl 1 + Γl
 
+
V =V + =V+
1 − Γl Γ0 1 − Γl Γ0 1 − Γl Γ0
Z0 RL − Z 0 Rs − Z 0
Substituting V+ = Vs , Γl = and Γ0 =
Rs + Z 0 RL + Z 0 Rs + Z 0
we get

Z0 1+ R L −Z0
RL +Z0 2RL Z0
V = (R ) (R )
Vs = Vs
Rs + Z 0 1 − L 0 s 0
−Z −Z (Rs + Z0 )(RL + Z0 ) − (RL − Z0 )(Rs − Z0 )
(RL +Z0 ) (Rs +Z0 )

Which simplifies to
RL
V =
Vs (20)
Rs + RL
Thus the voltage at both ends is the same and is equal to the voltage expected from a resistive
voltage divider with Rs and RL

6
 slo
pe Load
=−
Zo
Driver
+ +
+− (I, V )
V
I +−
Voltage
Load
+
V
Launch
+
I
Driver
o +−
e=Z I
s lop

Current

Figure 4: A Bergeron diagram for a non linear source and load

1.4 Non-linear drivers and receivers

In the treatment above, we have considered the source and the load ends of the transmission
line to be connected to linear resistors. The transmission line will often be driven by active
circuits whose V − I relationship will be non-linear. Therefore, it is interesting to solve for
the case when the driver, receiver or both are non-linear. Assume that the V-I relationship
for the driver is given by
FD (V, I) = 0
While that for the receiver is
FR (V, I) = 0
In the linear case, the launch voltage V + was a solution of the simultaneous linear equations

V s − I + Rs − V + = 0 and V + − Z0 I + = 0

Now, it should a solution of non-linear simultaneous equations

FD (V + , I + ) = 0 and V + − Z0 I + = 0

One can solve these equations graphically. The diagram used for such a solution is called the
Bergeron diagram. It plots voltages versus current at either end of the transmission line. A
Bergeron diagram for a given FD , FR and Z0 is shown in figure 4 We plot the non-linear driver
and load V versus I characteristics.

1. Find the intercept of the driver curve with a line from origin with a slope Z0 . Since
the point of interception lies on the line V = Zo I, it satisfies the transmission line
equations. It also lies on the V-I characteristics of the driver, so it is consistent with the
driver equations. Thus, Coordinates of this point give the launch wave V + and I + .

2. Now proceed from this point along a line with slope −Z0 . Since we start from the launch
point, every point on this line represents total voltage (= V + + V +− ) at the load end

7
 and the current exiting at the load end I + − V +− /Zo consistent with the value of V +− .
Where this line cuts the load curve, we get a point which satisfies the load equation, as
well as the requirements of the transmission line for (= V + + V +− ) and I + + I +− , after
the first reflection.

3. The incremental voltage and current from the launch values give the strength of the
reflected wave.
4. This procedure has to be repeated at each intersection point alternately with slope Z0
crossing with the driver curve and slope −Z0 crossing with the load curve for subsequent
reflections.

2 Lossy Transmission Lines

Up to now, we have considered transmission lines which were lossless. As a result, there was
no damping of the signal as it travels down the line. Additionally, the phase velocity was
constant. Since the phase velocity was independent of frequency, all frequency components
of a complex signal reached any point on the transmission line at the same time in the same
phase. Consequently, there was no shape distortion in the signal.

Now let us consider an infinitesimal section of a lossy transmission line as shown in Figure
5. with inductance per unit length L0 , series resistance per unit length R0 , capacitance per
unit length C0 and parallel conductance per unit length of G0 . We can set up the differential

L0∆x R0∆x

G0∆x C0∆x

Figure 5: An infinitesimal section of a lossy transmission line.

equations governing the voltage and current in this transmission line. For the elemental section
of the lossy transmission line, we can write
∂V ∂I
= −R0 I − L0 (21)
∂x ∂t
∂I ∂V
= −G0 V − C0 (22)
∂x ∂t
Taking another derivative with respect to x, we get
∂2V ∂V ∂ ∂V
   
