FULLTEXT04

Mälardalen University Doctoral Dissertation 257
Developing Process Design

The
Thepresent
presentthesis
thesis is about developing
is about developing methods
methodstoto produce
producelight
light weight
weight investment
investment cast
Mohsin Raza DEVELOPING PROCESS DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR INVESTMENT CAST THIN-WALLED STRUCTURES
cast components for high temperature applications. This work has
components for high temperature applications. This work has focused on focused ondeveloping
devel-
oping
methods to improve castability for thin-walled castings by enhancing therelia-
methods to improve castability for thin-walled castings by enhancing the
Methodology for Investment
reliability
bility of the investment casting process, which is otherwise affected by its semi-auto-
of the investment casting process, which is otherwise affected by its semi-automated
mated nature in foundries. The results of this research are likely to assist foundries to
nature in foundries. The results of this research are likely to assist foundries to develop
Cast Thin-Walled Structures

develop reliable casting process for thin-walled components which will facilitate de-
reliable casting process for thin-walled components which will facilitate development
velopment of light-weight engineering systems with improved efficiency and fuel
of light-weight engineering systems with improved efficiency and fuel economy.
economy.
Thework
The workbridges
bridgesthethe
gapgap between
between established
established physics physics behind
behind the the of
castablity castability
metals of Mohsin Raza
metals and the industrial practices. Here it is shown that the variations
and the industrial practices. Here it is shown that the variations in process conditions in process
originate from equipment as well as the operator practices in the foundry. These var-
conditions originate from equipment as well as the operator practices in the foundry.
iations effect the targeted values of process parameters and hence effect the reliabilityeffect
These variations effect the targeted values of process parameters and hence
and
therepeatability of process.
reliability and These process
repeatability variations
of process. Thesenot only effect
process the castability
variations not onlyofeffect
thin-walled
the castability of thin-walled components but also effect the validity ofthe
components but also effect the validity of simulation which limits use
simulation
ofwhich
casting simulations in foundry processes.
limits the use of casting simulations in foundry processes.
InInorder
ordertotominimize
minimizeprocess uncertainties,
process a simulation
uncertainties, based based
a simulation processprocess
design ap-
design
proach has been proposed; where methods to improve the process conditions
approach has been proposed; where methods to improve the process conditions
as well
as systematic implementation of simulation for designing casting process has been
as well as systematic implementation of simulation for designing casting process
implemented. The approach resulted in significant improvements in terms of quality
has been implemented. The approach resulted in significant improvements in terms
of castings as well as overall reduction in process development time and cost in
of quality of castings as well as overall reduction in process development time and
foundry.
cost in foundry.
MohsinRaza
Mohsin Razaisisenrolled
enrolledasasanan industrial
industrial doctoral
doctoral student
student at at
the
theresearch
researchschool
school Innofacture
Innofactureat the
at School of Innovation,
the School of Innovation,
Design
DesignandandEngineering
EngineeringatatMälardalen
Mälardalen University.
University.Mohsin
Mohsin has
has a backgroundin in
a background Materials
Materials Scienceand
Science andMetallurgy
Metallurgyinvolving
in-
volving the materials
the materials processing
processing techniques.
techniques. His His research
research is
is mainly
mainly focused on process development for investment
focused on process development for investment cast thin- cast
thin-walled components
walled components forfor
gasgas turbines
turbines and and aircraft
aircraft en-
engines.
gines.
Address: P.O. Box 883, SE-721 23 Västerås. Sweden

Address: P.O. Box 325, SE-631 05 Eskilstuna. Sweden
ISBN 978-91-7485-377-3
2018
E-mail: info@mdh.se Web: www.mdh.se ISSN 1651-4238

1
Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

No. 257
DEVELOPING PROCESS DESIGN METHODOLOGY

FOR INVESTMENT CAST THIN-WALLED STRUCTURES
Mohsin Raza
2018
School of Innovation, Design and Engineering

2
Copyright © Mohsin Raza, 2018

ISBN 978-91-7485-377-3
ISSN 1651-4238
Printed by E-Print AB, Stockholm, Sweden
3
Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

No. 257
DEVELOPING PROCESS DESIGN METHODOLOGY

FOR INVESTMENT CAST THIN-WALLED STRUCTURES
Mohsin Raza
Akademisk avhandling
som för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen i innovation och design vid

Akademin för innovation, design och teknik kommer att offentligen försvaras
fredagen den 6 april 2018, 10.00 i Filharmonin, Mälardalens högskola, Eskilstuna.
Fakultetsopponent: Professor Mark Jolly, Cranfield University
Akademin för innovation, design och teknik

4
Abstract
Components for engineering systems, such as gas turbines and jet engines operating at high temperature
are usually produced in superalloys. The investment casting process is most widely used for
manufacturing these components due to the ability of the process to produce parts with complex
geometries to close dimensional tolerances. Other processing routes are less advantageous due to high
mechanical strength and hardness of these alloys, which make formability and machining difficult even
at high temperature. The global requirements for lower fuel consumption and emissions are increasing
the demands to lower the weight of cast components in jet engines. The ability to produce components
with lower wall thickness will not only help to reduce the cost of production and resource usage but
also help to improve the efficiency of engineering systems resulting in lower fuel consumption and
reduced emissions of environmentally hazardous gases. However, casting of thin walled components is
challenging due to premature solidification in thin sections and long feeding distances often resulting
in incomplete filling, cold shuts and shrinkage porosity.
The castability of thin-sections is dependent upon selection of appropriate values of casting parameters
to achieve favorable conditions for the mould filling and solidification. In foundry environment,
fluctuation in these targeted values of casting parameters is common due to semi-automated nature
of process. The effects of casting parameters on mould filling and defect formation have been widely
reported in the literature, however effect of fluctuations in targeted values of casting parameters
resulting from typical variation in the foundry is not well documented. Moreover, the origin of process
variation and how to manage them in foundries, especially in relation to thin-walled casting has not
been well documented.
In this work, the common variations in critical process parameters, originating from foundry practices
and equipment are identified. The effect of variations and resulting fluctuation in targeted values of
casting parameters on castability of thin-walled castings is evaluated. The casting process is simulated
by defining boundary conditions which replicate the foundry conditions and properties of foundry
materials in a commercial casting simulation software. The effect of fluctuation of casting parameters on
castability of thin-walled castings is established by casting trials as well as simulations and the validity of
simulation is evaluated. A methodology to design a casting process is established by proposing methods
to minimize the process variation as well as using Design of Experiments (DoE) based simulation work
to achieve reliability and repeatability in the process.
It is concluded that the mould temperature, casting temperature and pouring rate are common casting
parameters affected by the variation originating from equipment and the casting practices. The variation
in these parameters strongly effects the castability of thin-walled sections. The significance of these
variations is validated by simulation and it is concluded that the validity of simulation is not only
strongly dependent upon the foundry specific material data but also depends upon setting up valid
boundary conditions according to the equipment and practices used. It is also concluded that by
introducing material data and accurate boundary conditions, simulation can be used as tool to facilitate
process development in foundries. A systematic implementation of simulations based on DoE and
optimization resulted in significant reduction in process development time.
The result of this work has been further developed into a process design methodology for investment
casting foundries working with casting of thin-walled castings for high temperature applications. The
term process design in this work is defined as design and evaluation of gating system as well as
identifying optimized values of casting parameters to cast components in foundry.
ISBN 978-91-7485-377-3
ISSN 1651-4238
5
This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father, Mazhar Hussain

6
7
ABSTRACT
Components for engineering systems, such as gas turbines and jet engines
operating at high temperature are usually produced in superalloys. The in-
vestment casting process is most widely used for manufacturing these com-
ponents due to the ability of the process to produce parts with complex ge-
ometries to close dimensional tolerances. Other processing routes are less
advantageous due to high mechanical strength and hardness of these alloys,
which make formability and machining difficult even at high temperature.
The global requirements for lower fuel consumption and emissions are in-
creasing the demands to lower the weight of cast components in jet engines.
The ability to produce components with lower wall thickness will not only
help to reduce the cost of production and resource usage but also help to
improve the efficiency of engineering systems resulting in lower fuel con-
sumption and reduced emissions of environmentally hazardous gases. How-
ever, casting of thin walled components is challenging due to premature
solidification in thin sections and long feeding distances often resulting in
incomplete filling, cold shuts and shrinkage porosity.
The castability of thin-sections is dependent upon selection of appropriate
values of casting parameters to achieve favorable conditions for the mould
filling and solidification. In foundry environment, fluctuation in these target-
ed values of casting parameters is common due to semi-automated nature of
process. The effects of casting parameters on mould filling and defect for-
mation have been widely reported in the literature, however effect of fluctua-
tions in targeted values of casting parameters resulting from typical variation
in the foundry is not well documented. Moreover, the origin of process var-
iation and how to manage them in foundries, especially in relation to thin-
walled casting has not been well documented.
In this work, the common variations in critical process parameters, originat-
ing from foundry practices and equipment are identified. The effect of varia-
tions and resulting fluctuation in targeted values of casting parameters on
castability of thin-walled castings is evaluated. The casting process is simu-
lated by defining boundary conditions which replicate the foundry conditions
and properties of foundry materials in a commercial casting simulation soft-
ware. The effect of fluctuation of casting parameters on castability of thin-
walled castings is established by casting trials as well as simulations and the
i
8
validity of simulation is evaluated. A methodology to design a casting pro-

cess is established by proposing methods to minimize the process variation
as well as using Design of Experiments (DoE) based simulation work to
achieve reliability and repeatability in the process.
It is concluded that the mould temperature, casting temperature and pouring
rate are common casting parameters affected by the variation originating
from equipment and the casting practices. The variation in these parameters
strongly effects the castability of thin-walled sections. The significance of
these variations is validated by simulation and it is concluded that the validi-
ty of simulation is not only strongly dependent upon the foundry specific
material data but also depends upon setting up valid boundary conditions
according to the equipment and practices used. It is also concluded that by
introducing material data and accurate boundary conditions, simulation can
be used as tool to facilitate process development in foundries. A systematic
implementation of simulations based on DoE and optimization resulted in
significant reduction in process development time.
The result of this work has been further developed into a process design
methodology for investment casting foundries working with casting of thin-
walled castings for high temperature applications. The term process design
in this work is defined as design and evaluation of gating system as well as
identifying optimized values of casting parameters to cast components in
foundry.
ii
9
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank several people who have supported me during the work
which lead to this thesis. First, I would like to thank Mark Irwin for his trust
in me. Without of his confidence and support this work would not have hap-
pened. I thank Hasse Fredriksson for being source of inspiration. I thank
John Danzig for encouragement when I really needed it. My sincere grati-
tude goes to Björn Fargerström, who was always there to solve anything that
could stop the work. I thank Anders E.W. Jarfors who helped me to recog-
nize my strengths and weaknesses.
I would also like to thank all my colleagues at TPC Components AB, espe-
cially Peter Edman and Pedro Silva, who spent time helping me in solving
practical issues in the foundry. Roger Svenningsson at Swerea SWECAST
AB, was always there when i needed someone to discuss ideas. My col-
leagues at Mälardalen University have been source of motivation for
me throughout my program of study. I thank them all.
I am grateful to Mats Jackson and Anders Fundin for their efforts to make
research process smooth for us at Innofacture. I thankfully acknowledge the
financial support of the Innofacture program at Mälardalen University fund-
ed through K.K. Stiftelsen.
I thank my elder brother, Asad, for giving me confidence to face challenges
when we were growing up. I thank my mother, who gave me courage to take
steps. I miss my father, who would have been very proud today.
I thank my wife, Asifa, for her never-ending support.
Mohsin Raza
Eskilstuna, April 2018
iii
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iv
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LIST OF PAPERS
This thesis is based on the following papers, which are referred to in the text
by their Roman numerals.
I Raza, M., Irwin, M. (2014) The effect of shell thickness on de-

