EE3104C Introduction to RF and Microwave

Systems & Circuits

L1. Transmission Lines and Telegrapher’s

Equation

Lecturer: Prof Guo Yongxin

Office location:E4-07-15
Office phone: 65162086
Email: yongxin.guo@nus.edu.sg

1
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Transmission lines
3. Lumped-element circuit model
4. Telegrapher’s equation/Transmission line theory
5. Special cases of lossless terminated lines

2
1. Introduction: Electric and Magnetic Fields
Static Sources

𝐄, 𝐃

Dynamic Sources

𝐇(𝑡) ⇒ 𝐄(𝑡)

𝐄(𝑡) ⇒ 𝐇(𝑡)

3
 Spherical Waves and Plane Waves
- Unbounded EM Waves

➢ A uniform plane wave: Identical properties at all points

in the plane tangent to the wavefront.
Spherical Waves and Plane Waves
- Guided EM Waves
2. Transmission Lines
• A transmission line is a two-port network, which transports energy
from a source to a load through electromagnetic (EM) waves.

Applications
Transmission lines
For efficient point-to-point transmission, the source energy must be guided. Prior
to 1965, nearly all microwave equipment utilized coaxial and waveguide circuits.
• Coaxial line • Waveguide
- High bandwidth - High power handling capability
- Convenient for test; - Low loss
- Not suitable for - Bulky and expensive
IC/MMIC

• Planar transmission line

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 Why planar transmission lines
–Basic structure: one dielectric substrate with
conducting metals on both or either sides

• Main advantages
– simple and inexpensive to fabricate
by printed circuit techniques Hybrid MIC
–easy integration with other passive
and active devices for microwave
integrated circuit (MIC) and
Monolithic microwave integrated
circuit (MMIC)
–small size & light weight

• Major disadvantages
–low efficiency & low power

MMIC
8
Types of transmission lines

Characteristic Coaxial Waveguide Planar TL

Line
Dispersion None Medium Low
Bandwidth High Low High
Loss Medium Low High
Power capacity Medium High Low
Physical size Large Large Medium/Small
Ease of Medium Medium Easy
fabrication
Integration with Hard Hard Easy
other components

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 3. The lumped-element model
Zs A IA IB B

Vs  VA −A Transmission Line VB−B ZL

A´ B´
L

• Lumped-element model for the entire transmission as seen from

A-A´ and B-B´:

IA = IB (KCL)

VA − A = VB − B (KVL)

Valid only if L (length of the line) <<  (wavelength of the signal)

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 KVL and KCL (re-visited)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The principle of conservation of energy implies that
the directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit
is zero.

n
 vk = 0
k =1
v1 + v2 + v3 − v4 = 0

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The principle of conservation of electric charge

implies that: At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing
into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction

towards or away from a node, this principle can be stated as:
n
 ik = 0, i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
k =1
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 Circuit approach to T-Lines: Lumped-element model

(a) A transmission line is represented by the parallel-wire configuration;

(b) The line is subdivided into short differential sections;
(c) Each of small differential sections is represented by an equivalent circuit.
 4. Transmission line theory/Telegrapher’s equations
• The telegrapher's equations are a pair of linear differential equations which describe the
voltage and current on an electrical transmission line with distance and time.
• The model demonstrates that the electromagnetic waves can be reflected on the wire, and that
wave patterns can appear along the line.
• The theory applies to transmission lines of all frequencies including high-frequency transmission
lines (such as telegraph wires and radio frequency conductors), audio frequency (such as
telephone lines), low frequency (such as power lines) and direct current.
•The conductors are composed of an infinite series of two-port elementary components, each
representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line.
• Transmission-line analysis if circuit lengths comparable with λ.

Schematic for TL of short length (Δz → 0) Lumped-element equivalent circuit

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 Wave equations (re-visited)
Transmission-line analysis if circuit lengths comparable with λ
Schematic for TL of short length (Δz → 0) Lumped-element equivalent circuit

i ( z , t )
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: v( z , t ) − Rzi ( z , t ) − Lz − v( z + z , t ) = 0
t
Kirchhoff’s current law: i ( z , t ) − Gzv( z + z , t ) − Cz v( z + z , t ) − i ( z + z , t ) = 0
t
Dividing the above two equations by z and taking the limit as z → 0 gives:
v( z , t ) i ( z , t )
= − Ri ( z , t ) − L
z t
i ( z , t ) v( z , t )
= −Gv( z , t ) − C
z t
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 Wave equations (re-visited)
For the sinusoidal steady-state condition, i.e.,
i ( z , t ) = I ( z )e jt v(z, t) = V(z)e jt
v( z , t ) i ( z , t ) dV ( z )
Then = − Ri ( z , t ) − L = −( R + jL) I ( z )
z t dz
i ( z , t ) v( z , t ) dI ( z )
= −Gv( z , t ) − C = −(G + jC )V ( z )
z t dz

d 2V ( z )
Wave equations on TL simplified as −  2V ( z ) = 0
dz 2
d 2 I ( z)
−  2 I ( z) = 0
dz 2