= R0 G0 V + C0 + L0 G0 V + C0 (23)
∂x2 ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂2I ∂I ∂ ∂I
   
= G0 R0 I + L0 + C0 R0 I + L0 (24)
∂x2 ∂t ∂t ∂t
Which can be written as
∂2V ∂V ∂2V
= R0 G0 V + (R0 C0 + G0 L0 ) + L 0 C0 2 (25)
∂x2 ∂t ∂t

8
 ∂2I ∂I ∂2I
= R G
0 0 I + (R C
0 0 + G L
0 0 ) + L C
0 0 (26)
∂x2 ∂t ∂t2
Thus V and I follow identical second order differential equations. Their solutions will be
different because of different boundary conditions. These are homogeneous equations. We can
separate variables by writing the solutions in the form
V = Vx ejωt , I = Ix ejωt
Substituting this form in the equation and cancelling ejωt , we get
∂ 2 Vx h i
= R0 G0 + jω(R0 C0 + G0 L0 ) − L0 C0 ω 2 Vx (27)
∂x2
∂ 2 Ix h i
= R0 G0 + jω(R0 C0 + G0 L0 ) − L0 C0 ω 2 Ix (28)
∂x2
Which can be written as
∂ 2 Vx
= (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 )Vx (29)
∂x2
∂ 2 Ix
= (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 )Ix (30)
∂x2

2.1 Phase velocity in a lossy transmission line

We have the separated equations in Vx and Ix as
∂ 2 Vx
= (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 )Vx (31)
∂x2
∂ 2 Ix
= (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 )Ix (32)
∂x2
Defining γ 2 ≡ (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 ), the equations can be written as
∂ 2 Vx 2 ∂ 2 Ix
= γ V x and = γ 2 Ix
∂x2 ∂x2
We can see that Vx and Ix will have exponential solutions of the type
Vx = V1 eγx + V2 e−γx and Ix = I1 eγx + I2 e−γx
So the time dependent solutions are
V = V1 eγx+jωt + V2 e−γx+jωt and I = I1 eγx+jωt + I2 e−γx+jωt
Resolving γ into its real and imaginary components,
γ = α + jβ
Then the solutions are
V = V1 eαx ej(βx+ωt) + V2 e−αx ej(−βx+jωt) (33)
αx j(βx+ωt) −αx j(−βx+jωt)
I = I1 e e + I2 e e (34)
The first term in either equation is a damped wave moving in the backward (-x) direction,
while the second term is a damped wave moving in the forward equation. The phase is the
same at all points where βx + ωt is constant for the backward wave and where −βx + ωt is
constant for the forward wave. Comparing with the relation x = vph t, the phase velocity is
ω/β. Thus the phase velocity is given by
ω
vph = p
Im (G0 + jωC0 )(R0 + jωL0 )

9
2.1.1 Condition for distortionless transmission
The phase velocity will be independent of ω if G0 /C0 = R0 /L0 . (This is the Heaviside
distortion free condition).
G0 R0
Let = =k
C0 L0
Then q p q
β = Im (kC0 + jωC0 )(kL0 + jωL0 ) = L0 C0 Im (k + jω)(k + jω)
p p
So β= L0 C0 Im (k + jω) = L 0 C0 ω
Which gives
ω 1
vph = =√
β L 0 C0
So in the distortion free case, the phase velocity is the same as the phase velocity for a lossless
line.

2.2 The characteristic impedance of the lossy transmission line

What should be the termination impedance of this line at the load end, such that there is no
backward wave?

