Lab course RF Engineering

Lab 1: Waves on Transmission Lines

Name: ............................. Date: .............................

Issue: 13th February 2020

Ulm University

Institute of Microwave Engineering

 1 Introduction

Please note the Important Hints on a separate sheet.

1 Introduction

With increasing frequency the length of electromagnetic waves decreases. If the wavelength
is equal or smaller than the length of the transmission line, voltage and current can not be
assumed as constant over the length of the line. It has to be considered, that voltage and
current depend on the z coordinate. In Fig. 1 you see a two-wire line and in Fig. 2 the
local voltage curves at three dierent time points. TEM means transversal electromagnetic,
consequently the wave has only transversal eld components.

z
Fig. 1: Equivalent circuit of an ideal TEM transmission line.

u(z) t0
t0 + ∆t
t0 + 2∆t

Fig. 2: Voltage characteristic at three dierent points in time.

Consequences from it:

ˆ voltage and current depend on the z coordinate,

ˆ voltage and current waves move along the line with the time.

The theoretical basics for dening the wavelength on the transmission line and the correlation
between current and voltage is the Transmission Line Theory and subject of the next chapter.

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 1

2 Theoretical Basics

2 Theoretical Basics

To cover all voltage and current distributions on transmission lines, we have to solve the
Maxwell equations including the boundary conditions. The example below of a two-wire
transmission line, however, can be described as an innitesimal piece of transmission line as
shown in the equivalent circuit diagram 3. Consequently, a nitely long transmission line exists
from an unnite number of those innitesimal pieces.

R0 ∆z L0 ∆z i(z + ∆z, t) = i(z, t) + ∆i(t)

i(z, t)

u(z + ∆z, t) =
u(z, t) G0 ∆z C 0 ∆z u(z, t) + ∆u(t)

∆z

Fig. 3: Equivalent circuit diagram of an innitesimal short transmission line.

R0 : resistance per unit length

L0 : inductivity per unit length
G0 : conductance per unit length
C0 : capacity per unit length

The relation of current and voltage at the lumped components are:

uR = R0 ∆z iR , (1)

∂iL
uL = L0 ∆z , (2)
∂t
iG = G0 ∆z uG , (3)

∂uC
iC = C 0 ∆z . (4)
∂t
Using the mesh rule (KVL=Kirchho´s voltage law):

∂iL
u = R0 ∆z iR + L0 ∆z + u + ∆u . (5)
∂t
Using the node analysis (KCL=Kirchho´s current law):

∂(u + ∆u)
i = G0 ∆z(u + ∆u) + C 0 ∆z + i + ∆i . (6)
∂t
Neglecting dierences of second order the following equation for the current in valid:

∂u
i = G0 ∆z u + C 0 ∆z + i + ∆i . (7)
∂t

2 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 2 Theoretical Basics

If (5) and (7) are divided by ∆z , in the limit ∆z→∂z ; that means the dierence equations
become dierential equations:

 
∂u ∂
= − R0 + L0 i, (8)
∂z ∂t
 
∂i 0 0 ∂
=− G +C u. (9)
∂z ∂t

These are the dierential equations (DE) of the electrical transmission line forming a system
of partial DEs of rst order.

In the following we focus on the steady state, that means we deal only with a particular
solution of the DEs with sine-shaped excitation:

dI
= jωI , (10)
dt

dU
= jωU . (11)
dt

With the help of these transformation equations (transition to the complex AC calculation ) it
follows from the DEs (8) and (9):

dU
= −(R0 + jωL0 )I , (12)
dz

dI
= −(G0 + jωC 0 )U . (13)
dz

These are the dierential equations of electric transmission lines in steady state ; it is a linear
system of normal DEs of rst order with constant coecients. For the solution of this system
of equations we dierentiate (12) with respect to z and plug this in (13). So you get the wave
equation of this transmission line, the so-called telegraphic equation :
2
d U 2
2 =γ U, (14)
dz
p
with γ = (R0 + jωL0 )(G0 + jωC 0 ) = α + jβ . (15)

Due to the last relation the following parameters are dened:

γ : propagation constant

α : attenuation constant; for lossless transmission line (R

0 = G0 = 0 ) α = 0
is valid
β : phase constants

λ= 2π : wavelength on the transmission line

β
vph = ω : phase velocity on the transmission line
β
vgr = ∂ω : group velocity on the transmission line, on TEM transmission lines it is
∂β
always valid: vph =vgr .