 =  + j = ( R + jL)(G + jC )
Complex propagation constant  is the attenuation constant
 is the phase constant
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 Wave equations (re-visited)
V ( z ) = V0+ e −z + V0− e + z
Solutions of the Wave equations I ( z ) = I 0+ e −z + I 0− e +z

dV ( z )
= −( R + jL) I ( z )
dV ( z ) d (V0+ e −z + V0− e +z )
From =
dz dz dz
= − [V0+ e −z − V0− e +z ]
dI ( z )
= −(G + jC )V ( z )
dz
= −( R + jL) I ( z )

I ( z) = [V0+ e −z − V0− e + z ] Characteristic Impedance
R + jL
R + jL
=
1
[V0+ e −z − V0− e + z ] Z0 =
R + jL G + j C
G + jC
V0+ −z V0− + z V0+ V0−
= e − e I 0+ = I 0− =−
Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
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Wave propagation on a transmission line
Incident ,
Reflected ,

V ( z ) = V0+ e −z + V0− e +z and I ( z ) = I 0+ e −z + I 0− e +z

• Complex propagation constant:  =  + j = ( R + jL)(G + jC )

where,  is the attenuation constant, and  is the phase constant

• Characteristic Impedance
R + jL
Z0 =
G + jC
+ −
V V
I 0+ = 0 and I 0− = − 0 17
Z0 Z0
The lossless transmission line
• Lossless TL (R=G=0, α=0, no attenuation)
 = j = j LC = j 
V0+ V0− L
✓ Characteristic Impedance Z0 = + = −
=
I0 − I0 C
✓ Solutions of the Wave equations
V ( z) = V0+ e −z + V0− e +z V ( z ) = V0+ e − jz + V0− e + jz
V0+ − jz V0− + jz
I ( z) = I 0+ e −z + I 0− e +z I ( z) = e − e
Z0 Z0
✓ Converting back to the time domain, the voltage waveform:
v( z, t ) =| V0+ | cos(t − z +  + )+ | V0− | cos(t + z +  − )
✓ Wavelength on the line 2 2
= =
  LC
✓ Phase velocity  1
vp = =
 LC
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The terminated lossless transmission line

+ − jz
Forward (+z): V0 e , I 0+ e − jz V0+ , I 0+
Reverse (-z): V − e + jz , I − e + jz V0− , I 0−
0 0

• The total voltage and current on the line:

V ( z ) = V0+ e − jz + V0− e + jz

V0+ − jz V0− + jz
I ( z) = e − e
Z0 Z0

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The terminated lossless transmission line

• The total voltage and current at the load when z=0:

V0+ V0− V (0) V0+ + V0− Z L − Z0 +
V (0) = V0+ + V0− , I (0) = − ZL = = + Z0 V0− = V0
−
Z0 Z0 I (0) V0 − V0 Z L + Z0

• The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the

amplitude of the incident voltage wave is known as the voltage
reflection coefficient, Γ.
✓ Reflection Coefficient at z=0: ✓ Reflection Coefficient z=-l:

ΓL = V0− / V0+
Z -Z
= L 0 V0− e − jl
(−l ) = + + jl = L e − j 2 l
Z L + Z0 V0 e
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The terminated lossless transmission line

• The total voltage and current waves on the line:

V0− + jz
V ( z) = V0+ (e − jz + +e ) = V0+ (e − jz + L e + jz )
V0
V0+ − jz V0− + jz V0+ − jz
I ( z) = (e − +e )= (e − L e + jz )
Z0 V0 Z0

✓ The voltage and current on the line consist of a superposition

of an incident and a reflected wave; such waves are called
standing waves.
✓ When ZL=Z0, ΓL=0. Such a load is said to be matched to the
line since there is no reflection of the incident wave.
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The telegrapher’s equation

• The input impedance seen looking toward the load at z = -l,

V (−l ) V0+ [e jl + L e − jl ] 1 + L e −2 jl
Z in (−l ) = = + j l − j l
Z0 = − 2 j l
Z0
I (−l ) V0 [e − L e ] 1 − L e
Z L - Z0
L =
Z L + Z0
( Z L + Z 0 ) e j l + ( Z L − Z 0 ) e − j l
Z in (−l ) = Z 0
( Z L + Z 0 ) e j l − ( Z L − Z 0 ) e − j l
( Z L + Z 0 )(cos  l + j sin  l ) + ( Z L − Z 0 )(cos  l − j sin  l ) Z + jZ 0 tan(  l )
= Z0 = Z0 L
( Z L + Z 0 )(cos  l + j sin  l ) − ( Z L − Z 0 )(cos  l − j sin  l ) Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )
Z L + jZ 0 tan(  l )
Z in ( −l ) = Z 0
Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )
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Standing wave
| V (−l ) |=| V0+ [e jl + L e − jl ] |=| V0+ || 1 + L e −2 jl |=| V0+ || 1+ | L | e j ( L − 2 l ) |