fect formation in investment cast Ni-base alloy. Proceedings of
ICI 61st Technical Conference & Expo 2014, 5-8 October 2014
Covington, KY.
II Raza, M., Irwin, M., Fagerström, B. (2015) The effect of shell
thickness, insulation and casting temperature on defect for-
mation during investment casting of Ni-base turbine blades. Ar-
chives of Foundry Engineering, 15(4): 115-124
III Raza, M., Silva, P., Irwin, M., Fagerström, B., Jarfors, A.E.W.
Effects of process related variations on defect formation in in-
vestment cast components. Archives of Foundry Engineering,
(In Press, 2018)
IV Raza, M., Svenningsson, R., Irwin, M. (2015) Experimental
study of the filling of thin-walled investment castings in 17-
4PH stainless steel. Metallurgy and Foundry Engineering, 41:
85-98
V Raza, M., Svenningsson, R., Irwin, M., Fagerström, B., Jarfors,
A.E.W. (2017) Effect of process related variations on fillability
simulation of thin-walled IN718 structures. International Jour-
nal of Metalcasting
VI Raza, M., Svenningsson, R., Irwin, M., Fagerström, B., Jarfors,
A.E.W. (2017) Simulation based process design approach for
manufacturing of light-weight cast components. LIGHTer In-
ternational Conference 2017, 22-23 November 2017 Gothen-
burg, Sweden
v
12
Contribution to the appended papers:
Paper I: Raza was the main author. Irwin contributed with advice regarding
the work.
Paper II: Raza was the main author. Irwin contributed with advice regard-
ing the work. Fagerström supported evaluation of the results.
Paper III: Raza was the main author and performed the data analysis and
evaluation of foundry rejection data. Silva collected the data related to pro-
cess variation in foundry. Irwin contributed with advice regarding the work.
Fagerström and Jarfors supported evaluation of the results.
Paper IV: Raza was the main author. Svenningsson proposed the work and
contributed in analysis of the results. Irwin contributed with advice regarding
the work.
Paper V: Raza was the main author. Svenningsson contributed in data anal-
ysis. Irwin contributed with advice regarding the work. Fagerström support-
ed evaluation of the results. Jarfors proposed the work and contributed with
advice concerning it.
Paper VI: Raza was the main author. Svenningsson contributed in simula-
tion work. Irwin contributed with advice regarding the work. Fagerström
contributed in designing experimental plan. Jarfors supported in analysis of
the data.
Reprints were made with permission from the respective publishers.
vi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Literature review ............................................................................... 2
1.2.1 On the fluidity of metals .......................................................... 3
1.2.2 Thermal properties of alloys and mould materials .................. 7
1.2.3 Simulation aided design of the casting process ..................... 12
2 RESEARCH APPROACH .................................................................. 15
2.1 Aim and objective of this work ....................................................... 15
2.2 Delimitations ................................................................................... 15
2.3 Research questions .......................................................................... 16
2.4 The research process ....................................................................... 17
2.5 Quality of the research approach..................................................... 20
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES .................................................... 23
3.1 Equipment and materials ................................................................. 23
3.2 Common foundry defects and cause of defects............................... 24
3.3 Process variations in casting process .............................................. 24
3.4 Thermo-physical properties of materials for simulation ................. 28
3.5 Predictive capabilities of casting simulation ................................... 29
3.6 Framework for designing casting process using simulation ........... 30
3.7 Process design methodology for repeatable and reliable casting
process development ................................................................................ 32
4 SUMMMARY OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION........................... 33
4.1 Castability of thin-walled structures (Papers I, II, and VI) ............. 33
4.2 Foundry process variations (Papers III and IV) .............................. 38
4.3 Effects of process variations on castability of thin-walled test
structures .................................................................................................. 42
4.4 Effect of process variation on predictive capabilities of simulation
(Paper V) .................................................................................................. 46
vii
14
4.5 Gating and process design methodology for manufacturing thin-

walled components (Papers III and VI) .................................................... 55
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE WORK ....................... 65
5.1 General conclusions ........................................................................ 65
5.2 Revisiting the research questions .................................................... 67
5.3 Research contributions .................................................................... 68
5.3.1 Scientific contribution............................................................ 69
5.3.2 Industrial contribution............................................................ 69
5.4 Quality of research .......................................................................... 70
5.5 Future work: .................................................................................... 70
REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 73
viii
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Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures
1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter starts with brief introduction to the investment casting process,
the current challenges and the significance of thin-walled light weight cast-
ings in power and aero turbines. The state of the art in foundry practice and
the recent trends for process development for thin-walled light weight cast-
ing are presented. Increasing application of simulation in casting design pro-
cess and its limitations are discussed. The literature review and discussion
highlighted the significance of process related variations and their impact on
the quality of casting as well as on predictive capabilities of simulation.
1.1 Background
In the power generation and aerospace industries, the overall weight reduc-
tion of engineering systems is much sought after, especially for turbines, to
increase efficiency, sustainability and reduced environmental impact. Weight
reduction of an engineering system can be achieved either by using integrat-
ed multifunction components or using lightweight materials. This is resulting
in increased demands by the turbine industry to produce complex thin-
walled cast components [1]. The ability to produce components in lower
wall thickness will not only help to improve the efficiency of engineering
systems but also help to reduce the consumption of raw material used to
produce the components [2].
Engineering components used in power generation and aerospace industries
are made from superalloys. Nickel base heat resistant superalloys are used
for manufacturing of hot-gas-path components for aircraft engines since their
invention in early 20th century [3]. The combination of high strength at ele-
vated temperature, toughness and relative ease of manufacturability made
these alloys a cost efficient choice for complicated geometries in aircraft
engine. Development of more complex heat treatment processes and hot
isostatic pressing (HIP) process has resulted in improvement in the alloys
mechanical properties. The components are mostly produced using invest-
ment casting since other processing methods are usually less advantageous
due to the high mechanical strength and hardness of superalloys, resulting in
poor formability even at high temperature [4].
The investment casting process has been an important method to produce
components for jet engines since 50’s [5]. It offers excellent tolerances and
1
16
surface finish with freedom of design for complex geometries. The invest-
ment casting process, also called the lost wax process employ a wax model
around which a ceramic shell is formed. The wax is then melted out of ce-
ramic shell leaving a net shape cavity inside a ceramic mould. The molten
metal is then poured into cavity and solidified. When the ceramic shell is
subsequently removed, a casting has been created which can have complex
shapes and designs [6]. In addition, the investment casting process offers
more efficient material usage which results in relatively lower manufacturing
cost.
The ability to produce thin-walled investment cast components can result in
overall weight reduction of components. However, casting of thin-walled
structures is challenging due to premature solidification and long feeding
distances often resulting in incomplete filling, cold shuts and shrinkage po-
rosity [7]. In addition to that, the investment casting process also has disad-
vantages due to susceptibility of superalloys to segregation, porosity and
grain coarsening during solidification[4]. Although a lot of work has been
done to understand melt flow and solidification behavior [7], the effect of
foundry practices on the castability of thin-walled castings are often over-
looked. A better understanding of the casting process and improved methods
for design of gating and feeding system can result in improved castability,
especially for thin-walled castings [8].
This work is focused on developing methods to improve castability for thin-
walled castings by enhancing the process reliability which is otherwise af-
fected by the semi-automated nature of the process in investment casting
foundries.
1.2 Literature review

Castability of molten metal depends upon the fluidity of the melt as well as
its solidification rate, segregation, interaction with atmospheric gases and
solidification contractions [9]. The term castability is defined here as the
ability to cast sound castings with minimum defects. Fluidity, as an empiri-
cal concept used in the foundry, is the ability of molten metal to flow and fill
the details in the mould [10]. Fluidity measurements are not directly recip-
rocal of viscosity and are not presented as a unique property of a certain
alloy composition but largely depends on the test-piece used to measure the
fluidity length [6]. The fluidity of molten metals depends upon number of
materials properties. Some of the important properties are listed below [6].
• Temperature
• Solidification mode
• Viscosity of melt
• Composition
• Rate of flow
2
17
• Thermal conductivity
• Heat of fusion
• Surface tension
The concepts of fluidity can be separated into two more definable aspects,
i.e. flowability and fillability [11]. In foundry practice, flowability is a dy-
namic criterion and defined as ability of molten metal to flow which usually
depends on melt properties and cooling conditions, for example, composition
of alloy, viscosity, heat transfer rate etc. Fillability on the other hand is a
static criterion and depend on the surface tension between flowing liquid and
adjacent mould material [11]. Flowability limits the fluidity when metal
solidify prematurely due to the heat and mass flow whereas fillability limits
the fluidity when molten metal cannot reach the fine details of mould due to
lack of required metallostatic pressure to overcome surface tension [10]. The
fluidity length, i.e. flowability, is a function of properties related to both the
alloy and mould system. Flowability is also directly proportional to the
thickness of the casting and the heat transfer coefficient. Also increasing the
heat content of the alloy at the same time as improving the insulation of the
mould would increase flowability. Fillability is related to the ability to fill
small cross sections or small features and is due to the difference in actual
metal pressure and surface tension of the metal. In literature [10] section
thickness of 1.0 mm is mentioned as the threshold when fillability becomes
critical. A section thickness threshold of 2.5 mm has also been reported [12]
as limit below which, surface tension become dominant.
Although there is no exact limit when the influence of surface tension takes
over, its importance increases as the section thickness decreases. The selec-
tion of a test geometry for fluidity measurements depends upon the aspects
of fluidity under consideration i.e. fillability and/or flowability, alloy
solidification morphology and the casting process. Different test geometries
used to measure fluidity are reported in the literature [10]. Several parame-
ters related to both mould system, pouring and alloy affect the ability to fill a
thin section.
In the foundry, both fillability and flowability are highly affected by the
casting conditions due to the transient nature of the process [5]. Mould and
material properties, metallostatic pressure and the fill rate changes as soon as
metal is poured into the mould. Melt viscosity changes as the molten metal
cools [7]. Any variation in casting conditions results in unpredicted casting
results.
The next section describes the effect of variation in casting parameters on
the fluidity of metals as reported in the literature.
1.2.1 On the fluidity of metals

As the fluidity length is dependent on heat flux from molten metal to the
mould [6], which is a function of the temperature gradient between the metal
3
18
and mould, an increase in mould temperature would be beneficial for extend-

ing fluid transport [13, 14]. The fluidity length is inversely proportional to
the difference between melt temperature and mould temperature. However
an increase in mould temperature has only limited effect on fillability [10].
The effect of mould temperature becomes less significant for thin-walled
castings, especially when the flow rate is low [13]. This is attributed to the
fact that fillability is the controlling mechanism in thin sections and due to
the back pressure exerted by surface tension, flow rate is reduced resulting in
premature solidification.
The influence on fluidity of a change in pouring temperature is well docu-
mented [10]. A linear relation between fluidity and an increase in pouring
temperature has been reported [10]. However, above a certain critical tem-
perature, an increased superheat of the melt will not improve fillability and
interaction between metal head and surface tension will determine fillability
[10].
Metallostatic pressure which is defined as product of melt density and the
gravitational force applied on the melt as described in equation 1.1,
influences both, the flowability and fillability [10].
Pmetal =ρgh 1.1
Where
Pmetal is the metallostatic pressure (Pa)
ρ is the density of melt (kg m-3)
g is the gravity constant (9.8 m s-2)
h is the height of melt column before it enters the cavity (m)
The increased metal head increases the fluidity length and increases the filla-
bility into the thin cross-sections due to the available force by which the melt
is pressing the liquid melt into narrow sections counter balancing the effect
of surface tension [10]. Assuming non-wetting conditions, the following
conditions presented in equation 1.2 need to be met for metal to enter into a
thin section [15].
γ
ρgh- Pmould > 1.2
R
Where
g is the gravity constant (9.8 m s-2)
h is the height of melt column before it enters the cavity (m)
Pmould is the backpressure of gases inside the mould and surface tension effect
(Pa)
γ is the surface tension (N)
R is the radii of curvature of the meniscus in 𝑥𝑥 -axis (m-1)
4
19
It has been reported that casting under vacuum may increase fluidity because
of a reduction in back pressure due to evacuating gasses before pouring [16].
A linear relation between metal head and fluidity is reported [10, 17].
It has been reported [13] that the flowability can be increased by increasing
flow rate. A 70% improved fluidity was observed by increasing the flow rate
from 100g/s to 300g/s in a pre-heated (970 ̊ C) mould for a blade like geome-
try. By increasing the mould preheat temperature to 1150 ̊ C, a further in-
crease in the flowability is reported. However, the flow rate used in the
above-mentioned work [13] is low as compared to the actual casting condi-
tions in foundries [13]. In order to avoid premature freezing at the inlet of
mould cavity, the flow rate should be high at the mould entrance [10] .
Presented in equation 1.3 is an analytical expression relating velocity to
metallostatic head at the flow channel entrance [18].
1/2
2g(Z-y)
𝑉𝑉0 =[ ] 1.3
1+ 𝜙𝜙
Where
𝑉𝑉0 is the velocity of metal as it enters the test channel (m s−1)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2 )
Z is the height from entrance up to the free surface (m)
y is the decrease in effective metal head due to surface tension (m)
ϕ is a dimensionless number accounting for head loss at test channel entrance
As can be seen that entrance losses due to surface tension can substantially
lower the velocity, 𝑉𝑉0 and hence fluidity. Also from [18], we have an ex-
pression, as shown in equation 1.4, that relates the decrease in metal head
due to the surface tension.
4γ
y=[ ] 1.4
Rρg
Where
y is the decrease in effective metal head due to surface tension (m)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m s-2)
R is the radii of curvature of meniscus (m-1)
This relation implies that surface tension, γ, is an important factor affecting

the velocity. The drawback when increasing the velocity is that turbulence is
expected to be higher causing defects in the casting [8]. A useful expression,
as presented in equation 1.5 to evaluate the flow behavior inside the mould
cavity is Reynolds number [5]. A low Reynolds number means less turbulent
flow.
5
20
4RH Vd1
NRe =[ ] 1.5
μ
Where
NRe Reynolds number, a dimensionless number
RH is the hydraulic radius of the runner (ratio of cross-sectional area to its pe-
rimeter) (m)
μ
d
is the kinematic viscosity of the melt i.e. viscosity of a fluid per unit density
1
(m2/s)
V is the velocity of the melt (m s−1)
It has been found experimentally [5] that flow is laminar when the Reynolds
number is below 2000 where melt flow is dominated by viscosity. Above
that value, melt flow become turbulent due to inertia.
The mode of filling and tendency for surface break up where the flow goes
from continuous to intermittent can be estimated by the Weber number as
presented in equation 1.6.
ρrv2
We = 1.6
γ
Where
We is weber number, a dimensionless number
v is the velocity of the melt (m s−1)
r is the hydraulic diameter (wetted perimeter) (m)
Turbulent breakup of the surface during filling will occur when We >100
[19].
The transient nature of mould filling during casting process results in non-
steady state conditions where mould filling is affected by many variables
mentioned above in this section. These transient conditions are important to
consider when designing gating and feeding system. Simulation programs,
while used to facilitate gating design process, rely on simplified assumptions
to treat flow conditions as steady state which results in approximate calcula-
tions. The predictive capabilities of simulation are dependent on the accura-
cy of basic material properties and the precision in defining boundary condi-
tions which replicate the mould filling conditions.
The following section describes the effects of thermo-physical properties of
mould and alloy on the fluidity as well as highlight the uncertainty associat-
ed with availability and reliability of such data in literature. The section also
covers some of the reported thermal properties of the alloys used in this
work.
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21
1.2.2 Thermal properties of alloys and mould materials