We have the solutions of the wave equation for a lossy transmission line as:

V = V1 eγx+jωt + V2 e−γx+jωt (35)

γx+jωt
I = I1 e + I2 e
−γx+jωt
(36)

V1 and I1 represent the attenuated wave moving in the −x direction (backward wave) while
V2 and I2 represent the forward wave moving in the +x direction. Each of these must satisfy
the differential equations
∂V ∂I
= −R0 I − L0 = −(R0 + jωL0 )I (37)
∂x ∂t
∂I ∂V
= −G0 V − C0 = −(G0 + jωC0 )V (38)
∂x ∂t
For the forward wave,
∂Vf wd
Vf wd = V2 e−γx+jωt so = −γVf wd
∂x
Substituting in the differential equation,

−γVf wd = −(R0 + jωL0 )If wd

and so s
Vf wd R0 + jωL0 R0 + jωL0
Z0 = = =
If wd γ G0 + jωC0
When R0 and G0 are small, we can write
s 1/2 
jωL0 R0 G0
 −1/2
1/2
Z0 = (R0 + jωL0 ) (G0 + jωC0 )−1/2
= 1+ 1+
jωC0 jωL0 jωC0

10
Keeping only first order terms in R0 and G0 ,
s s
L0 R0 G0 L0 R0 G0
    
Z0 = 1+ 1− = 1+ −
C0 2jωL0 2jωC0 C0 2jωL0 2jωC0
So, s
L0 1 R0 G0
  
Z0 = 1+ −
C0 2jω L0 C0
This is the impedance for termination of the transmission line so that there is no reflected wave.
The characteristic impedance
p has a resistive component which is the same as the impedance
for a lossless line, = L0 /C0 .
Also, in the distortion free Heaviside condition,
R0 G0
=
L0 C0
So the terminating impedance is again the same as for the lossless line.

3 Coupled Transmission Lines

Consider a pair of identical conductors of length l, which run parallel to each other in close
proximity, such that each is in the electric and magnetic field of the other. We analyze the
electrical behaviour of these lines using a distributed model where we consider a segment of
the line with an infinitesimal length ∆ x. We assume the following per unit length parameters
associated with these lines:
1. L0 : The inductance per unit length. This accounts for the induced voltage in either line
due to interaction with its own magnetic field, not including the influence of the other
line.
2. C0 : Capacitance per unit length. This is the self capacitance of the line, without taking
the coupling with the other line into account.
3. LM : Mutual inductance per unit length. This accounts for the induced voltage in the
line due to the magnetic field caused by the current flowing in the adjoining line.
4. CM : Mutual coupling capacitance per unit length. This represents the capacitive cou-
pling between the two lines.
L0∆x L0∆x
The figure on the right represents the ...

distributed model of the transmission LM∆x CM∆x C0∆x L ∆x

M
CM∆x C0∆x

line over two segments, each with an ...

infinitesimal length ∆x. L0∆x L0∆x
C0∆x C0∆x

3.1 Differential Equations for Coupled Transmission Lines

Let the voltage and current in either line at location x and time t be represented by V1 (x, t), I1 (x, t), V2 (x, t)
and I2 (x, t). Then we can write for the voltage drop across and the current through this in-
finitesimal element as
∂I1 ∂I2
∆V1 = −L0 ∆x − LM ∆x
∂t ∂t

11
 ∂I2 ∂I1
∆V2 = −L0 ∆x − LM ∆x
∂t ∂t
∂V1 ∂(V1 − V2 )
∆I1 = −C0 ∆x − CM ∆x
∂t ∂t
∂V2 ∂(V2 − V1 )
∆I2 = −C0 ∆x − CM ∆x
∂t ∂t
In the limit as ∆x → 0, we can write
∂V1 ∂I1 ∂I2
= −L0 − LM (39)
∂x ∂t ∂t
∂V2 ∂I1 ∂I2
= −LM − L0 (40)
∂x ∂t ∂t
∂I1 ∂V1 ∂V2
= −(C0 + CM ) + CM (41)
∂x ∂t ∂t
∂I2 ∂V1 ∂V2
= CM − (C0 + CM ) (42)
∂x ∂t ∂t
We can put these equations in matrix form as
     