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 3

2 Theoretical Basics

Analogue the dierential equation for the current holds:

2
d I 2
2 =γ I. (16)
dz

One possible set-up for the solution of the telegraphic equation (14) is:

U (z) = U h0 e−γz + U r0 eγz = U h (z) + U r (z) . (17)

This set-up can physically be interpreted as a superposition of an incident and a reected

wave. The integration coecients U h0 and U r0 independent from z are determined by the
boundary conditions of the actual wiring.

(17) plugged in (12) results in the current:

1 dU γ 
−γz γz

I=− = U h0 e − U r0 e . (18)
R0 + jωL0 dz R0 + jωL0

Using the abbreviation:

s
R0 + jωL0 R0 + jωL0
Z0 = = (19)
γ G0 + jωC 0

results in:

1  
I(z) = U h0 e−γz − U r0 eγz = I h0 e−γz − I r0 eγz . (20)
Z0

Thus it follows:

Uh U
= − r =: Z 0 . (21)
Ih Ir

Z0 is called characteristic impedance. This is the impedance which the wave faces when
travelling in positive z direction on an unnitely long transmission line.

The characteristic impedance is assumed to be real in most practical cases. In this experiment,
too, we consider this parameter as real.

Zi I(−l) I(z) I(0) = I a

U (−l) U (z) Z0 , l U (0) = U a ZL

Fig. 4: Equivalent circuit diagram of a terminated transmission line.

4 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 2 Theoretical Basics

The integration coecients U h0 and U r0 areas mentioned abovedetermined by the bound-

ary conditions. For example if voltage and current is known at z =0 (cf. Fig. 4), hence:

U (z =0) = U a and I(z =0) = I a , (22)

then the values of voltage and current are determined for each z:

U (z =0) = Ua = Uh0 + Ur0 , (23)

1
I(z =0) = Ia = (Uh0 − Ur0 ) , (24)
Z0
Ia Z0 = Uh0 − Ur0 , (25)

1
(23)−(25): Ur0 = (Ua − Ia Z0 ) , (26)
2
1
(23)+(25): Uh0 = (Ua + Ia Z0 ) , (27)
2
1 1
(17) : U = (Ua + Ia Z0 )e−γz + (Ua − Ia Z0 )e γz , (28)
2 2
1 1
(18) : I= (Ua + Ia Z0 )e−γz − (Ua − Ia Z0 )e γz , (29)
2Z0 2Z0
U = U a cosh(γz) − Z0 I a sinh(γz) , (30)

Ua
I = I a cosh(γz) − sinh(γz) . (31)
Z0

And for the impedance at the position z, that is Z(z), we get

U (z) U a cosh(γz) − Z0 I a sinh(γz)

Z(z) = = . (32)
I(z) U
I a cosh(γz) − a sinh(γz)
Z0

With

Ua
= ZL (33)
Ia

we get

Z L cosh(γz) − Z0 sinh(γz)
Z(z) = Z0 (34)
Z0 cosh(γz) − Z L sinh(γz)

or

Z L − Z0 tanh(γz)
Z(z) = Z0 . (35)
Z0 − Z L tanh(γz)

In case of a loss less transmission line (the losses were already assumed to be that low that
the characteristic impedance Z0 was assumed as real) we get

γ = jβ , (36)

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 5

2 Theoretical Basics

Z L − jZ0 tan(βz)
=⇒ Z(z) = Z0 . (37)
Z0 − jZ L tan(βz)

In the following we deal with the problem of nding out the terminating impedance ZL from
the voltage characteristic of a TEM transmission line.

Provided that it is a lossfree transmission line, following holds:

R 0 = G0 = 0 , (38)
√
and with this: α = 0, γ = j β = j ω L0 C 0 . (39)

For the discussion on the relations of an incident and reected wave we dene the below
parameters:

Ur I
reection coecient: r= =− r , (40)
Uh Ih
 
s =  max  ,
U 
(V)SWR: (41)
 
 U min 

1
inverse (V)SWR: m= . (42)
s
The abbreviation (V)SWR stands for (voltage) standing-wave ratio. Furthermore, the follow-
ing equations are valid:

s−1
|r| = , (43)
s+1
1 + |r|
s= . (44)
1 − |r|

Equation (40) plugged into (17) results in:

!
2γz −γz
U = U h0 1 + r0 e e , (45)

!
U −γz
I = h0 1 − r0 e2γz e . (46)
Z0

In case of the boundary condition at z =0 is given by the load impedance Z L:

U (z =0) U
(45),(46) : = a = ZL (47)
I(z =0) Ia
ZL 1 + r0
we get: = (48)
Z0 1 − r0
Z L − Z0
⇐⇒ r0 = . (49)
Z L + Z0
Three frequently appearing special cases are:

6 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 2 Theoretical Basics

open circuit: ZL = ∞ r0 = 1 s=∞

matching condition: Z L = Z0 r0 = 0 s=1
short circuit: ZL = 0 r0 = −1 s=∞

Matching means that a transmission line having a wave impedance Z0 is connected with exactly
the same impedance.