In a casting process, fluidity length is a function of thermal properties related
to both the alloy and the mould system. An analytical expression for the
fluidity length is presented in Equation 1.7 [17].
1 1.7
𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉0 𝑡𝑡 (𝑘𝑘𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 + 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 ) ℎ 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2
𝐿𝐿𝑓𝑓 = [1 + � � ]
2ℎ (𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 − 𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀 ) 2 𝑉𝑉0 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝′ 𝜌𝜌′ 𝑘𝑘 ′
where
ρ is the density of liquid (kg m-3)
𝑡𝑡 is the thickness of thin flat test strip (m)
𝑉𝑉0 is the velocity of the liquid at entrance to the section (m s−1)
𝑘𝑘 is the fraction of solidified alloy
𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓 is the enthalpy of fusion (J kg-1)
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 is the specific heat of the liquid (J kg-1 K-1)
𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆 is the superheat defined as ((𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 − 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 ) (K)
ℎ is the heat transfer coefficient at the metal mould interface (W m-2K-1).
𝑇𝑇𝑀𝑀 is initial mould temperature (K)
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 is temperature of liquid metal at the time of pour (K)
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 is the length of choking zone in alloy solidification (m)
𝑘𝑘′ is the thermal conductivity of the mould (W m-1K-1)
𝜌𝜌′ is the density of the mould (kg m-3)
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝′ is the specific heat of the mould (J kg-1 K-1)
In addition to the significance of thermo-physical properties of alloy and

mould material, the equation also shows the dependency of fluidity length on
casting temperature, mould temperature and mould thickness. In order to
acquire thermal properties of alloys and mould materials, experimental char-
acterization methods can be employed. These methods include thermal anal-
ysis techniques as well as reverse modeling using computation program to
find best fit of properties based on known values of material behavior.
There are well established methods for measuring alloy properties using
experimental techniques, however, these measurements during heating and
cooling are made in an equilibrium state which is not the case in casting
where cooling rate during solidification is much higher. Similarly, for mould
material, the measurement of thermo-physical properties is challenging as
multiple layers of different materials are used in mould making, and the po-
rosity (and inter connected porosity) in the mould results in non-uniform
thermal properties [20]. The metastable nature of mould material that under-
goes several thermal cycles before final casting also results in unpredicted
thermal properties of the mould at the time of melt pouring and solidification
[21]. Reported thermo-physical properties of alloys and mould material used
in this work are presented in following sections.
1.2.2.1 Thermal properties of Alloy 17-4 PH

Alloy 17-4 PH is a precipitation hardening martensitic stainless steel with Cu
and Nb/Cb additions. The alloy is used in applications requiring high
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22
strength and a moderate level of corrosion resistance. Experimentally meas-

ured thermal properties of Alloy 17-4 PH were reviewed in this work. Rack
[22] reported specific heat, thermal diffusivity, linear thermal expansion and
thermal conductivity data measured as function of temperature. Figure 1.1a
show the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements for specific
heat at temperature range between 350 K to 925 K. Figure 1.1b shows ther-
mal diffusivity measured at 294 K to 1127 K using a laser flash method.
Thermal expansion data measured at temperature range between 298 K to
1178 K by using a dilatometer is presented in Figure 1.1c.[22] Thermal con-
ductivity can be calculated using specific heat 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 , thermal diffusivity α and
the density ρ corrected for temperature changes relative to the room tempera-
ture. The calculated density of 17-4 PH was reported to decrease from 7.75
g.cm-3 to 7.3 g.cm-3 at temperature range 20 ̊ C to 1200 ̊ C [23].
a)
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23
b)
c)
Figure 1.1 Thermo-physical data for 17 4 PH stainless steel a) specific heat
b) thermal diffusivity c) percentage thermal expansion [22]
1.2.2.2 Thermal properties of Alloy IN 718

IN718 can be referred to as nickel iron alloy [4]. It is a heat and corrosion
resistant alloy [24]. Since its development in 1960’s, the alloy has been used
9
24
in wide range of high temperature applications in different industries, espe-

cially for manufacturing of hot-gas-path components in gas turbines [25].
The presence of body centered tetragonal γ″ phase in IN718 not only provide
great strength but also improves weldability of the alloy [26]. Figure 1.2
shows thermal properties of IN 718 as reported in literature.
a)
b)
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25
c)
Figure 1.2 Thermo-physical data for IN718l, a) specific heat [27, 28], b)
thermal diffusivity [28, 29], c) density [30]
1.2.2.3 Thermal properties of Alloy Udimet 500

Udimet 500 is a nickel chromium cobalt alloy commonly used in gas tur-
bines in mid-1960’s [31]. The alloy is discontinued and has been replaced
with Udimet 520 [32], however, it is still a commonly cast alloy as it is used
in maintaining and refurbishing older industrial turbines. The alloy has good
ductility and can be formed by conventional forming techniques [33]. The
thermal expansion coefficient for Udimet 500 is reported between 1.28x10-5
K-1 to 1.80x10-5 K-1 for a temperature range between 400 K to 1300 K. Simi-
larly, the reported density of Udimet 500 is 8.053 g.cm-3 [34]. Reported
thermal conductivity of the alloy is 11.3 W.m-1K-1 [35]. The specific heat
capacity of Udimet 500 reported in the literature is to be 586 J.kg-1 K-1 at
100 ̊C [33].
1.2.2.4 Thermal properties of Mould material

Investment casting moulds are made by applying number of separate layers
of ceramic slurry followed by coating with course grit, often called stucco.
The slurry is usually water based or alcohol-based silica binder with addi-
tional additives to improve the rheology of the slurry. Although, aluminosili-
cate slurry is also used in investment casting foundries, the silica based slur-
ry is reported to be more stable [36].
The material used for stucco, varies depending upon availability and cost.
The ceramic materials commonly used as stucco are silica sand, aluminosili-
cate and alumina. It has been reported that moulds made using a fused silica
stucco have better mechanical properties when used in combination with
silica slurries [36]. Fused silica moulds are reported to be lighter in weight
11
26
due to lower specific gravity. The thermal conductivity is also lower for
moulds with fused silica as backup layers compared to moulds made with
aluminosilicate [36].
The thermal conductivity (λ) of the mould material is an important property
as it determines the rate of heat flow through the mould away from the melt
which defines the solidification time [37]. A higher value of λ shortens the
solidification time and increases maximum temperature of the mould. Values
of thermal conductivity of silica based mould measured using the hotwired
method are reported to range from 0.55 W.m-1K-1 to 0.75 W.m-1K-1 while
slightly lower values 0.45 W.m-1K-1 to 0.60 W.m-1K-1 are reported for mould
material containing zircon flour [20]. However, the anisotropic nature of
mould material in directionally layered structures is not considered in the
hotwired method where isotropic conditions are assumed in all radial direc-
tions [20]. For aluminosilicate based mould material, the value of thermal
conductivity is reported between 0.8 W.m-1K-1 to 1.2 W.m-1K-1 at tempera-
ture range 573 K to 1173 K. The measurements were made by passing a
measurable heat flux through a known thickness of mould sample and meas-
uring resulting temperature gradient to calculate thermal conductivity [38].
The specific heat capacity (𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ) of mould defines the amount of energy need-
ed to heat up the mould to a certain temperature. The higher the 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 the short-
er the solidification time [37]. The specific heat capacity of silica based
mould material has been reported between 700 J.kg-1 ̊ C-1 to 1300 J.kg-1 ̊ C-1
at temperature range between 200 ̊ C to 1200 ̊ C when measured using an
improved laser flash method [20]. A higher value of 𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 , i.e. 700 J.kg-1 ̊ C-1
to 1800 J.kg-1 ̊ C-1 is reported for aluminosilicate moulds when measured
using improved laser flash method at temperature range between 200 ̊ C to
1200 ̊ C [20]. The lower heat capacity of fused silica compared to alumino-
silicate also makes it a favorable choice for thin-walled castings [36].
Zirconium silicate, or zircon, is used as grit for the primary layer as well as
filler material in the slurry [5]. Most aerospace foundries use fine zircon
flour (325 mesh) in the slurry for prime layers. However, It has been report-
ed that the thermo-physical properties of zircon based face coat have a neg-
ligible effect on solidification behavior of a casting [39]. For manufacture of
thin-walled castings, a coarser prime layer (120 mesh flour) has been report-
ed beneficial due to the lower heat transfer coefficient resulting from less
available contact surface between mould and melt [36].
1.2.3 Simulation aided design of the casting process

In investment casting foundries, traditionally the gating and feeding design
has relied on the skills of casting technicians and engineers based on trial
and error experiments to find an optimized gating and feeding design result-
ing in high cost and long development lead times. An optimized gating and
feeding system should fill the mould with a sufficient pressure gradient and
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27
uninterrupted, laminar supply of melt to the mould cavity while compensat-

ing for solidification shrinkages [8]. Design parameters that typically vary
from one design to another include location of in-gates, position-
ing/orientation of the mould cavity with respect to gating, flow pattern varia-
tion etc. [40].
The use of simulation has become a vital step to design optimized gating in
many foundries. However, the complexity of mathematics required to model
the flow and solidification process results in increased simulation time and
requires advanced computing systems as well as user’s experience to inter-
pret the results [41]. Without a systematic simulation workflow, the simula-
tion process may result in unreliable representation of casting process as well
as more cost and time than actual casting trials in foundry [40]. The validity
of simulation is largely dependent upon the accuracy of material properties
i.e. mould, alloy, insulation and filters etc., metallurgical models used to
represent flow and solidification behavior as well as accuracy in defining
boundary conditions [40]. The boundary conditions are influenced by
equipment and operation related variations arising from mould handling and
melt pouring [41]. In addition to that, every foundry has a unique mould
system with specific properties. Alloy composition also varies with in certain
range depending upon the source of material. Similarly, properties of insula-
tion material, the type and pour size of filters as well as casting environment
factors such as humidity are foundry and process specific and can vary sig-
nificantly between foundries [42].
The effect of casting parameters such as pouring rate, casting temperature
and mould pre-heat temperature on mould filling has been extensively inves-
tigated in literature [10]. However, the variations in the targeted values of
these parameters in foundries due to the semi-automated nature of operation
and equipment wear is not reported and discussed. Similarly, although the
physical principles governing fill and solidification are well established, the
relative importance of fluctuation in casting parameters on simulation of
castability of thin-walled components is not reported as is also concluded in
another study [43]. There is also lack of literature on effective use of simula-
tion tools for design of casting process and mould feeder system.
This work is focused on evaluating the effect of process variations on casta-
bility of thin-walled structures. The results are used to proposes a gating and
process design methodology, as presented in section 4.4. The proposed
methodology employs simulation based process design framework to devel-
op reliable casting process in order to reduce the manufacturing lead time
and process development cost as well as minimize foundry rejections.
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28
14
29
2 RESEARCH APPROACH
This chapter describes the methodology employed for the conducted re-
search. The motivation for the research and formulated research questions
are presented. The validity and quality of research approach used in this
work is also briefly discussed.
2.1 Aim and objective of this work

The aim of this work was to support the development of the ability to manu-
facture components with lower wall thickness typically below 2mm to re-
duce overall weight of engineering systems, such as turbines in order to im-
prove fuel consumption and reduce environmental hazardous emissions.
The objective was to develop a process design methodology for thin-walled
castings, to improve the reliability of manufacturing process and to reduce
the lead time for process development in general and in particular for thin-
walled components that commonly are difficult to cast with sufficient
soundness.
The scope of the work is:
 To identify and evaluate the effects of the process variations on
castability of thin-walled castings.
 To evaluate the effect of process variation on predictive capabilities
of simulation.
 To evaluate the use of simulation based approach in designing cast-
ing process for thin-walled castings.
 Developing process design methodology to produce thin-walled
components efficiently.
2.2 Delimitations
Castability of thin-walled sections is affected by casting conditions during
mould filling and solidification as presented in previous chapter. However,
this work is focused on the limitations imposed by casting process related
variations and resulting challenges in casting of thin-walled sections. While
evaluating effects of casting process related variations,
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30
 Only variations in casting parameters were investigated in detail.

