CS3237 Lecture 2 Embedded Systems Overview

Lecture 2
Embedded Systems
CS3237
BOYD ANDERSON
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING
Housekeeping
2
Housekeeping
§ You should start thinking about what you would like to do for your
project!
§ Labs start next week on Monday!
§ You will be collecting your hardware (your thing for your internet
of things!) and sensors next week in your lab session.
§ After lecture Quiz will open at around 3:30 pm today.
§ You can interrupt me at any time and ask questions, or ask them in
chat, or put up your hand.
3
Embedded Systems
4
What is an Embedded System?
Embedded systems are special-purpose dedicated computing
systems embedded in other systems or environments. They
commonly take the form of SoCs (System-on-a-Chip). And they are
everywhere!
5 5
In all shapes and sizes…
Arduino mini WeMos D1 Nordic nRF52832 SoC Broadcom/pi-0 SoC
Example Board
Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
Clock Speed 8/16MHz 80 MHz typically 64MHz Quad-core 1GHz
Cycles per Instruction 1 or 2 Varies 1 to N Varies 1 to N Varies 1 to N
RAM 2K 80K 64K 512Mb
Program Memory 32K External, 4 Mb 512K External, μSD (GBs!)
Comms External 802.11 b/g/n BLE 5.3, Zigbee BLE 4.2, 802.11 b/g/n
Idle (@ 3.7V) / Normal Use <1μA / 10mA <1μA / 10mA <1μA / 10 mA 80mA / 200mA
GPIO 14 I/O, 6 A in 11 I/O, 1 A in 32 I/O, 4 A in 40 I/O
OS Bare-metal/RTOS Bare-metal/RTOS Bare-metal/SoftDevice Linux
6 6
By contrast:
Example Board

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
7 7
In all shapes and sizes…
Example Board

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
8 8
Processor Limitations
Example Board

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
9 9
Memory Limitations
Example Board

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
10 10
Other Limitations
Example Board

Bitsize 8/16 32 32 64
11 11
Development Tools / Language
In this module we will program our microcontrollers using c/c++
Debugging can be quite limited, not what you might be used to in a
modern IDE.
Debugging has a memory/cpu overhead
You can write low or high level code!
More control over the hardware but at the cost of abstraction
Bare-metal or an RTOS.
12 12
Ok fine, I believe you, but how does this relate to IoT?
Our Thing, or Edge Device is:
an embedded system + sensors/actuators + internet connectivity
It is greater than the sum of its parts.
13 13
The Thing
14
Our Hardware Platform: WeMos D1
Microprocessor ESP8266
Bitsize 32
Clock Speed 80 MHz
Cycles per Instruction Varies 1 to N
RAM 80K
Program Memory External, 4 Mb
Comms 802.11 b/g/n
Idle (@ 3.7V) / Normal Use <1μA / 10mA

GPIO 11 I/O, 1 A in
OS Bare-metal/RTOS
15
The Processor: ESP8266
16
IoT Device (Thing): A Simple Embedded System
§ Sensor reads in analog data that is converted to digital form using Analog to
Digital Converter (ADC)
§ Actuator receives digital signal that is converted to electrical or electro-
mechanical signals through Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
§ Controller contains a processor
§ Controller is connected to the Internet (directly or via Gateway)
17
Output and Inputs and Timers… oh my!
18
General-Purpose Input/Output (GPIO)
Most processors have
“pins” which can be read
(used as an input) or set
(used as an output).
These digital signal pins are

known as General-Purpose
Input/Output or GPIO
They can be controlled

using software.
19
How do we use them?
They are memory mapped,
that is, we can write to a
specific register and control
them programmatically.
We can turn them high or

low, or set to different logic
voltages.
20
An example hardware layout
§ Components:
• Breadboard
GND • 1 x LED (any color)
Pin
Pin D4 • 1 x 220Ω resistor
[ SWS3009 - Phase 2 - 11th July ]

21 21
Blink: An example program
#define LED D4 § pinMode( pin, mode )
void setup() {
• pin = pin number
• mode = { INPUT, OUTPUT }
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT);
} § digitalWrite( pin, value )

void loop() { • pin = pin number
• value = 0 / 1 (use LOW / HIGH
digitalWrite(LED, HIGH);
delay(1000);
constant!)
digitalWrite(LED, LOW);
delay(100); § delay( ms )
}
• ms = millisecond
22
They are not created equally..
Notice some of the pins
have many different names
or functions?
PWM?
I2C?
Serial Port TXD? RXD?
SPI?
Analog Pin?
23
Timer Programming
Timers are important in real-time systems:
They allow us to read sensors or write to actuators at precise times.
They ensure that time-sensitive algorithms run at the correct timing.
Timers are often needed to switch between tasks in a multi-tasking