L =| L | e j L
• The maximum value occurs when the phase term e j ( L −2 l )
=1
Vmax =| V0+ | (1+ | L |)
• The minimum value occurs when the phase term e j ( L −2 l )
= −1
Vmin =| V0+ | (1− | L |)
• the distance between two successive voltage maxima (or minima) is
2 
2  l = 2 → 2 l = 2 → l =
 2
(λ =v/f, is the wavelength on a transmission line)
• the distance between maximum and minimum is
2 
2l =  → 2 l = →l =
 4
• The standing wave ratio (SWR) or voltage
Vmax 1+ | L |
standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined to SWR = =
Vmin 1− | L |
measure of the mismatch of a line as, 23
Power flow
V0− + jz
V ( z) = V0+ (e − jz + +e ) = V0+ (e − jz + L e + jz )
V0
V0+ − jz V0− + jz V0+ − jz
I ( z) = (e − +e )= (e − L e + jz )
Z0 V0 Z0

• The time-average power flow along the line at the point z:

+
1 1 V
Pav = Re[V ( z ) I ( z )* ] = Re{V0+ (e − jz + L e + jz ) 0 (e + jz − L*e − jz )}
2 2 Z0
1 | V0+ |2
= Re{1 − L*e −2 jz + L e 2 jz − | L |2 }
2 Z0
A − A∗ = 2 j Im {A} and so are purely imaginary
| V0+ |2
+ 2
✓ Incident power:
1 |V | 2Z 0
Pav = 0
(1− |  |2 )
2 Z0
✓ Reflected power: | V0+ |2
|  |2
2Z 0 24
 5. Special cases of lossless terminated lines
• Short-circuited line: ZL=0 L =
Z L - Z0
Z L + Z0

1+ | L |
SWR =
1− | L |

✓ The load reflection coefficient ΓL= -1 (−l ) = L e − j 2 l

✓ The standing wave ratio is infinite

✓ The voltage and current on the line: Z L + jZ 0 tan(  l )
Z in (−l ) = Z 0
Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )
V ( z ) = V0+ (e − jz − e jz ) = −2 jV0+ sin z
V0+ − jz j z 2V0+
I ( z) = (e +e ) = cos z
Z0 Z0
✓ The input impedance:
Z in = jZ 0 tan l
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Special cases of lossless terminated lines
• Open-circuited line: ZL=∞ L =
Z L - Z0
Z L + Z0

1+ | L |
SWR =
1− | L |

✓ The load reflection coefficient ΓL=1 (−l ) = L e − j 2 l

✓ The standing wave ratio is infinite

✓ The voltage and current on the line: Z L + jZ 0 tan(  l )
Z in (−l ) = Z 0
Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )
V ( z ) = V0+ (e − jz + e jz ) = 2V0+ cos z
V0+ − jz − 2 jV +
I ( z) = (e − e j z ) = 0
sin z
Z0 Z0
✓ The input impedance:
Z in = − jZ 0 cot l
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Special cases of lossless terminated lines
• Matched load: ZL=Z0 • Quarter-wave impedance
transformer: l=λ/4

✓ The load reflection coefficient ✓ The input impedance:

ΓL=0. 2  
l = = → tan  l = 
 4 2
✓ The standing wave ratio is 1. Z + jZ 0 tan(  l )
Z in (−l ) = Z 0 L
✓ The voltage and current on the Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )
line: jZ 0 tan(  l ) Z 02
V ( z) = V0+ e − jz = Z0 =
jZ L tan(  l ) Z L
V0+ − jz ✓ If the length of transmission line
I ( z) = e
Z0 l=λ/4 + n λ/2, for n=1,2,3,…
Z 02
✓ The input impedance: Zin=Z0 Z in = 27
ZL
 Special Cases
Z L - Z0 1+ | L | Z L + jZ 0 tan(  l )
L = SWR = (−l ) = L e − j 2 l Z in (−l ) = Z 0
Z L + Z0 1− | L | Z 0 + jZ L tan(  l )

Special cases: Terminated lossless TL

@ z = 0, Z L = 0; L = −1; SWR = 
Short circuit  − j 2 l
@ z = −l ; Z in = jZ 0 tan(  l );  = − e
@ z = 0, Z L = ; L = +1; SWR = 
Open circuit  − j 2 l
@ z = −l ; Z in = − jZ 0 cot(  l );  = + e

Matched load @ z = 0, Z L = Z 0 ; L = 0; SWR = 1


@ z = −l ; Z in = Z 0 ;  = 0
Z 02
If l =  / 4, Zin = , Quarter - wave impedance transformer
ZL

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Example
• Calculate ΓL, SWR, Zin

Z L − Z 0 (40 + j 20) − 75 40.31e + j150.26

o

+ j140.39
(a ) L = = = =
o
0. 345 e
Z L + Z 0 (40 + j 20) + 75 116 .7e + j 9.87
o

1 +  1 + 0.345
(b) SWR = = = 2.05
1 −  1 − 0.345
2
(c )  l =  0.3 = 0.6

(40 + j 20) + j 75 tan(0.6 )
Z in = 75  = 69.7 − j 52.9
75 + j (40 + j 20) tan(0.6 )
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