Variations related to other process parameters, such as parameters
related to pattern assembly, mould making and foundry environment
were not investigated.
 All experiments and investigations were performed at one foundry
and hence process variations are foundry specific.
 Simulation calculation time was a restriction as too many iterations
available for process development phase can take several days to
perform simulations.
 In simulation based process design framework, the design was opti-
mized only for shrinkage and misrun as not all defects can be pre-
dicted accurately with currently available casting simulation tools
[44].
2.3 Research questions

Although, the physics describing the castability of metals in foundries is well
established, the foundry specific variations in critical casting parameters and
their impact on casting quality is not well documented. These process varia-
tions limit the use of simulation as these variations are hard to predict and
replicate when defining boundary conditions with simulation software. A
systematic approach to minimize these variations as well as framework to
implement simulation in design process can result in faster development
process in foundries. In order to develop a process design methodology to
aid manufacturing process, following aspects are classified and further
developed into research questions.
 All foundry processes generate a certain level of rejection that is
closely related to the type of casting, the processes used and the
equipment available. It is common in foundries that the causes of re-
jections remain unknown due to the complexity of the manufactur-
ing process and the manual nature of the work. Casting of thin-
sections is challenging due to premature solidification in thin-walled
sections and long feeding distances often resulting in incomplete fill-
ing, cold shuts and shrinkage porosity. Although relation between
casting parameters and castablity has been investigated in detail, the
significance of process parameters in relation to common foundry
defects has not been well documented.
RQ 1: What are the important process parameters for
castability of thin-walled structures in a foundry set-up? (Papers
I, II and III)
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31
 By identifying critical variations in the process and their effect on

casting parameters, it is possible to optimize the casting conditions
to improve castability. Although the effects of casting parameters on
castability in general is well established, the effect of process varia-
tion and resulting fluctuations in the targeted values of casting pa-
rameters hence the reliability of casting process is not investigated
and reported.
RQ 2: What are the sources of variations in the casting
process and how do they affect casting parameters? (Papers III
and IV)
 The characterization of material and identification of boundary con-

ditions is important for reliable simulations due to the fact that every
foundry has unique set-up in terms of its mould system, alloys and
the pouring conditions. Although, significance of material data and
boundary conditions has been reported in literature, the change in
boundary conditions due to process variations and resulting effect on
validity of simulation for thin-walled castings is not investigated and
reported.
RQ 3: How accurately does simulation predicts the casta-
bility of thin-walled castings? (Paper V)
 The complexity of mathematical models required to model flow and

solidification processes has resulted in increased simulation time and
has required advanced computing systems as well as experienced
users to interpret the results. Without a systematic framework, the
simulation aided design process may result in more cost and time
than development by trial and error approach. There is lack of litera-
ture addressing systemic implementation of simulation in process
design for thin-walled castings.
RQ 4: How can simulation be implemented in design of
the casting process to achieve reliability and repeatability in
manufacturing of thin-walled castings? (Paper VI)
2.4 The research process

Through empirical observation and analysis relevant to casting defects in
thin-walled castings, defect formation mechanisms in thin-walled castings
was defined and evaluated by performing experiments as well as validated
using simulations. Methods to avoid the conditions which result in defect
formation were proposed and evaluated. The results of the research are trans-
17
32
formed into a process design methodology to reduce lead time and to devel-
op reliable manufacturing process for thin-walled castings. Figure 2.1 shows
the research process where the aim and objective of the work are outlined.
Figure 2.1 Research process and objectives
By performing literature survey and gap analysis, scope of the work was
defined, presented as problem statement in Figure 2.1. Based on the problem
statement, the scope of work was divided in to four research questions. In
order to address the research questions, research work was conducted as
described in steps below.
Step 1: Theoretical knowledge to develop cause and effect diagrams
In this cycle the research question 1 was answered by acquiring theoretical

knowledge on various aspects related to the fluidity of metals, especially in
investment cast moulds as summarized in section 1.2. This provided baseline
knowledge on defect formation mechanism for thin-walled castings which
led to design further studies. The literature review was conducted according
to guidelines proposed by Rumsey [45]. In addition to a literature review,
corrective measures taken in the foundry to eliminate defects were investi-
gated. Also archived reports on completed projects were reviewed to identify
the most significant and commonly occurring casting defects as well as rele-
vant casting parameters that influence defect formation, as described for
18
33
study 1 in Table 2.1. The cause of variation in defect rate from one produc-
tion run to another were evaluated using experimental studies in the next
cycle.
Step 2: Experimental work to evaluate the effect of variation in casting

parameters
In this cycle, research question 2 was answered by identifying the process

uncertainties originating from the casting operations and equipment as well
as their impact on casting parameters was established, as described in Study
2 in Table 2.1. Experiments were needed, as there were no availible data
covering the effects of variation in casting parameters. In order to evaluate
significance of variation in casting parameters, a range of values of casting
parameters were intentionally induced in an experimental plan and tested in
the foundry using thin-walled test geometries as described in Study 3a, Table
2.1. This provided knowledge about the boundary conditions that influence
the effect of established crucial casting parameters. In next cycle the results
were validated using simulations.
Step 3: Simulation work to verify the effect of process variation
In this cycle, the research question 3 was answered. In order to evaluate the
predictive capabilities of the commercial simulation tool [46] under best
practice conditions as well as to verify the significance of process variations,
the foundry conditions were replicated in simulation software and were
compared with specially designed test geometries, as described in study 3b,
Table 2.1. The results were used in next cycle where a simulation based pro-
cess design framework was proposed and evaluated.
Step 4: Concept of simulation based process design framework
In this cycle, research question 4 was answered by developing framework

for a reliable casting process using simulation and design of experiments
(DoE) approach. The Response surface method was employed in DoE [47].
The Nelder–Mead method was used in identifying optimized values of the
casting parameters [48]. The validity of framework was evaluated using a
commercial cast component in the foundry and a process window for im-
proved casting quality was identified. The response of tested framework, i.e.
the optimized process settings was evaluated for validity in relation to estab-
lished science describing how casting parameters effect castability. This
process is described for study 4a in Table 2.1. The framework was used in
the implementation of the process design methodology to support the relia-
ble casting process development and reduce lead time for manufacturing of
thin-walled components.
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34
As an outcome of this thesis, a process design methodology is proposed

which builds on the findings of this research work. The abstract concepts
need to be evaluated by testing on various commercial products in the found-
ry and should be documented and communicated with experienced industrial
engineers and the research community for verification. Study 4b, Table 2.1
describes the process. This learning cycle is iterated until the research objec-
tive is realized.
2.5 Quality of the research approach

Due to the complexity of the casting process, many parameters affect the
final quality of casting. Without careful experimentation it is usually not
possible to identify the direct relation between the casting conditions and the
quality of castings. In this work experimentation was used as a method to
find cause and effect relations as well as to exclude the effect of confounding
factors which are not possible in other research methods. Bottom-gated and
top-gated mould filling system were used in experimental plan to ensure that
results are not affected by mode of filling. Similarly, test geometries used in
this work were specially designed to capture aspects of castablity focused in
this work, i.e. fillablity and soundness of castings. However, experiments in
an industrial environment do not allow for complete control of all the critical
variables. Although this work, was performed according to an experimental
plan, based on significant casting parameters, only a limited number of pa-
rameters were analyzed, and thus further investigations are required. Similar-
ly, the use of a simulation based process design framework has limited ap-
plication and does not completely preclude the need of experimental casting
trails as not all defects, such as entrainment defects and uneven grain size
distribution can be predicted by existing commercial simulation tools.
20
Table 2.1 Overview of research cycles

Study Objectives Method Outcome RQ Paper
1 Identifying cause of major Literature survey, evaluation of corrective measures Ishikawa diagrams were established to illustrate the 1 I, II
foundry defects and for ongoing projects in foundry and review of archived primary mechanism and parameters critical to casting
identifying relevant reports on completed projects. defect formation.
process parameters
2 Identifying the source of Empirical study by evaluating the five casting opera- Process variations resulted in significance fluctuations 2 III
variations in casting tions, i.e. pouring time, lead pouring time, ladle idling in targeted values of casting parameters and hence
process and effect of time, slag generation time and slag removal time variation in quality of castings.
variations on casting yield performed by four casting shifts. The shift behavior
and resulting variations were analyzed.
3a Evaluation of the effect of Experimental study by casting a test geometry with Fillability and castability were significantly affected by 2 IV
variation in casting pa- four different thickness, 0.7mm, 1mm, 1.5mm and fluctuations in casting parameters. Bottom-gated sys-
rameters on castability of 2mm thickness at two intentionally induced levels of tem was less affected by variation in casting parameters
thin-walled structures casting parameters, i.e. mould temperature and melt as compared to top-gated system.
temperature. Two types of filling system, i.e. top-gated
and bottom-gated were evaluated.
3b Evaluation of the effect of Setting up a reliable simulation tool using character- Simulation software was capable of predicting fillabil- 3 V
process variation on ized data for foundry materials and replicating the ity behavior if provided with reliable material data and
predictive capabilities of casting process in simulation software. Using a special- boundary conditions, however, the effect of surface
simulation ly designed test geometry, simulations and cast sam- tension was not accounted for by commercial software
ples were compared in terms of fillability. used in this work.
4a To develop a Simulation Using response surface method, DoE was designed. The simulation based process design framework Out- 4 VI
and DoE based process Simulations were performed according to DoE and line of process design methodology for reliable and
design approach regression analysis was performed to find suitable faster development of casting process.
process conditions.
4b Verification of process Comparison of development cost and lead time to Reduction of lead times for development; improved Thesis
design methodology using quote and manufacture component before implementa- quality of quotes as well as reliability of manufacturing
commercial products. tion and after implementation of methodology. process resulting in cost savings.
21
35
22
36
37
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
This chapter describes the experimental work and analysis techniques used
in this research. Equipment and materials used in this work as well as exper-
imental procedures and conditions are also presented.
3.1 Equipment and materials

The experimental work was performed in a medium size foundry in which
casting in air and casting in vacuum was performed. Production scale cast-
ing conditions were used in all experimental work. Commercial grade alloys
used in high temperature applications were used in this work as shown in
Table 3.1. Mould making was performed using automated mould making
line in controlled environment. Wax patterns were made using wax with 35
% filler content in a hydraulic injection moulding machines. Runners for
gating and feeding were made using unfilled wax. Pattern assembly was
performed manually by skilled operators.
A standard ceramic mould was used in the work consisting of three different
material layers.
• First Prime coat (0.15mm) applied using water based colloidal silica
slurry containing CoAlO3 and ZrSiO4 (325Mesh) as additives and
Al2O3 (90 FEPA Grit) as stucco.
• Second prime coat (0.30mm) applied using of water based colloidal
silica slurry containing ZrSiO4 (200 mesh) and stuccoed with Al2O3
(54 FEPA Grit).
• Backup coat (8mm) applied using water based colloidal silica slurry
containing fused silica, SiO2 (270 mesh), stuccoed with AlSiO3
(16/30 mesh) and fused silica.
The insulation material used was a fiber blanket consisting of 48% Al2O3
and 52% SiO2. The filters used in the casting experiments were 10 PPI mesh
size.
Table 3.1 shows the alloys used in the experimental work and the measure-
ment techniques used to characterize their properties.
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38
Table 3.1 Alloys used in this research

Properties 17-4 PH IN718 Udimet 500
Composition Lab. analysis Lab. analysis Lab. analysis
Thermo-physical data Lab. analysis Lab. analysis JMat.Pro
3.2 Common foundry defects and cause of defects

As described for study 1, Table 2.1, a literature survey was performed to find
reported causes for formation of different casting defects as well as to de-
termine the effect of process parameters on fillability of thin-walled casting.
The term process parameters here refers to parameters relevant to moulding
and wax injection as well as melting and pouring whereas term casting pa-
rameters refers only to parameters related to the melting and pouring pro-
cess. Additionally, archived reports [49-51] on the qualification process of
commercial products in the foundry were studied and analyzed to develop
cause and effect diagrams. Experiments were performed to evaluate the ef-
fect of thickness of mould and insulation on feeding distance for geometries
with varying thickness profile, such as turbine blades. Moulds with two lev-
els of thickness were evaluated for effect of mould thickness on feeding dis-
tance. Similarly, using various insulation pattern, attempts were made to
determine the effect of controlled cooling on shrinkage porosity.
3.3 Process variations in casting process