∂  V1   L
 0 LM  ∂  I1 
 = −

∂x V  LM L0 ∂t  I2 
   
 2  

and      
∂  I1   C +C
 0 M −CM  ∂  V1 
 = −

∂x  I2  C0 + CM ∂t  V2 
   
 −CM 

If we define matrices
   
 L LM   C +C −CM 
L≡ 0 and C≡ 0 M
(43)
   
 LM L0 C0 + CM
 
  −CM 

with vectors    
 V   I 
 1   1 
V≡ and I≡ (44)
 V2   I2 
 

We can write the above equations as

∂ ∂
V = −L I (45)
∂x ∂t
∂ ∂
I = −C V (46)
∂x ∂t
   
 1   1 
We can see that vectors   and   are eigenvectors of L, with eigenvalues L0 + LM and
   
 1   −1 
L0 − LM respectively. These two vectors are also eigenvectors of C, with eigenvalues C0 and
C0 + 2CM respectively.

Adding equations 39 and 40, we get

∂ ∂
(V1 + V2 ) = −(L0 + LM ) (I1 + I2 ) (47)
∂x ∂x

12
Subtracting 40 from 39
∂ ∂
(V1 − V2 ) = −(L0 − LM ) (I1 + I2 ) (48)
∂x ∂x
Similarly adding and subtracting 41 and 42, we get
∂ ∂
(I1 + I2 ) = −C0 (V1 + V2 ) (49)
∂x ∂x
∂ ∂
(I1 − I2 ) = −(C0 + 2CM ) (V1 − V2 ) (50)
∂x ∂x
These equations are very similar to the equations for a single transmission
  line, with different
 1 
coefficients. The sum equations correspond to the eigenvector   with the corresponding
 
 1 
eigenvalues, and represent the ‘even’ mode of signal transmission along the lines. The differ-
 1 
ence equations correspond to the eigenvector   with the eigenvalues associated with it.
 
 −1 
These represent the ‘odd’ mode of signal transmission.

These equations suggest the following transformations:

V1 + V2
Ueven ≡ (51)
2
V1 − V2
Uodd ≡ (52)
2
I1 + I2
Jeven ≡ (53)
2
I1 − I2
Jodd ≡ (54)
2
So that we can write
∂Ueven ∂Jeven
= −(L0 + LM ) (55)
∂x ∂t
∂Uodd ∂Jodd
= −(L0 − LM ) (56)
∂x ∂t
∂Jeven ∂Ueven
= −C0 (57)
∂x ∂t
∂Jodd ∂Uodd
= −(C0 + 2CM ) (58)
∂x ∂t

3.2 Wave Equations for Coupled Transmission Lines

Dependence on Ueven and Jeven can be decoupled by taking another derivative with respect
to x. This gives

∂ 2 Ueven ∂ ∂Jeven ∂ 2 Ueven

= −(L 0 + L M ) = (L 0 + L M )C 0
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t2
and
∂ 2 Jeven ∂ ∂Ueven ∂ 2 Jeven
= −C 0 = C 0 (L 0 + L M )
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t2

13
Similarly, Dependence on Uodd and Jodd can be decoupled.
∂ 2 Uodd ∂ ∂Jodd ∂ 2 Uodd
= −(L 0 − L M ) = (L 0 − L M )(C 0 + 2C M )
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t2
and
∂ 2 Jodd ∂ ∂Uodd ∂ 2 Jodd
= −(C 0 + 2C M ) = (C 0 + 2C M )(L 0 − L M )
∂x2 ∂t ∂x ∂t2
Thus we get the decoupled wave equations
∂ 2 Ueven ∂ 2 Ueven
= (L0 + LM )C0 (59)
∂x2 ∂t2
∂ 2 Uodd ∂ 2 Uodd
= (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM ) (60)
∂x2 ∂t2
2
∂ Jeven ∂ 2 Jeven
= (L0 + LM )C0 (61)
∂x2 ∂t2
∂ 2 Jodd ∂ 2 Jodd
= (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM ) (62)
∂x2 ∂t2
We can define the vectors
   
 Ueven  1  V1 + V2 
U≡ = (63)
  