Maximum voltages exists at the points where incident and reected wave are in-phase and
their magnitudes add up (constructive interference):

U h0 e−jβzmax = arc U h0 r0 e jβzmax = arc U h0 |r0 |e j(βzmax +φ) ,

     
!
arc (50)

with the unknown reection coecient of the DUT:

r0 = |r0 | e jφ . (51)

Hence it results in the condition:

−βzmax = βzmax + φ + 2nπ n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (52)

φ nπ φ λ
or: zmax = − − =− −n n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (53)
2β β 2β 2

λ
Thus, two neighboured maximum voltages are by
2 apart.
Analogue calculation for the minimum voltages yields

φ (2n + 1)π φ λ
zmin = − − =− − (2n + 1) n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . (54)
2β 2β 2β 4

UE (z)

a) UE+,max

b)

UE+,min

−2π −π 0
βz

Fig. 5: Upper envelope of the voltage with dierent load impedances,

a) Z L =0, b) Z L =RL + jXL .

In Fig. 5 the voltage distribution on a transmission line with with a short circuit at the end of
the transmission line, curve a), Z L =0, and for a complex load impedance, curve b), is shown.

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 7

3 Experiment set-up

The voltage distribution means the envelope, the curve of the maximal and minimal voltage
UE (z) (or current IE (z)) which occurs over time. In the gure only the positive voltage is
depicted, since the curve of the negative voltage is only the mirror image on the abscissa and do
not contain more information. The envelope for both curves can be expressed mathematically
as:
 
UE+ (z) = max Û (z) cos(ωt + φ) = Û (z) , (55)
 
UE− (z) = min Û (z) cos(ωt + φ) = −Û (z) . (56)

The envelope of the current is similar to the curve of the voltage but the course is shifted by
λ/4 with respect to the course of the voltage.

In the case the transmission line was connected to a load not able to convert active power
like short-circuit, open-end, capacitor or inductor, the amplitude of the reected wave has the
same value as that of the incident wave. The destructive interference results in points where
the voltage is zero, as shown in curve a). In the case of a real or complex load, the reected
amplitude is smaller and no total cancelling can occur, as shown in curve b).

What will be the envelope, if the load impedance is the same as the characteristic impedance
of the transmission line?

(Equation 54) results in the following relation between the phase angle of the reection co-
ecient φ at the point z =0 and the distance between z =0 and the rst minimum voltage
(n=0):

φ = −2β∆z − π . (57)

From (42), (43), (44), and (48), we can derive the below relation:

1 − m −j(2β∆z+π)
ZL 1+ e
= 1 +m . (58)
Z0 1 − m −j(2β∆z+π)
1− e
1+m
From this it results after some conversions:

ZL m + j tan(β∆z)
= . (59)
Z0 1 + j m tan(β∆z)

The unknown impedance Z L can be dened in the case the following three parameters are
known: m from (42), the wave impedance of the transmission line Z0 , and the relative position

∆z = zmin,meas − zmin,SC (60)

of a minimum (or maximum) voltage with respect to the short circuit.

3 Experiment set-up

On page 14 Fig. 7 you nd the schematic test arrangement. The 3 GHz oscillator provides
the basic frequency for the measurement. The frequency is amplitude modulated by a 1 kHz

8 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 3 Experiment set-up

oscillator and a PIN diode switch. The isolator and the attenuators protect the components
from reected waves. The probe detects the distribution of the voltage on the measuring trans-
mission line and by means of the detector diode and the bandpass lter the 1 kHz modulated
frequency is ltered out, amplied and nally measured.

The modulation is not really necessary, but an alternating voltage of this low frequency is
much easier to handle than a direct voltage.

The transmission line used for measurement consists of two parallel plates arranged on the same
potential and of a round internal conductor. In Fig. 6 the scheme for measuring transmission
line without sockets and the probe in comparision with a coaxial line are shown.

a) b)

Fig. 6: a) Coaxial line and b) Transmission line for measuring.

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 9

4 Questions and Problems on the Lab

4 Questions and Problems on the Lab

Stand: 13th February 2020

Problem 1: Write down the expression for a forward wave and a backward wave separately.

Problem 2: Two wires several wavelengths long serve as a connection between a generator

and a load. The distance between the wires is small but not constant, varying as a
smooth function along the line.
Can you use the transmission line equation (17) for the analysis of this transmission
line?
λ λ
Problem 3: What are the input impedances of lossless transmission lines of lengths
4 and 2
in case they are short-circuited or open-ended?