The experimental work was performed at two casting stations using two
different types of furnaces, as described for study 2, Table 2.1. Figure 3.1
shows the casting in air set-up where a pre-heat furnace, intermediate cast-
ing ladle and melting furnace is shown. The casting operation including
mould handling, ladle pouring, mould pouring, and mould placement are
manually controlled and depends upon the skills of operators. In Figure 3.2
the casting in vacuum set-up is shown where the casting process is semi-
automated. Mould handling requires operator involvement when loading the
mould in to the vacuum furnace. The mould is automatically transferred
from the loading chamber to the vacuum casting chamber. Similarly, the
pouring rate depends upon the skill of operator as well as furnace tilt mecha-
nism. Mould hanging, and positioning are mainly equipment related and
highly sensitive to the wear and tear.
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39
Figure 3.1 Air cast induction furnace set-up
Figure 3.2 Vacuum induction furnace set-up
The study on process variation was performed both for casting in air and
casting in vacuum. In the casting in air set-up, variations in casting parame-
ters originating from manual casting were evaluated, where as in the casting
in vacuum set-up equipment related variations were evaluated. In the casting
in air set-up, casting practices of four groups of operators were evaluated.
Each group consisted of one operator and one support person. In total, 5
operations, i.e. lead pouring time, pouring time, ladle idling time, slag gener-
ation time and slag removal time were analyzed. The casting practices of
each group were monitored by recording their routine and execution time for
5 casting trees i.e. pattern assemblies in row. Time measurements were per-
formed using a stop-watch while the operations were video recorded to veri-
fy the recorded time as well as to identify abnormalities in operations. The
effect of variation in casting practices and their effect on targeted values of
casting parameters, i.e. casting temperature, mould temperature and pour rate
25
40
was evaluated by in-situ experiments as well as by examining empirical evi-

dence. In order to determine the relation between variation in targeted values
of casting parameters and the casting defects, rejections reported for each
group of operators were obtained from the foundry’s Enterprise resource
planning (ERP) system. Rejection statistics for one production lot from each
group were evaluated. Each production lot consisted of 25 cast trees, where
each tree consisted of 20 components.
In order to evaluate the sensitivity to the variation in casting parameters for
different thickness of castings, a special test geometry in four different
thicknesses 0.7mm, 1mm, 1.5mm and 2mm were designed, as described for
study 3a, Table 2.1. Two filling system designs, i.e. bottom-gated and top-
gated were used to evaluate the sensitivity of the filling systems to the varia-
tion in casting parameters. Casting temperature and mould temperatures
were varied at two levels. In total, 8 test set-ups were designed for this study.
Figure 3.3 shows the geometries of varying thickness mounted on two types
of filling systems. Four casting trees were manufactured for each casting
set-up, giving total of 32 casting trees. The geometries with thicknesses of
0.7mm and 1mm were damaged during the mould making process due to
impact from rotation in slurry tanks and sand sprinkling and hence are ex-
cluded from further analysis. Only 1.5mm and 2mm geometries were evalu-
ated. By varying the level of values of casting temperature and mould pre-
heat temperature, the effect of variation on castability of different cavity
thicknesses was evaluated.
a) b)
Figure 3.3 Test geometry and the gating system designed to evaluate casta-
bility of different thickness as affected by variation in casting parameters.
Only 1.5mm and 2mm test geometries were analyzed in this work a) bottom-
gated system b) top- gated system
Using image analysis software, ImageJ™ [52], the filled area in each test
blade was measured. X-ray analysis was performed to evaluate the shrinkage
26
41
porosity in each casting. Metallographic analysis of the cast samples was

performed using Olympus BX51M optical microscope as well as Hitachi S-
3700N scanning electron microscope. Liquid penetrant inspection was per-
formed on all cast test samples to see the distribution of shrinkage.
In the vacuum furnace, variation in targeted values of casting parameters due
to equipment wear and tear was evaluated and was validated with simula-
tion, as described for study 3b, Table 2.1. For the simulation accuracy, the
software was provided with thermo-physical data for alloy and mould mate-
rial as well as boundary conditions replicating the foundry process. In order
to specify boundary conditions related to mould temperature and pouring
rate for simulation, in-situ experiments were performed. A ‘’K’’ type ther-
mocouple was used to determine temperature inside the mould cavity. Pour-
ing rate was estimated from the variation in melt stream diameter over time
during the tilt pouring sequence by analyzing the video recording and using
image analysis techniques using ImageJ™ software [52]. A special test ge-
ometry with varying wall thickness (cross-sectional thickness) was designed
to achieve certain degree of un-filled volume in order to enable comparison
of extent of filled volume and thus have a quantitative and qualitative com-
parison between simulation and cast samples. The test geometry is shown in
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Test geometry used in evaluation of simulation predictive capabil-

ities [53]
Casting trials were performed where top-gated and bottom-gated moulds

were prepared and cast at two different casting temperatures and pour times.
27
42
In total 8 casting trees were prepared where top-gated trees consisted of four
test geometries whereas bottom-gated trees consisted of two test geometries
giving a total of twenty-four test geometries for evaluation. Process varia-
tions originating from the equipment were monitored and their effect on
fillability was then evaluated by comparing simulations with cast results. For
fillability measurements, the images of cast samples were taken by using
Leica DFC295 digital microscope camera. The images of simulated samples
were directly taken from simulation software. GIMPTM [54] Image analyses
software was used for evaluation of images and further processing. Methods
to measure thermo-physical properties of mould material and alloy used in
simulation work are described in the next section.
3.4 Thermo-physical properties of materials for

simulation
The melt density, specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity as
well as liquidus and solidus temperatures are some of the important alloy
properties for flow and solidification simulations [55]. Similarly, for the
mould, the thermal expansion coefficient, specific heat, thermal conductivity
and mould density are important. Since each foundry has a unique ceramic
materials system for making moulds, which is often a foundry’s proprietary
art, the properties of the mould material vary from one foundry to another.
Similarly, the thermo-physical data for proprietary alloys for high tempera-
ture applications is not readily available in the public domain, which can
effect the ability to simulate casting process in these alloys [41].
Thermo-physical data for alloy and mould materials were measured using
experimental techniques. The density of alloys and mould materials was
determined using a NETZSCH DIL 402 C dilatometer. The density at differ-
ent temperature was derived from thermal expansion data using equation 3.1
presented below.
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 3 3.1
𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌0 /(1 + )
𝐿𝐿0
Where
𝜌𝜌 is the density (kg m-3)
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 is the change in length (m)
𝐿𝐿0 is the original length (m)
𝜌𝜌0 material density at reference temperature (kg m-3)
𝜌𝜌0 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑉𝑉0 was determined by means of hydrostatic weighing method [30].

Specific heat and heat of fusion of the alloy and mould materials were meas-
ured by differential scanning calorimetry using a NETZSCH DSC 404 C
instrument. Specific heat was measured by means of comparative method
28
43
(ASTM 1269) by using three DSC runs, i.e. empty crucible, crucible +
standard (sapphire) and crucible + sample of alloy.
The thermal diffusivity, α, of the alloys and mould material was measured
using Netzsch LFA 427, Laser-Flash equipment where one surface of the
sample was subjected to high intensity short duration radiant laser pulses
while the temperature rise on the opposing surface was recorded. Thermal
diffusivity can be determined using following equation 3.2 [56].
α = 0.1388 𝐿𝐿2 /𝑡𝑡1/2 3.2
Where
𝐿𝐿 is the thickness of the sample (m)
𝑡𝑡1/2 is the time it takes to reach temperature of the rare end to 50% of its maximum
value (s)
Thermal conductivity was calculated using density, specific heat capacity

and thermal diffusivity of the mould [57]. The equation 3.3 below was used
to calculate thermal conductivity.
𝜆𝜆(𝑇𝑇) = 𝛼𝛼 (𝑇𝑇)𝜌𝜌(𝑇𝑇)𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 (𝑇𝑇) 3.3
Where
𝜆𝜆 is the thermal conductivity (W m-1K-1)
𝛼𝛼 is the thermal diffusivity (m2 s-1)
𝜌𝜌 is the density (kg m-3)
𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 is the specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)
HTC (heat transfer coefficient) was calculated by using thermal conductivity

of the mould material and the surface contact between melt and mould. Vis-
cosity of melt was taken from literature [58].
3.5 Predictive capabilities of casting simulation

A specialized commercial software package, Nova Flow & Solid [46] de-
signed for simulation of investment casting was used in this work to ensure
relevant metallurgical modeling. Material data for the alloy and mould, ac-
quired using the characterization methods described in the previous sections,
was introduced in the simulation software. The properties of insulation mate-
rial and the filter material were obtained from the manufacturer [59]. The
boundary conditions were set by replicating the pouring rate, mould tem-
perature, casting temperature as well as mould positioning at the time of
pouring as measured/observed in the foundry. The test geometry used in
evaluation of the simulation is shown in Figure 3.4. Sensitivity analysis for
software settings, i.e. mesh size, shrinkage model, heat transfer model and
fluid flow model were performed using inverse modeling technique [43]. In
29
44
an inverse modeling technique, a specially design geometry is cast and com-

pared with simulation. The simulation settings were then adjusted by varying
sensitivity level of software settings to obtain a good match between the
simulation results and the casting results. Design of a test geometry was
based on critical aspects of flow and solidification. Inverse modeling used to
calibrate the simulation software for the material and process studies in this
work is shown schematically in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.5 Method to trim simulation for designing manufacturing

process[60]
In addition to that, the adjustments offered by the software were mesh sizing,
setting related to flow restriction through mesh and the graphical settings for
visual representation of process.
3.6 Framework for designing casting process using

simulation
In order to use simulation effectively in casting process design, a simulation
based process design framework was developed and evaluated in this work,
as described for study 4a, Table 2.1. Figure 3.6 shows the components of the
framework. The framework was based in two major components: 1) a relia-
ble simulation program and b) a reliable method for experimental design.
30
45
Using simulation and DoE, the effect of independent variables on response

variables was determined.
Figure 3.6: Simulation based process design framework leading to proposed

process design methodology [60]
In order to set-up reliable simulations, thermo-physical properties for the

foundry materials and the boundary conditions were adopted from work
described in section 3.3 and 3.4. Other casting conditions, for example,
mould tilting, temperature drop in the mould during transportation and tem-
perature drop in the melt during pouring were obtained experimentally and
accounted for in simulating casting process as described in section 3.5.
In order to identify relevant casting parameters for experimental design, the
significance of each factor i.e. casting parameter on the selected response
variable i.e. the quality requirement (e.g. shrinkage) was illustrated as cause
and effect diagrams, as described in section 3.2. Two types of gating systems
were designed for this work, one following the industry standard practices
and the other with improved melt flow and mould filling conditions [61]. To
design an experimental plan, the intensity of control factors i.e. upper and
lower limits for selected casting parameters, were determined from literature
[10]. Casting temperature, mould temperature, and mould thickness were
defined as control factor whereas shrinkage porosity and misrun were chosen
as response variables. A statistical software package, Design-ExpertTM [62]
was used to perform DoE and establishing a design matrix. A distance-based
response surface method (RSM), where a set of points spread (approximate-
ly) evenly over the feasible design region can be obtained was used for DoE,
therefore only the upper and lower limit were set for each factor. In total
fourteen test iterations were generated by the RSM method and were simu-
lated. Since the numerical evaluations cannot involve any noise parameters
[63], no repetition of the experiments was performed. A regression analysis
was performed to correlate the responses with factors.
31
46
To perform numerical optimization, the factor settings that met the defined
goals, i.e. material optimization, energy efficiency and robustness of gating
design were set to target values. Settings used in optimization process are
shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Settings used in the optimization process
Factor /Response Range Optimization target
Mould thickness 8mm-12mm Minimize
Casting temperature 1500 ̊ C -1560 ̊ C Minimize
Mould temperature 900 ̊ C -1100 ̊ C In range 900 ̊ C -1050 ̊ C
Casting design Level 1 and 2 no
Shrinkage Minimize (Importance 3)
Misrun Minimize (Importance 5)
Similarly, the responses were also adjusted through an importance factor in

the optimization process. The optimization then maximized the Desirability
function through a Nelder-Mead optimization algorithm [48].The optimized
settings obtained from the framework were compared with the optimized
setting used in the foundry for a particular product to validate the proposed
framework.
The implementation of simulation based process design framework was in-
tended for preliminary casting design to support quotation, cost estimation
and as a basis for preliminary casting trials in order to determine the level of
complexity or technical risk involved in development of a new part.
3.7 Process design methodology for repeatable and

reliable casting process development
The outcome of this research was transformed into a process design method-
ology which encompasses standardized operation instructions for different
casting processes, a well-defined process for gating design as well as simula-
tion based process design framework as described for Study 4b, Table 2.1.
32
47
4 SUMMMARY OF RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION
This chapter includes the results of this research work. A brief description of
common foundry defects and casting parameters significant to those defects
are summarized in the start of the chapter. The effect of process variation
originating from casting operations and equipment on the castability of thin-
walled structures as well as validity of simulation is evaluated and discusses.
The process design framework using simulation and DoE is evaluated and
discussed. Finally, a process design methodology based on the outcome of
the research is proposed to facilitate the manufacturing of thin-walled com-
ponents in foundry settings.
4.1 Castability of thin-walled structures (Papers I,

II, and VI)
In order to answer the first research question about the significance of cast-
ing parameters in relation to castability of thin-walled sections, it is im-
portant to identify sources of rejections in the foundry. The investigation
performed as part of study 1, showed that approximately 80% of defects
were related to mould filling and feeding. The pareto chart shown in Figure
4.1 presents the number of rejected/reworked components produced during
the year 2015 by casting in air and casting under vacuum processes. From
the chart it can be seen that misruns, porosity and inclusions dominate and
accounted for approximately 80% of the defects.
33
48
Figure 4.1 Occurrence of reject/re-work in a foundry studied in this work