OS
Timers can be used to generate analog output signals through pulse-

width modulation (PWM more on this later).
24
Hardware Timers
As such, hardware timers are implemented in many microprocessors
The ESP8266 has two timers but one (timer0) is used by the
WiFi. The other timer (timer1) is a 23-bit timer and because it is a
limited resource, there exist libraries to handle this on the ESP8266.
https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/libraries/esp8266timerinterrupt/
25
Motivation
§ Imagine your Processor is running some code:
• However, if the external emergency stop button is pressed, you are supposed
to stop processing immediately
§ Main question is:

• How do we handle external event?
§ Possible solution:
• Keep checking whether the event occurs, BUT this is not very efficient (time
is wasted)
26
Interrupt: What is it?
§ Most processors provide alternative mechanisms to handle these
events:
• e.g. interrupt
§ When the external event happens:

1. A signal is generated
2. The processor automatically execute code to handle the event:
• The code is commonly known as interrupt handler
3. After the event is handled, the processor resume the work it was
performing prior to the event
27
Interrupt: WeMos D1
§ Interrupt handler in Arduino Language is known
as Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
§ The digital pins each given a specific interrupt
number:
Digital Pin Number Interrupt Number

D1 5
D2 4
D3 0
Note: the Arduino
D4 2
function
D5 14 digitalPinToInterrupt()
D6 12 helps to convert pin
D7 13 number to interrupt
D8 15
number
28
Four Interrupt Trigger Modes
§ Triggering Mode is based on the feature of the
signal:
RISING
Triggers when the pin goes
from low to high
FALLING
Triggers when the pin goes
from high to low
LOW
Triggers when the pin is low CHANGE
Triggers when the pin
changes value
29
Writing ISR: Rules of Thumb
1. Make ISR as short as possible
• Common trick: Set a flag / update value in the ISR and let the main loop to
do the time consuming part
2. Do not use delay() in ISR
3. Do not use Serial read/write in ISR
4. If a variable is shared between ISR and other code, declare it as
volatile:
• Ensure correct compiler handling
§ Caution: When an ISR is executing, all other interrupts have to
wait!
• May miss important event!
30
Sensors and Actuators
31
Sensors / Actuators
1 x Infrared sensor receiver module
1 x Temperature and humidity sensor module
1 x Infrared emission sensor module
1 x Detect heartbeat module
1 x Microphone module
1 x Flame sensor module
…
32
Digital Input and Sensors
Digital Input
• Example: On/off switch
• Push-button switch: reverse for
normally closed switch
• Push on/off switch: must be
depressed again to release the
connection
33
Contact Bounce of Mechanical Switch
§ Contact bounce: Mechanical switches do not make clean transition
between on/off positions; makes/breaks contact multiple times
for tens of milliseconds
§ Micro-controller is fast and can recognize each switch bounce
§ De-bouncing solutions:
• Hardware de-bounce circuit
• Software technique: insert 30 ~ 50 ms delay in the function responding to
the port pin changes
Contact bounce
34
Analog Sensor
§ Provides a DC voltage that is proportional to the physical parameter being
measured
§ Examples
• Temperature sensor uses the fact that as temperature increases, the voltage
across a diode changes at a known rate
• Flex sensor provides a change in resistance for a change in sensor flexure
35
Digital Sensors measuring an Analogue World
We live in an analogue world… but computers are discrete and finite
To approximate or measure the analogue world in our digital

systems, we have to use sampling and quantisation.
36 36
Analog and Digital
• Computers can only handle digital signals.
• The conversion between analog and digital signals are needed.
• ADC performs analog to digital conversion while DAC performs the opposite.
Sensors Actuators
Edge Device
Analog signal Digital signal Analog signal
ADC DAC
37
Continuous Time Signal
§ A continuous time signal is defined over all instances of time
§ A function of time (the real number) to the co-domain X (the range
of possible values)
38
Discrete Signals
§ A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a sequence or series of
signal values defined in discrete points of time
§ The distance in time between each point of time is the time-step
39
Sampling
§ Discrete signal can be acquired by sampling an analog signal (e.g.,
temperature, pressure) at constant or variable rate
40
Digital Signal: Quantization
§ A digital signal is a discrete signal for which not only the time but
also the amplitude has been made discrete
§ Analog-digital converter (ADC) samples and quantizes an analog
signal to a digital signal
41
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
§ Analog signal may be first pre-processed by external analog
hardware such that it falls within the reference voltage range of
the conversion system.
§ Analog voltage is then converted to corresponding binary
representation using Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
42
ADC: Quantization and Encoding
§ Input voltage signals are typically mapped in the range 0-5 volts
§ b bit allows to divide the input signal range into 2b different
quantization levels
• Increased quantization level improves the accuracy
• Quantized signal is encoded, i.e., quantization level is represented in binary number
§ Resolution: voltage distance between two adjacent quantization levels
§ Example: 5 volts range, 2 bit representation, 1.25 volts resolution