Uodd 2  V1 − V2
  
  
   
 Jeven  1  I1 + I2 
J≡ = (64)
 
Jodd 2 I1 − I2 
  
 

This permits us to put the decoupled wave equations in a compact matrix form:
 
∂2U  (L + L )C
0 M 0 0  ∂2U
=  (65)
 
∂x2 0 (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM ) ∂t2

 
 
∂2J  (L + L )C
0 M 0 0  ∂2J
=  (66)
 
∂x2 0 (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM )  ∂t2



This shows that any launched wave (V1 , I1 ) and (V2 , I2 ) on the coupled transmission line can
be resolved into an even part (V1 + V2 )/2, (I1 + I2 )/2 and an odd part (V1 − V2 )/2, (I1 − I2 )/2.
These parts then follow the same wave equations as those followed by a single transmission line
with suitable coefficients. As in the case of a single transmission line, equations followed by
U and J are exactly the same, but their solutions are different because of different boundary
conditions imposed on them.

As in the case of a single transmission line, the solution of the wave equations includes a
forward wave and a backward wave. Each of these must individually satisfy equations (55-58).

3.3 Even Mode

+
Let us take the forward wave for the even mode. We label these solutions as Ueven + .
and Jeven
The forward wave equation is satisfied by any function of (x − vpeven t) where vpeven is the
phase velocity for the even mode.
+ +
Let Ueven = f (x − vpeven t), Jeven = g(x − vpeven t)

14
defining u ≡ x − vpeven t, we see that
+
∂Ueven +
dUeven ∂u +
dUeven
= =
∂x du ∂x du
and
+
∂Ueven +
dUeven ∂u dU +
= = −vpeven even
∂t du ∂t du
Taking a second derivative,

∂ 2 Ueven
+ +
∂ ∂Ueven d2 Ueven
+
= =
∂x2 ∂x ∂x du2
and
∂ 2 Ueven
+ +
∂ ∂Ueven 2 +
2 d Ueven
= = v p
∂t2 ∂t ∂t du2
Similarly
+
∂Jeven dJ + +
∂Jeven dJ +
= even and = −vpeven even
∂x du ∂t du
Taking the second derivative,

∂ 2 Jeven
+ d2 Jeven
+ ∂ 2 Jeven
+ 2 +
2 d Ueven
= and = v p
∂x2 du2 ∂t2 du2
Substituting in eqn.59 we get

∂ 2 Ueven
+
2 ∂ 2 Ueven
+
= (L 0 + L M )C 0 v peven (67)
∂u2 ∂u2
2
Therefore (L0 + LM )C0 vpeven = 1, which gives
s
1
vpeven = (68)
(L0 + LM )C0

The second order wave equation for Ueven is also satisfied by any function of x + vpeven t.
This is the backward wave solution Ueven
− . We can proceed in exactly the same way for the

backward wave in the even case by defining v ≡ x + vpeven t. Then,

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= and = vpeven
∂x ∂v ∂t ∂v
and we again get
∂ 2 Ueven
−
2 ∂ 2 Ueven
−
= (L 0 + L M )C 0 v peven (69)
∂v 2 ∂v 2
So the phase velocity for backward wave is the same for both forward and backward waves for
the even case, as indeed it should be. Thus the phase velocity for the even case is
1
vpeven = p (70)
(L0 + LM )C0
Substituting for the first derivatives in eqn.55 we get for the forward wave of even mode:
+
∂Ueven ∂J +
= vpeven (L0 + LM ) even
∂u ∂u

15
Which implies that
s
+ + L0 + LM +
Ueven = vpeven (L0 + LM )Jeven = Jeven
C0

Similarly, substituting for the first derivative in eqn.55 for the backward wave, we get

∂Ueven
− ∂J −
= −vpeven (L0 + LM ) even
∂v ∂v
Which implies that
s
L0 + LM −
Ueven
−
= −vpeven (L0 + LM )Jeven
−
=− Jeven
C0