[60]
It is suggested in the literature that the major factors contributing to the oc-
currence of such defects are associated with gating design and casting condi-
tions [8] [64]. The causes and effects diagrams (Ishikawa diagrams) for each
of the four major casting defects developed during the work are shown in
Figure 4.2a-c.
a)
34
49
b)
c)
Figure 4.2 Potential factors causing formation of casting defects (a) Casting
Misruns (b) Shrinkage defects (c) Inclusions and Entrainment defects.[60]
Further investigations on commercial cast components, as described in sec-

tion 3.2 revealed that the greater mould thickness combined with slower the
cooling rate by applying insulation to the mould can increase the feeding
distance hence reducing shrinkage related defects in geometries with varying
thickness, such as turbine blades. Figure 4.3a and Figure 4.4a show the ef-
fect of mould thickness and different insulation patterns on a typical shrink-
age in tip-shroud of turbine blades. Insulation layers also resulted in mini-
mizing mould temperature loss during mould handling hence increasing
feeding distance. A higher mould temperature combined with high melt tem-
35
50
perature resulted in reduction in size of porous zone in tip-shroud of the

blade. The misrun related defects were mainly affected by casting tempera-
ture and gating and feeding design. Increasing the casting temperature im-
proved the fillability and feeding distance in thin-sections, however, it re-
sulted in large grain size in thick sections for a turbine blade as shown in
Figure 4.3b and Figure 4.4b.
a)
b)
Figure 4.3 Effect of mould thickness on shrinkage porosity and grain size a)
effect of mould thickness on shrinkage porosity at different temperatures b)
effect of mould thickness on grain size at different temperatures.[61]
36
51
a)
b)
Figure 4.4 effect of controlled heat removal (by changing insulation pattern)
on grain size and shrinkage porosity a) effect on grain size b) effect on
shrinkage porosity [61]
Figure 4.5 Shows how delay in casting and the resulting drop in mould tem-
perature affected feeding distance for a turbine blade where shrinkage at the
tip shroud was a major problem. The time dependent temperature drop in the
empty mould is shown in Figure 4.8. The results highlighted the significance
of variation in casting parameters on the castability of components, which
37
52
led to further investigations of sources of process variation in the foundry

and their impact on component rejection rates.
Figure 4.5 effect of mould temperature drop on feeding distance
4.2 Foundry process variations (Papers III and IV)

The second research question concerning the source of process variations
and their impact on castability was addressed by empirical observation of the
variation in process conditions in the foundry and the resulting fluctuations
in casting parameters, as described in section 3.2. It was observed that opera-
tor dependent variations have a significant effect on the foundry rejections
and the extent of re-work in the foundry. Variation in handling practices
resulted in differences in processing time for various casting operations
which directly resulted in variation in mould, melt and ladle temperature.
Similarly, variation in handling practices also caused changes in flow rate
and the fill pattern as it depends on placement of the mould during the cast-
ing practice.
Figure 4.6a and b show that lead pouring time and pouring time varies sig-
nificantly from one production shift to another. Lead pouring time is defined
here as time elapsed between removing the mould from the pre-heat furnace
and the start of pouring. Pouring time is defined as time it takes to fill the
mould with melt. Figure 4.6a shows that lead pouring time varied for differ-
ent groups of casting operators from 10 seconds to 25 seconds which result-
ed in a drop in mould temperature between 50 °C to 100 °C, as shown in
38
53
Figure 4.8. Similarly, the pouring time varied between 4 seconds to 8 sec-
onds, as shown in Figure 4.6b, which had significant effect on calculated
pour rate i.e. from 3 kg/s to 1.25 kg/s. The effects of pour rate become sig-
nificant in casting of thin-walled sections. Literature [18] suggest that the
fluidity length decreases with increasing fill time from 0.4s to 0.8s. The ef-
fect was most pronounced when less superheat was available.
a)
b)
Figure 4.6 Variations depending on casting groups a) lead pouring (casting)
time b) pouring time.
Figure 4.7 shows that ladle idling time, i.e. waiting time for the ladle before
it was filled with molten metal from the furnace varied from 17 seconds to
39
54
27 seconds for different groups of casters. A 125 °C drop in ladle tempera-

ture was observed when the ladle idling time exceeded 25 seconds as shown
in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.7 Idling time for ladle before it is poured with melt
The drop-in ladle temperature results in a drop in melt temperature when the
melt is poured into the ladle. Once the ladle is removed from crucible pre-
heat furnace, the temperature drops rapidly. As shown in in Figure 4.8, the
ladle may lose between 75 °C to 125 °C in an 17 seconds to 27 seconds in-
terval respectively.
Figure 4.8 Temperature drop in empty mould during transportation from pre-
heat furnace and temperature drop in empty ladle during ladle idling time
before receiving melt
40
55
Loss of temperature in ladle resulted in a drop in melt temperature and thus

less super-heat available at the time of casting. Cooling of the melt combined
with a temperature drop in mould results in significantly reduced fluidity
resulting in fill related defects, such as misruns.
Variation in pouring rate originated from differences in operator practice as
well as on the position of the casting tree in the casting trolley. It was ob-
served that a tree cast in a tilted position had an uneven distribution of defec-
tive parts depending upon the tilt angle and direction. The melt takes its pre-
ferred path depending upon gravity and thus fills the preferred mould cavi-
ties due to the inclined mould position resulting misalignment of the down
sprue with respect to melt stream. This altered the fill rate and fill pattern in
the cavities that received a delayed or non-continuous melt flow during the
mould filling process. Parts that came from cavities in the preferred filling
path caused by the tilt showed a lower defect rate than parts from cavities
where the fill was perturbed by the tilt.
The rejections/re-work statistics are shown in Figure 4.9. It should be noted
that group D which has longest lead pouring time, prolonged pouring and
long ladle idling time correspondingly had a higher number of
scraped/reworked components. However, group B, despite having faster
filling, shorter lead time and shorter ladle idling time, shows higher scrape
rate compared to group A. It was observed that group B, in attempt to mini-
mize casting time could not ensure that clusters were placed vertically up-
right in casting tray before start pouring. This resulted in uneven mould fill-
ing and hence a higher rejection rate compared to group A, which although
not as fast as group B, were careful to keep mould vertical.
The results suggest that although, pour rate, lead time and crucible idling
time are important, the uneven placement of mould can result in uneven melt
flow and thus unpredicted casting results. The results are in agreement with
established science behind fluidity [7]. It has been reported that process vari-
ation are foundry specific and originate from the equipment and methods
[41], however, the influence of foundry variation on casting parameters and
thus the resulting impact on quality of components is reported here.
41
56
Figure 4.9 Number of scrapped/re-worked components for each casting

group
4.3 Effects of process variations on castability of

thin-walled test structures
In order to verify the effect of variation in casting parameters on the castabil-
ity of thin-walled structures, as stated in the second research question, cast-
ings with intentionally varying values of relevant casting parameters, i.e. the
casting temperature and mould temperature were made. Test geometries with
different thickness were cast with different values for these parameters to
evaluate the effect of fluctuation of casting parameters on cast structures of
varying thickness as described further in section 3.3. Bottom-gated and top-
gated filling systems were used in experiments to evaluate the sensitivity of
the filling system to variation in casting parameters.
It was observed that sensitivity to process variation increased as wall thick-
ness was reduced as shown in Figure 4.10. A variation of 150 °C in casting
temperature appeared to be significant in terms of filling both 2 mm and 1.5
mm test geometry, regardless of thickness. While a 150 °C difference in
mould temperature does not significantly affect fillability, the quality of
casting was improved significantly when mould temperature increased.
Figure 4.10 shows the fill pattern in a 1.5mm thick and 2mm thick test ge-
ometry cast a 1550 °C and 1700 °C. It was obvious that both 1.5mm and
2mm blades showed a good increase in mould fill when casting temperature
was increased.
42
57
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 4.10 Degree of filling in top-gated system at a mould temperature
of 1100 °C a) 1.5mm blade at casting temperature 1550 °C, b) 1.5mm
blade at casting temperature 1700 °C, c) 2mm blade at casting temperature
1550 °C, d) 2mm blade at casting temperature 1700 °C. [65]
Figure 4.11 shows castings at two different mould temperatures. The blades
cast at a lower mould temperature exhibit uneven ‘’zipping’’ type filling
which is due to melt pinning to the mould wall [7]. At higher mould temper-
ature the filling was improved, and less pinning effect was observed.
43
58
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 4.11 Degree of filling in top-gated system at 1700 °C casting temper-
ature for a) 1.5mm blade at mould temperature 900 °C, b) 1.5mm blade at
mould temperature 1100 °C, c) 2mm blade at mould temperature 900 °C, d)
2mm blade at mould temperature 1100 °C [65]
Figure 4.12 shows liquid penetrant test results for 2mm thick test geometries
from top-gated and bottom-gated castings. It is clearly shown that the top-
gated has more porosity than the bottom-gated casting, although both were
cast at same melt and mould temperature. Figure 4.13 shows a computed
tomography (CT) analysis where shrinkage was quantified in different sec-
tions of a blades shown in Figure 4.12. Figure 4.12 and Figure 4.13 show
much larger size of porous zones in top-gated system compared to the bot-
tom-gated systems.
44
59
a) b)
Figure 4.12 liquid penetrant test for 2mm thick sample blades a) top-gated
casting at Tcast 1700 °C, Tmould 1100 °C b) bottom-gated casting at Tcast 1700
°C, Tmould 1100 °C.[65]
Figure 4.13 Shrinkage porosity found in different sections in a CT analysis.
It is concluded that, fallibility in both top-gated and bottom-gated casting

trees was affected by process variations however, a bottom-gated system was
more robust in terms of casting defects and less affected by process varia-
tions.
45
60
It has been reported that a well-designed gating system can minimize the
effects of process variations [66]. In the literature, it is suggested that bot-
tom-gated systems offer advantages over top-gated systems in terms of bet-
ter casting quality [66]. However, robustness gating system design in rela-
tion to process variation has not been previously reported in literature. Simi-
larly challenges in filling to fill thin sections have been discussed in detail.
However, the effects of variation on fillability of different geometry thick-
ness has not be reported earlier.
4.4 Effect of process variation on predictive

capabilities of simulation (Paper V)
In order to address the third research question, the predictive capabilities of
casting simulation were evaluated using a commercial simulation software
[46] as described in section 3.5. The material data for simulation was ob-
tained via experimental characterization measurements while casting condi-
tions were determined via in-situ experiments, as described in section 3.3
and 3.4. Figure 4.14 shows the thermo-physical data for alloy IN718 meas-
ured in this study and used in simulations.
a)
46
61
b)
c)
47
62
d)
Figure 4.14 Thermo-physical properties of the alloy IN718™, a) Measured
specific heat of the alloy, b) Measured thermal diffusivity of the alloy, c)
Density from measured linear thermal expansion data of the alloy, d) Calcu-
lated thermal conductivity of the alloy.[53]
The measured thermal properties of alloy were slightly different than report-
ed values, as presented in Section 1.2.2.2. The specific heat capacity meas-
ured in this work was in the range of 450 J kg-1 K-1 to 900 J kg-1 K-1 as com-
pared to reported [27] values of 450 J kg-1 K-1 to 625 J kg-1 K-1 at a temper-
ature range of 200 °C to 1200 °C. Similarly, thermal diffusivity values
measured in this work were between 4.6 x 10-6 m2s-1 to 8.6 x 10-6 m2s-1 as
compared to reported [28, 29] values between 3.0 10-6 m2s-1 to 4.8 10-6 m2s-1
at a temperature range of 200 °C to 1200 °C. Density values are, however, in
agreement with previously reported values [30].
48
63
Figure 4.15 shows thermo-physical properties of the mould material meas-

ured in this work and used in simulations.
a)
b)
49
64
c)
d)
Figure 4.15 Thermo-physical properties of the mould used in simulation, a)
Specific heat of mould measured at different temperatures, b) Thermal diffu-
sivity measured at different temperatures, c) Density of mould measured at
different temperatures, d) Calculated thermal conductivity of mould at dif-
ferent temperatures.[61]
50
65
When comparing the measured values for aluminosilicate mould with those
reported in literature, as presented in section 1.2.2.4, it was observed that
higher values of specific heat are reported in literature. The measured values
in a temperature range of 200 °C to 1200 °C were determined to have values
between 700 J kg-1 K-1 to 1100 J kg-1 K-1 compared to 700 J kg-1 K-1 to 1800
J kg-1 K-1 reported at same temperature range in the literature [20, 38]. On
the other hand, slightly lower values of thermal conductivity are reported
-1 -1 -1 -1
[38] in literature, i.e. 0.8 W m K to 1.2 W m K compared to measured
-1 -1 -1 -1
values of 1.22 W m K to 1.27 W m K when comparison was made at
temperature range between °C 300 to 900 °C.
The foundry and equipment specific boundary conditions, for example, pour
rate and mould temperature as used in the simulation are presented in Figure
4.16 and Figure 4.17. Figure 4.16 shows typical stream diameters for top-
and bottom-gated systems with different pouring rate. The pouring rate was
dependent on the skills of operator and the hanging position of the mould in
the casting chamber and the amount of metal it required to fill the casting.
Top-gated system typically requires less melt due to compact design and
hence required less time to fill as can be seen in Figure 4.16.
Figure 4.16 Variation in stream diameters in different pouring system
Mould temperature in the simulation model was defined according to the

time-temperature curves shown in Figure 4.17. Figure shows drop in mould
temperature during transportation from pre-heat furnace to the casting cham-
ber, as measured in in-situ experiments. It was observed that typically there
51
66
is a loss of a 75 °C to 125 °C in the mould temperature during transfer of the

mould to the casting furnace depending upon number of insulation layers,
and the time it takes to transport.
Figure 4.17 Temperature drop in mould during transportation for casting in

vacuum furnace
A calculated value of the interface heat transfer coefficient used in simula-