• If input <1.25 volts, output is 00.
• Otherwise, if input<2.5 volts, output is 01,
•…
43
Light Sensor: Light Dependent Resistor
§ Probably the simplest way

to build a light sensor:
• Utilize photoresistor / light
dependent resistor
§ Basic idea:
• Luminosity (Brightness)
changes the resistance è
voltage change
44
Light Sensor: Connection
SIG è
Pin A0
any 5v supply
pin
any ground pin
45
Light Sensor: An example program
#define LDR_PIN A0
§ analogRead( pin ) void setup() {
• pin = pin number Serial.begin(9600);
}
• Returns a value from 0 to 1023
void loop() {
int lightLevel;
§ WeMos has only 1 analog lightLevel = analogRead(LDR_PIN);
input Pin (A0) Serial.println(lightLevel);
delay(500);
}
46
Interfacing with Components
§ WeMos can interface with many electronic components
§ Common steps:
1. Connect the electronic components to the correct pin(s)
• Usually wiring diagram is provided
2. Write code to interact with the component:

• Sometimes, libraries are provided together with the components
47
Output Devices and Actuators
§ Digital Output
• Example: Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• Informs the presence of logic 0 or logic 1 at a specific pin of a micro-
controller
§ Analog Actuators
• DC motor
• Rotates when DC power supply of suitable current rating is applied
• Speed of motor proportional to applied voltage
• Servo motor
• Control angular rotation for an applied pulse
width modulation (PWM) duty cycle
• Used to change mechanical positions,
e.g., steering angle of wheel
48
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
§ Method to create an analog signal from a digital processor
§ The main idea is to keep the signal high for an amount of time
proportional to the amplitude of the required analog signal during
each period of the digital pulse
§ Most micro-controllers can generate PWM signals using timers
49
PWM concepts
§ Switch output signal between ON and OFF periodically
§ Period (P)
• Time it takes for a signal to complete an ON-OFF cycle
§ Pulse width (T)
• Time the signal is active per period
§ Duty cycle (D)
• Percentage of a period in which the signal is ON or active
!
• D = " ×100%
50
PWM Illustration
51
PWM Usage – Dimming light, DC motor
PWM for LED dimming to 25% brightness PWM for DC motor to control speed
52
First lab: Getting started with your WeMOS
§ Labs start next week on Monday!
• Start programming your WeMOS
• Set up some simple circuits
• Control an actuator!
• Use some sensors!
§ You will be collecting your hardware (your thing for your internet
of things!) and sensors next week in your lab session.
§ After lecture Quiz will open at around 3:30 pm today.
53
What’s next week?
More Sensors and Actuators
Talking to an IC: I2C and SPI
Serial communication
Communication to outside world: WIFI/ BLE / TCP/IP
RTOS
54
Summary
§ IoT devices consists of sensors, actuators, and a micro-controller
§ Micro-controllers have “pins” whose status can be set by software
§ Sensors and actuators connect the cyber world to the physical
world
§ ADC and DAC perform transformation between analog physical
world and digital cyber world
§ Our micro-controller can communicate/control our
sensors/actuators using these pins (we have only seen a simple
example)
55

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Lecture 2

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

Microprocessor ATmega328P ESP8266 ARM Cortex-M4 BCM2710A1

It is greater than the sum of its parts.

Comms 802.11 b/g/n

Idle (@ 3.7V) / Normal Use <1μA / 10mA

These digital signal pins are

They can be controlled

We can turn them high or

[ SWS3009 - Phase 2 - 11th July ]

} § digitalWrite( pin, value )

They allow us to read sensors or write to actuators at precise times.

They ensure that time-sensitive algorithms run at the correct timing.

Timers are often needed to switch between tasks in a multi-tasking

Timers can be used to generate analog output signals through pulse-

§ Main question is:

§ When the external event happens:

Digital Pin Number Interrupt Number

To approximate or measure the analogue world in our digital

Analog signal Digital signal Analog signal

§ Example: 5 volts range, 2 bit representation, 1.25 volts resolution

§ Probably the simplest way

any ground pin

2. Write code to interact with the component:

Talking to an IC: I2C and SPI

Communication to outside world: WIFI/ BLE / TCP/IP

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