We can define s
L0 + LM
Zeven ≡ (71)
C0
Then
+ +
Ueven = Zeven Jeven and Ueven
−
= −Zeven Jeven
−
(72)
Similarly, if we define s
1 C0
Yeven ≡ = (73)
Zeven L0 + LM
we can write
+ +
Jeven = Yeven Ueven and Jeven
−
= −Yeven Ueven
−
(74)

3.4 Odd Mode

Proceeding exactly the same way for the odd case, we can show that
1
vpodd = p (75)
(L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM )

and s
+ + L0 − LM +
Uodd = vpodd (L0 − LM )Jodd = J
C0 + 2CM odd
s
L0 − LM −
Uodd
−
= −vpodd (L0 − LM )Jodd
−
=− J
C0 + 2CM odd
We can define s
L0 − LM
Zodd ≡ (76)
C0 + 2CM
and the corresponding admittance as
s
1 C0 + 2CM
Yodd ≡ = (77)
Zodd L0 − LM

16
Then
+ +
Uodd = Zodd Jodd and Uodd
−
= −Zodd Jodd
−
(78)
+ +
Jodd = Yodd Uodd and Jodd
−
= −Yodd Uodd
−
(79)
p p
The effective phase velocities for even and odd modes are 1/ (L0 + LM )C0 and 1/ (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM )
respectively. However, for a uniform medium and symmetric geometries, the two velocities
must be the same. Thus, we must have
q q
(L0 + LM )C0 = (L0 − LM )(C0 + 2CM )

and so,
L0 + LM C0 + 2CM
=
L0 − LM C0
By componendo and dividendo, we get
L0 C0 + CM
=
LM CM
We notice that the inductance is always larger and the capacitance always smaller for
the even mode as compared to the odd mode. The phase velocity (which depends on the
product of the inductance and capacitance) is the same in both modes for a uniform medium
and symmetric geometry. However, the impedance is always higher for the even mode as
compared to the odd mode.

3.5 Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions for the solutions are provided by external circuits, for which V and I are
the natural variables. Therefore, we need to transform the solutions for U and J back to V
and I.

From equations 51 - 54 We have

V1 = Ueven + Uodd and V2 = Ueven − Uodd

I1 = Jeven + Jodd and I2 = Jeven − Jodd

Let us consider the forward and backward waves in V and I.
Zeven Zodd
V1+ = Ueven
+ +
+ Uodd +
= Zeven Jeven +
+ Zodd Jodd = (Ieven + Iodd ) + (Ieven − Iodd )
2 2
so
Zeven + Zodd + Zeven − Zodd +
V1+ = Ieven + Iodd (80)
2 2
Similarly,
Zeven − Zodd + Zeven + Zodd +
V2+ = Ieven − Iodd (81)
2 2
with similar equations for V1− and V2− . This can be written in a compact matrix form as

V+ = ZI+ and V− = −ZI− (82)

17
where the matrix Z is defined as
 
 Zeven +Zodd Zeven −Zodd 
Z≡
 2 2 
(83)
Zeven −Zodd Zeven +Zodd 
2 2
 

If we define Yeven = 1/Zeven , Yodd = 1/Zodd and

 
 Yeven +Yodd Yeven −Yodd 
Y≡
 2 2 
(84)
Yeven −Yodd Yeven +Yodd 
2 2
 

We can show that

I+ = YV+ and I− = −YV− (85)

3.5.1 An example
Take a pair of coupled transmission lines with Zeven = 60Ω and Zodd = 40Ω. Suppose the
length of transmission line is such that the propagation delay tpd = 10ns. The two lines are
driven from the left by voltage sources with source resistance 50Ω. Line 1 source is a step of
magnitude Vs , while line 2 source is 0V. At the right end, we assume that the lines are open.