tions was 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2 / ̊𝐶𝐶 which was based on values of heat conduction of
the mould at the pouring temperature and the sizes of contacting materials.
Figure 4.18 shows the results of simulation calibration process as described
in section 3.5, presented in Figure 3.5. The sensitivity analysis software set-
tings, i.e. mesh size, shrinkage model, heat transfer model and fluid flow as
well as mesh size, flow restriction graphical adjustment resulted in reasona-
ble match between simulation and cast results as seen in Figure 4.18.
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a) b)
Figure 4.18 Simulation calibration method, a qualitative match between sim-
ulation and cast sample a) bottom-gated system b) top-gated system [53]
The differences in measured values of thermo-physical properties and values

reported in literature highlight the significance of material characterization
for validity of simulation. It was also observed that the predictive capabili-
ties of simulation software not only depend on material properties, but also
on the software settings and boundary conditions defined in the simulation
model. Accuracy in predicting the occurrence of defects by the software was
found to be dependent on mesh size and the settings of graphical representa-
tion. The sensitivity analysis and adjustment of these settings was an im-
portant step to achieve accuracy in simulation predictions. As the boundary
conditions for the casting process are unique to each foundry, process inves-
tigations are required to find values for different simulation settings. Varia-
tion in pouring rate, mould pre-heat temperature, casting temperature and
mould filling operation were common variation and were dependent not only
on operator practices but also equipment used.
Another significant variation in casting parameters was the asymmetry of the
flow due to positioning of mould during filling. Similar to previous observa-
tion of mould tilt in air casting, the variation in mould position in the vacu-
um furnace also leads to uneven flow of melt into the mould cavities. Mould
tilt usually results from wear on mould holding fixtures in a vacuum furnace.
Due to repeated contact with the hot mould, sagging of the fixture that the
mould is mounted on in the furnace was observed. This resulted in slight
tilting of mould during melt pouring. For the bottom-gated system, the
asymmetrical flow of the melt into the mould cavities was observed for both
simulated and cast samples in terms of approximate location of the unfilled
areas. Figure 4.19a shows the comparison for a bottom-gated system of parts
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located at 12 o’clock and 6 o’clock position in the casting tree. Figure 4.19b
shows similar comparison for a top-gated system for the parts located at 6
o’clock and 3 o’clock.
a)
b)
Figure 4.19 Variation in filling due to mould positioning, a) a bottom-gated
mould filling system, b) a top-gated mould filling system [53]
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69
For the top-gated system the asymmetry was similar to the bottom-gated
system but not as pronounced since the extent of unfilled area was signifi-
cantly less than for the top-gated system. This clearly demonstrates the im-
portance of defining boundary conditions that accurately replicate pouring
conditions in acquiring accurate simulation results.
It was observed that predictive capabilities of simulation depend on multiple
factors. Figure 4.20 summarize the requirements for accuracy of a simulation
as also discussed in literature [41]. Significance of metallurgical models and
accuracy in material data is well reported [41]. However, the effect of found-
ry conditions and resulting fluctuations in targeted values of process parame-
ters is documented here.
Figure 4.20 Basic elements in creating accuracy in simulation
4.5 Gating and process design methodology for

manufacturing thin-walled components (Papers
III and VI)
To answer the fourth research question about implementing simulation in

casting process design to avoid trial and error approach, a framework using
simulation aided casting process design and an optimization was developed
according to Figure 3.6, presented in section 3.6 and was evaluated.
In order to evaluate the simulation based process design framework, the pro-
posed casting design using Response surface method is shown in Table 4.1
below. Simulations were performed according to DoE and the response in
terms of shrinkage porosity and misrun was analyzed to find the optimized
conditions.
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70
Table 4.1 Design matrix from response surface method with two response
values, i.e. shrinkage and misrun.
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 Response 1 Response 2
A:Mould B:Casting C:Mould D:Casting Shrinkage Misrun

Run thickness temperature temperature design porosity
%
mm C C Types mm3
1 8.2 1560 1100 Level 1 of C 4.91 0
2 8 1557 990 Level 2 of C 3.48 13.33
3 10.3 1548.9 1098 Level 2 of C 4.48 3.33
4 12 1518.9 979 Level 2 of C 3.12 10
5 11.12 1500 900 Level 1 of C 3.44 0
6 8 1500 920 Level 1 of C 3.61 0
7 11.4 1560 1004.373 Level 1 of C 3.88 0
8 9.4 1526.7 1020 Level 1 of C 3.95 0
9 8 1516.5 1100 Level 2 of C 3.96 10
10 9.5 1524 900 Level 2 of C 2.83 10
11 12 1527.342 1100 Level 1 of C 4.63 0
12 9.3 1557 900 Level 1 of C 3.9 0
13 10.8 1500 1100 Level 2 of C 3.98 0
14 12 1557 900 Level 2 of C 2.77 16.67
The regression analysis of the simulation results suggested that shrinkage

porosity was strongly dependent upon the casting temperature and the mould
thickness. The Figure 4.21 shows significant increase in porosity volume
when simulated with higher casting temperature combined with thinner
mould. The porosity dependency on casting temperature decreased with
thicker mould and thicker mould appeared to be advantageous for minimiz-
ing shrinkage porosity. However, increase in mould thickness results in in-
creases material cost and less energy efficiency. The porosity dependency on
casting temperature and mould thickness was in agreement with previously
reported results in section 4.1.
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Design-Expert® Software
Factor Coding: Actual
Shrinkage (mm3)
4.91
2.77
X1 = A: Mould thickness
5
X2 = B: Casting temperature
3.5754
Actual Factors 4.5
C: Mould temperature = 930.909
D: Casting design = Level 1 of C
4
Shrinkage (mm3)
3.5
2.5
12
1560
1550 11
1540
1530 10
1520
9 A: Mould thickness (mm)
B: Casting temperature (C) 1510
1500 8
Figure 4.21 : Effect of casting temperature and mould thickness on shrinkage

porosity
Figure 4.22 shows the effects of mould thickness and casting temperature on
misruns. The analysis suggested the best results when simulated with medi-
um range of mould thickness as can be seen as a saddle point in the figure
below.
Misrun (%)
16.67
20
X2 = B: Casting temperature
3.26204E-005
Actual Factors 15
C: Mould temperature = 930.909
10
Misrun (%)
-5
12
1560
1550 11
1540
1530 10
1520
9 A: Mould thickness (mm)
B: Casting temperature (C) 1510
1500 8
Figure 4.22: Effect of mould thickness and casting temperature on misrun
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While performing optimization, misruns were given higher importance than

shrinkage porosity to fulfill the process robustness criteria for the cast com-
ponent evaluated in this study. A maximum desirability, i.e. 0.899 was
achieved for minimum mould thickness and minimum casting temperature,
as shown in Figure 4.23. However, it should be noted that goal of optimiza-
tion was to find a good set of conditions that will meet all the goals, not to
get to a desirability value of 1.0.
The process design using DoE and simulation and the optimization method
using Nelder-Mead optimization algorithm provided the optimal conditions
that were in agreement with the currently used process settings in the found-
ry with the difference that additional measure to address confounding factor
are in place.
Desirability
0.899
1.000
0.000
X2 = B: Casting temperature 1.000
Actual Factors
C: Mould temperature = 930.909 0.800
0.600
Desirability
0.400
0.200
0.000
1500 9
1510
1520 10
1530
1540 11 A: Mould thickness (mm)
1550
B: Casting temperature (C) 1560 12
Figure 4.23 Desirability function based on the importance given to parame-

ters and responses.
As presented and discussed in section 4.3, the use of simulation in process

design is affected by variation in casting process in foundries. In order to
minimize the process variation, standardized process instruction developed
in this work are shown in Figure 4.24.
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73
a)
b)
Figure 4.24 Standard process instruction to minimize variation a) instruction
for air cast HF furnace, b) Instruction for Vacuum casting furnace
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74
As shown in Figure 4.24 to minimize loss of superheat and mould tempera-

ture, a minimum lead pour time and ladle handling time were suggested in
the instruction card. Similarly, to maintain an un-interrupted smooth flow of
the melt into the mould, a proper vertical position was recommended. An
improved de-slagging and cleaning procedure for the foundry returns used as
charge material was proposed to achieve required melt cleanliness.
The effect of implementation standard instructions is shown in Figure 4.25
where historical data on scrap rates was compared with scrape rates for 10
production lots after the implementation of updated casting instructions.
Firstly, it can be seen that the variation in scrap rate was significantly re-
duced as is illustrated by the error bars in Figure 4.25. Secondly, a tendency
towards reduced scrap rates was seen after the introduction of the instruction
card. The rejection rate dropped from 15% to 8%.
Figure 4.25 Reduction in scrape rate and development time for quotation a)
scrap reduction after implementation of casting instructions b) Lead time
reduction after implementation of process development methodology
As discussed in section 1.1, the importance of a gating design that follows

the established design principles is well documented, however, interpretation
of design principles varies significantly between foundries and depends upon
the skills of technicians. The equipment and flexibility of the process also
effect the selection of gating designs.
In order to design and evaluate the gating system and standardized the de-
sign process, design criteria based on well-established gating design princi-
ples as well as practical aspects of manufacturability were developed in this
work are shown in Figure 4.26. Criteria were defined for evaluation of valid-
ity of the design from both metallurgical and manufacturing perspective and
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each proposed gating design was assessed according to the criteria. Similar-
ly, instructions for setting up simulations as well as evaluation of simulation
results were implemented.
Figure 4.26 Design criteria for gating and feeding systems
Figure 4.27 shows effects of implementation of standardized process instruc-

tions and simulation based process design framework on quotation time and
process development time for the components produced in year 2017. While
comparing to historical data on quotation and process development time, it
can be seen that although it took extra time to prepare quotes, the overall
development time decreased significantly.
The results show that in order to shorten the lead time and achieve repeata-
bility in process, an efficient process design methodology is required. The
work puts forth a process design methodology which contains: a) simulation
based process design framework b) instructions to standardize casting prac-
tice and c) standard criteria for evaluating gating design as well as instruc-
tions to set-up and evaluate simulations.
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76
Figure 4.27 Reduction in time in preparing quotation and developing cast-

ing process after implementation of standardized process instructions and
simulation aided design framework
In Figure 4.28, the process design methodology is illustrated schematically.

Using simulation in combination with DoE, the initial phase of process de-
velopment for quotation and creating specifications for injection tools for
manufacture of wax patterns was proposed. This involved carrying out ini-
tial casting trials using polymer patterns created by rapid prototyping. Fine
tuning of the process and casting for first piece qualification was proposed
using wax patterns injected with hard tooling. Gating design and an instruc-
tion manual, D.01 were prepared to assist design engineers and to ensure that
established design principles are followed while designing the casting pro-
cess. Check lists C.01, C.02, C.03, C.04 and C.05 were prepared to standard-
ize the design and evaluation process. Also, real time process monitoring for
moulding and casting process was implemented to improve process control.
Check lists for quality documentation as well as templates to archive lessons
learned for projects at the time of completion were proposed.
The proposed methodology when partially implemented, resulted in signifi-
cant gain in terms of time and development cost, as shown in Figure 4.27.
However, full implementation of process design methodology is required to
validate the effectiveness.
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77
Figure 4.28 Proposed process development methodology
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78
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5 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND

FUTURE WORK
This chapter summarizes the conclusion drawn from results presented

in previous chapter. Several questions that are not clearly answered
and need further investigations are highlighted. Some proposals for
future investigations are also included in this chapter.
5.1 General conclusions