Problem 4: What is the eect on the graph of the voltage in Fig. 5 a), in the case the

transmission line is not short-circuited but open-ended?

Problem 5: How many minima and maxima are detectable if a transmission line of length

l=15 cm is short circuited at a frequency of f =3 GHz (the relative permittivity is εr =1).

Sketch the envelope (voltage characteristic) and mark the minima as well as the maxima.
How many minima and maxima are detectable if the transmission line is open ended
and εr =4?
Problem 6: Dene the range of values which the reection coecient r=|r| e jφ can reach
with inductive or capacitive load using a Smith chart. Afterwards, determine the shift
of the minimum with inductive or capacitive load using equation (54)?

Problem 7: What is more useful for the denition of the wavelength; to measure the minima

or the maxima of the eld distribution?

10 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 5 Measuring Tasks

5 Measuring Tasks

Make sure that the experimental set-up is build according to Fig. 7. The RF components
and the golden SMA connections are damageable and expensive, therefore, please

don't dismantle the connections. On the voltage meter the unit is indicated as µA.
Anyway it is a voltage meter controlled by the amplied and ltered diode signal. Since only
the relative values are of interest, please take a.u. (arbitrary unit) as unit. Pay attention to
the algebraic sign of the measured distances!

Useful formulas:
m + j tan(β∆z)
ˆ Z= Z
1 + jm tan(β∆z) 0
ˆ Z0 = 50 Ω
ˆ ∆z =zmax − zSC
ˆ zmax = Position of the measured maximum

ˆ zSC = Position of the rst measured maximum at the calibration with a short circuit
 Umin 
 
ˆ m=
 
Umax 

Calibration:

Unscrew the probe slightly with the knurled screw. Connect a short circuit to the transmission
line; move the measuring slide to the global maximum and revolve the probe till the voltmeter
shows full-scale deection. After this calibration the depth of penetration of the probe must
not be changed! Not the position of the rst maximum zSC .

Task 1: Calibrate the measurement device at the global maximum.

Determine the locations and the appropriate amplitude of the rst two maxima and
minima.
Measure now without a new calibration the locations and amplitudes for the case the
transmission line is open-ended.
Why do the amplitudes of the maxima dier?

Task 2: Determine as exactly as possible the wavelength on the transmission line using the

results from the previous task and from this value the frequency of the RF source. The
frequency of the RF source of set-up 1 is 2.999 GHz, that one of set-up 2 3.003 GHz.
Calculate the relative error.

Task 3: Connect the 50 Ω N-connector impedance (this is the value of the characteristic

impedance of the transmission line) to the transmission line and determine the standing
wave ratio SWR. Calculate the amplitude of the reection coecient in dB. What is
theoretical value for the standing wave ratio and the reection coecient in this case?
What are the reasons for the dierence between theory and practice?

Task 4: The impedance Z2 (marked with 4 dots in the brass bulk) consists of a metal lm
resistor of 100 Ω which acts only at low frequencies (below MHz range) as wanted.
Determine the complex impedance and from this a simple equivalent circuit consisting
of R and L or C for the given frequency. Determine the values of the equivalent circuit.

Task 5: The impedance Z1 (marked with one dot in the brass bulk) consists of a short

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines 11

5 Measuring Tasks

open-ended coaxial transmission line, lled with the dielectric media with εr =2.0. The
characteristic impedance of the coaxial transmission line is 50 Ω as of the air-lled trans-
mission line.
Determine the complex impedance of the circuit and from this the length of the trans-
mission line.
Hint: arccot(x) = π
2 − arctan(x).
Task 6: Calibrate the transmission line using an SMA short circuit and an N-SMA transition.

Task 7: Determine the value of the SMD capacitor.

Task 8: Determine the values of SWR as well as the magnitude of the reection factor in dB

for the four congurations of SMD resistors (1×50 Ω, 2×100 Ω in parallel, 3×150 Ω in
parallel and 4×200 Ω in parallel).

Calculate the theoretical value of the reection factor in dB for the case the load resistor
has 55 Ω.
Why the measured results for the resistor congurations dier?

Task 9: Where are the limits of the measuring method and what errors exist? Why the
measurement results are not ideal?

12 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

 Voltage meter
Amplier Band pass lter

Oscillator
Detector diode
1 kHz

3 GHz
3 dB Probe

α
Measuring

Attenuator Isolator Isolator transmission line Termination Z

Oscillator PIN diode switch

Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines

Fig. 7: Experimental set-up.

13
5 Measuring Tasks
5 Measuring Tasks

14 Lab course RF Engineering 1: Waves on transmission lines