1. Boundary conditions for the initial injection are:

V1+ = Vs − 50I1+ and V2+ = 0 − 50I2+ (86)

which gives
+ V1+ + V2+ Vs − 50(I1+ + I2+ ) Vs +
Ueven = = = − 50Jeven
2 2 2
+ V1+ − V2+ Vs − 50(I1+ − I2+ ) Vs +
Uodd = = = − 50Jodd
2 2 2
But
+
+
Ueven U+ Uodd U+
+
Jeven = = even and +
Jodd = = odd
Zeven 60 Zodd 40
So
Vs 5 + 5 Vs 3
 
+ + +
Ueven = − Ueven or 1+ Ueven = Thus Ueven = Vs
2 6 6 2 11
Similarly,
Vs 5 + 5 Vs 2
 
+ + +
Uodd = − Uodd or 1+ Uodd = Thus Uodd = Vs
2 4 4 2 9
So the launched wave has
   
 3/11   1/220 
+ +
U =  V and J =  V (87)
   
 2/9  s  1/180  s

Which corresponds to
   
 49/99   1/99 
+ +
V =  V and I =  Vs (88)
   
 5/99  s  −1/990 

18
 Notice that while V2+ is positive, I2+ is negative. This is to be expected, since a positive
voltage is induced at the source end of the second line due to coupling from the first.
Since the second line is driven by 0V, the current flows outward through the 50Ω resis-
tance connecting this end to 0V.

While V2+ and I2+ have opposite signs, it is still a forward wave, as this disturbance then
moves to the right in the second line.

2. At t = tpd = 10ns, U+ and J+ reach the right end of the line. This end is open, so the
current in the external circuit is 0. Therefore we must have
 
 −1/99 
I+− =  V
 
 1/990  s

Which corresponds to  
 −1/220 
+−
J =  V
 
 −1/180  s

Multiplying by the wave impedance values for the reflected wave, we get
 
 3/11 
U+− =  V
 
 2/9  s

Thus the first reflection at the right is given by

   
 3/11   −1/220 
+− +−
U =  V u(t − tpd ), J =  Vs u(t − tpd ) (89)
   
 2/9  s  −1/180 
   
 49/99   −1/99 
+− +−
V =  V u(t − tpd ), I =  Vs u(t − tpd ) (90)
   
 5/99  s  1/990 

This is as expected, since to make the current in the external circuit 0, the additional
voltage imposed at this end must be equal to the arriving voltage.

3. At t = 2tpd = 20ns, U+ , U+ −, J+ and J+ − are at the left hand end of the coupled
transmission lines. To match the boundary conditions imposed by the external circuit,
waves U+−+ , J+−+ will be generated. So

V1+ + V1+− + V1+−+ = Vs − 50(I1+ + I1+− + I1+−+ )

and V2+ + V2+− + V2+−+ = 0 − 50(I2+ + I2+− + I2+−+ )

Substituting from eq. 86, we get

V1+− + V1+−+ = −50(I1+− + I1+−+ )

V2+− + V2+−+ = −50(I2+− + I2+−+ )

From sum and difference of these equations,
+− +−+ +− +−+
Ueven + Ueven = −50(Jeven + Jeven )

19
 +− +−+ +− +−+
Uodd + Uodd = −50(Jodd + Jodd )
+− = −Z
(+-) is a backward wave, while (+-+) is a forward wave. Therefore, Ueven +−
even Jeven
+−+ +−+
and Ueven = Zeven Jeven .
+− +− +−+ +−+
Similarly, Uodd = −Zodd Jodd and Uodd = Zodd Jodd . So,
+− +−+ +− +−+
−60Jeven + 60Jeven ) = −50(Jeven + Jeven )
+− +−+ +− +−+
−40Jodd + 40Jodd ) = −50(Jodd + Jodd )

Thus,
+−+ +− +−+ 1 +−
110Jeven = 10Jeven Which gives Jeven = J
11 even
+−+ +− +−+ 1 +−
90Jodd = −10Jodd Which gives Jodd = − Jodd
9
+− = −V /220 and J +− = −V /180, So we can get the attributes of the return
But Jeven s odd s
wave + − + in terms of Vs and the various impedances.

20