In this thesis, a methodology for design of a casting process for manufacture
of thin-walled castings is proposed. The uncertainties associated in the relia-
bility of the casting process have been investigated in this work and methods
to minimize process variations and the resulting impact on the castability of
thin-walled castings are proposed.
The investigation showed that the 80% foundry rejections resulted from fill-
ing related defects. The rejection rates also varied from one production lot to
another which highlighted that the variation in casting conditions significant-
ly affect the repeatability and reliability of the process. Variation in critical-
to-quality (CTQ) parameters resulted from both casting practices as well as
the equipment used in the foundry.
While investigating the effect of variations in casting practices on the casting
defects, it was found that by minimizing process variations, the foundry re-
jections were reduced from 15% to 8%. While further verifying the effect of
variation in CTQ parameters in a thin-walled context, it was observed that
castability was significantly affected when variation in pour rate, casting
temperature and mould temperature was intentionally induced in experi-
ments. Sensitivity to process variation increased as thickness decreased.
Top-gated gating design were more vulnerable to variation in casting param-
eters compared to bottom-gates designs. Castings using bottom-gated filling
system appeared to have less scattered shrinkage compared to the castings
with top-gated filling system. Variation in degree of filling was higher for
top-gated system when fluctuation in casting parameters was intentionally
induced. On the other hand, degree of filling in bottom-gated system was
stable and less affected by process fluctuations. This effect was also verified
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80
using simulation where variation in degree of filling was observed when

casting condition varied, especially for top-gated system. However, the va-
lidity of simulation was dependent upon the accuracy in defining the casting
conditions. It was observed that simulation can predict the occurrence of
filling related defects to reasonable accuracy, if provided with correct mate-
rial data and boundary conditions. Simulation predictions can however give
false results and lead to bad decision making if there are variations in casting
practice which are not accounted for in the boundary conditions on which
the simulation is based.
By equipping simulation software with accurate material data as well as
boundary conditions, simulation can be used in designing the casting process
as the flow and solidification models qualitatively predict the effect of dif-
ferent casting settings on the fillablity. It should be noted that for the specif-
ic case of thin-walled castings, the lack of consideration of surface tension
effects was a source of error. However, while developing and evaluating a
framework for using simulation in process design it was observed that by
implementing DoE in simulation the qualitative prediction can lead to reduc-
tion in process development time and improved reliability of the casting
process. The Nelder-Mead optimization algorithm provided the optimal con-
ditions that were in agreement with the currently used process settings in the
foundry with the difference that additional measures to address confounding
factor are in place. The use of DoE with a well calibrated simulation model
resulted in a decrease in development time from 8 to 3 months. However, the
simulation based process design approach does not preclude the need of
casting trials as not all defects can be predicted with current simulation ca-
pabilities.
It is concluded in this work that by implementing standard instruction for
casting operations, gating design, set-up and evaluation of simulation as well
as use of DoE can help foundries to achieve process reliability while devel-
oping manufacturing process for thin-walled structure.
Key conclusions
• Process variations results in fluctuation in casting parameters. The

fluctuation in casting parameters significantly affects the repeatabil-
ity and reliability of casting of thin-walled structure. By controlling
process variations, the overall foundry rejections decreased by 50%.
• Top-gated mould filling system was more vulnerable to fluctuation
in casting parameters compared to bottom-gated system in terms of
degree of filling and soundness of casting.
• Simulation validity is affected by not only accuracy of material data
and boundary conditions but also variation in casting process as
these variations are usually not counted in simulation hence leading
to wrong interpretation of simulation results. In addition to that, dis-
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crepancy in predictive capabilities were also observed which are at-

tributed to the fact that simulation program does not take into ac-
count surface tension effect.
• Although, discrepancy in simulation prediction was observed, using
DoE approach, simulation can provide qualitative effect of process
conditions on fillablity and thus can be used in process development
in foundries to avoid cost and time associated with trial and error
approach.
• By minimizing process variations, standardizing casting operation as
well as using simulation systematically in process design, up to 60
saving in cost and development time can be made.
5.2 Revisiting the research questions

While answering the first question, What are the important casting parame-
ters for castability of thin-walled structures in a foundry set-up? and to iden-
tify the important casting parameters for thin-walled castings, as highlighted
in first question, it was concluded that 80% of rejected castings with thin
features resulted from fill related defects. Other defects originated from pat-
tern injection and assembly, mould making and quality of melt. Ishikawa
diagrams (cause and effect diagrams) were established and reported in this
work relating specific types of defects to process parameters that most sig-
nificantly contribute to defect formation. Although the cause and effect dia-
grams provide good insight for cause of major defects, in the foundry defects
formation is complex phenomena resulting from the combination of factors
which are not easy to distinguish. Many factors related to the process param-
eters, such as, precision in pattern and gating assembly, cleanliness of vax
pattern, mould quality and foundry environment are not investigated in this
work. However, it was concluded that by minimizing the noise factors and
using simulation, finding root cause can be relatively eased.
To answer the second research question, What are the sources of variations
in casting process and how does it affect casting parameters that are influ-
ential for castability of thin-walled structures? and to identify the source of
process variation and their effects, as highlighted in research question, both
the casting-in-air set-up and casting-in-vacuum set-up were investigated. It
was concluded that casting variations originate from both the manual nature
of the casting operation as well as the wear and tear of the equipment. These
variations resulted in uncertainty in casting quality. The effect was validated
using simulation. By implementing standardized process instructions, the
variations were minimized which resulted in increased repeatability of pro-
cess and reduction in foundry rejections. Although results suggest the signif-
icance of variation in casting parameters, the effect of other process parame-
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82
ters, such as parameters related to pattern assembly and moulding are not
evaluated. Similarly, the variation in foundry environment, i.e. humidity,
pattern cleanliness, melt cleanliness and their effect also need consideration.
While answering research question, How accurately simulation predicts the

fillability of thin-walled castings? it was concluded that simulation predict
the fill behavior reasonably well, however, the variation in casting condi-
tions can result in different casting outcome than predicted by simulations.
This can lead to bad decision making when interpreting simulation results
and implementing corrective measures in casting process. It was concluded
that in order to use simulation as a tool in designing casting process, not only
the input data for simulation is important but also the control in casting pro-
cess is necessary to get a match between prediction and actual results. Alt-
hough, the validity of simulation is evaluated by replicating casting condi-
tions, the limitation of simulation due to un-certainty in input data and the
simplified representation of flow and solidification in simulation modeling
pose challenges when using it as a sole tool for design process. Further im-
provements in metallurgical modeling as well as methods to acquire thermo-
physical data are required to improve predictive capabilities of simulations.
In order to avoid trial and error approach in foundry and to use simulation-
based process design approach, the research question, How simulation can
be implemented in designing casting process in foundry to achieve reliability
and repeatability in in manufacturing of thin-walled castings? was answered
by proposing a design methodology. The proposed process design method-
ology consisted of simulation based process design framework, as well as
instruction to minimize the variation in process. The instructions to perform
casting operation showed significantly decrease in foundry rejections as well
as reduce the variation in scrape rate. The implementation of framework also
resulted in decrease in overall reduction in development time. In addition to
that, the instruction to design gating systems as well as instruction to set-up
and evaluate simulation were also proposed. However, the overall design
methodology requires validation in terms of reduction in development time.
The validation requires full implementation and monitoring of process as
well as careful data collection to evaluate the impact of implementation.
5.3 Research contributions

The work not only bridges gap between established science behind
castability of metal and the industrial casting practices, but also en-
hance the knowledge of casting process in relation to thin-walled
components. Similarly, the work specifies the steps required to im-
prove validity of casting simulation and methods to implement of
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simulation in foundries in a systematic way. The results of this work

will not only help researchers to systematically implement simulation
in process design but also will help foundries to develop reliable cast-
ing process with shorter development time. The research work, high-
lights the significance of accuracy in defining boundary conditions in simu-
lations in order to improve validity of simulation. The significance of varia-
tion in process and resulting variation in boundary conditions for simulation
and casting has not been previously reported.
5.3.1 Scientific contribution

A lot of work on modeling metallurgical process has been done during re-
cent decades. However, the systematic implementation of simulation in order
to reach to a reliable casting process is not fully developed and understood.
Similarly, significance of material data and appropriate boundary conditions
for accuracy of simulation is well understood, however, the process varia-
tions due to semi-automated nature of foundry operations and their effect on
validity of simulation are often over looked and not well documented. This
work not only offers important knowledge concerning the thermal properties
of investment cast mould and alloys which is usually not available in public
domain, but also systematically evaluate the effect of process related varia-
tions on validity of simulation. In addition to that, the work offers methods
to implement simulation in designing casting process in an efficient and
reliable manner. The methods are not only applicable in investment casting
foundries but also used in other fields of technology where simulation based
process design is desired.
5.3.2 Industrial contribution

The work directly contributes towards efficiency of process development in
foundries as currently many foundries rely on over simplified simulations or
trial and error approach. In addition to that, many foundries lack a deeper
understanding of factors that contributes towards the common casting de-
fects due to complexity of the casting process. The important contribution is
establishing cause and effect diagrams for major foundry defects. The dia-
grams will provide a summary of literature available on casting defects in
investment casting defects. In addition to that the work highlights the signif-
icance of process variation as well as offer methods to minimize uncertainty
in process by minimizing variations. This work also provides the guidelines
to not only improve the predictive capabilities of simulation but also pro-
vides a systematic approach for efficient implementation of simulation in
process development. The outcome of this research can result in savings in
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84
cost of process development and overall development time as well as im-

proved quality of cast components.
5.4 Quality of research

In this research, the effect of process variations on castability of thin-walled
structures was evaluated. The effect of variation in parameters on castability
is validated using test geometries. The results are repeatable as multiple data
samples were evaluated to make conclusions as well as experiments were
carefully documents according to all applicable procedure. In addition to
that, the process variations and their effect on fillability were also captured
using simulations. Although the validity of simulation is limited due to un-
certainty associated with the material data, the overall effect of variation on
mould filling was successfully captured and qualitative results are valid.
Furthermore, the work includes four journal publications, which also is an
indication that the work has been executed in a professional manner and
resulting in valuable results.
Although the objectives of the research work are fulfilled as shown in the
results and discussion section, only limited number of parameters were stud-
ied in this work which limits the validity of the results. Similarly, while
evaluating the effect of process variation on castability, the conclusions were
made from the data reported in the ERP system. However, the reliability of
data is dependent on the skills of the operator while reporting the defect type
to the system. The variation in the process, although clearly identified, might
have been affected by other factors such as the humidity, mould age, mould
composition, vacuum level, casting interruptions, quality of charge material
or simply operators performing under stress due to the fact they were being
monitored.
Implementation of standardized casting instructions and simulation based
process design framework was also appeared to be successful addition to
reliable process development. The proposed methodology has been dis-
cussed with a group of experienced professionals from academy and industry
and improved accordingly. However, the validity of the methodology re-
quires further loops and need to be evaluated.
5.5 Future work:
The purpose of this work has been to evaluate effect of process variations on
castability of thin-walled structures. Casting process in industrial environ-
ment is affected by broad range of factors due to complexity of process. This
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85
research work has led to define more focused perspective of the process var-
iations and their effects on quality of castings and new questions have arisen,
resulting in indicating direction for future research. Based on results from
this research, some more interesting areas for future research can be identi-
fied:
 Although, the work qualitatively captures the variation in casting pa-

rameters and their resulting effect on castability of thin-walled cast-
ings, the variation in process parameters, such as moulding process
and thus resulting variation in mould thermal properties is not evalu-
ated in this work. The lack of information on variation in mould
thermal properties also results in uncertainty in simulation data for
mould materials. The effects of foundry environment, for example,
the humidity in air and its effect on casting as well as moulding pro-
cess may also have resulting effect on castability.
 Non-equilibrium conditions during the solidification process also re-
sults in uncertainty in validity of simulation as the alloy thermal data
in simulation is based on measurement under equilibrium conditions.
This lead to need of further investigations on variation in mould
properties resulting from process variation as well as further meas-
urements on alloy thermal properties under foundry conditions. The
inverse modelling techniques, where using some known material
properties, unknowns are simulated, can be used to further investi-
gate alloy behavior under foundry conditions.
 It is also concluded in the work that not all defects can be predicted
with existing simulation capabilities. Inclusions, grain size are ex-
amples. Similarly, lack of model calculating surface tension effect
limits the use of simulation in thin-walled castings. The non-wetting
conditions in mould filling are good to minimize metal mould inter-
actions, however it enhances the effect of surface tension in thin-
walled casting. This results in need for further development in met-
allurgical models for simulation as well as investigations on met-
al/mould interactions in investment casting process.
 The framework to design casting process shows that the simulation
results are aligned with the established scientific principles, howev-
er, the validation of framework in foundry requires implementation
of framework on various types of products to validate the reduction
in process development time and manufacturing cost. Similarly, the
process design methodology also requires validity by implementing
the methodology in foundry and evaluation different products.
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Mälardalen University Doctoral Dissertation 257

Developing Process Design

Cast Thin-Walled Structures

Address: P.O. Box 883, SE-721 23 Västerås. Sweden

E-mail: info@mdh.se Web: www.mdh.se ISSN 1651-4238

Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

DEVELOPING PROCESS DESIGN METHODOLOGY

School of Innovation, Design and Engineering

Copyright © Mohsin Raza, 2018

Mälardalen University Press Dissertations

DEVELOPING PROCESS DESIGN METHODOLOGY

som för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen i innovation och design vid

Fakultetsopponent: Professor Mark Jolly, Cranfield University

Akademin för innovation, design och teknik

This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father, Mazhar Hussain

validity of simulation is evaluated. A methodology to design a casting pro-

I thank my wife, Asifa, for her never-ending support.

I Raza, M., Irwin, M. (2014) The effect of shell thickness on de-

Contribution to the appended papers:

Reprints were made with permission from the respective publishers.

4.5 Gating and process design methodology for manufacturing thin-

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2 Literature review

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2.1 On the fluidity of metals

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

and mould, an increase in mould temperature would be beneﬁcial for extend-

Pmetal =ρgh 1.1

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

This relation implies that surface tension, γ, is an important factor affecting

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2.2 Thermal properties of alloys and mould materials

In addition to the significance of thermo-physical properties of alloy and

1.2.2.1 Thermal properties of Alloy 17-4 PH

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

strength and a moderate level of corrosion resistance. Experimentally meas-

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2.2.2 Thermal properties of Alloy IN 718

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

in wide range of high temperature applications in different industries, espe-

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2.2.3 Thermal properties of Alloy Udimet 500

1.2.2.4 Thermal properties of Mould material

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

1.2.3 Simulation aided design of the casting process

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

uninterrupted, laminar supply of melt to the mould cavity while compensat-

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

2.1 Aim and objective of this work

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

 Only variations in casting parameters were investigated in detail.

2.3 Research questions

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

 By identifying critical variations in the process and their effect on

 The characterization of material and identification of boundary con-

 The complexity of mathematical models required to model flow and

2.4 The research process

Developing process design methodology for Investment cast thin-walled structures

Figure 2.1 Research process and objectives

Step 1: Theoretical knowledge to develop cause and effect diagrams

In this cycle the research question 1 was answered by acquiring theoretical