Theoretical Lens

Perrine’s Theory on Figures of Speech

Perrine (1965) as cited by Rossy 2017, postulates that figures of speech

should not be taken literally only. It is because figures of speech make the

speaker express something in a non-ordinary way. The purpose of figures of

speech is to give another meaning into one thing being said.

According to Perrine (1969) figures of speech are any way of saying

something other than the ordinary way, and he has classified it into three

categories. The first one is figures of speech by comparison, which are

metaphor, simile, apostrophe, and personification. Second, there are figures of

speech by association which consist of metonymy, synecdoche, symbol, and

allegory. The last classification is figures of speech by contrast which include

paradox, irony, hyperbole, and litotes.

Our research was mainly anchored on Perrine’s perception of figurative

language. Figurative language is language using figure of speech where it

cannot be taken literary. According to Laurence Perrine there are three

categories of figures of speech and those are comparison, association and

contrast. Figures of speech is consisting of twelve they are: simile, metaphor,

personification, apostrophe, synecdoche, metonymy, symbol, allegory, paradox,

hyperbole, irony and litotes.

Badiah’s Theory on Language Style

It means that using the language style must determine the purpose of

communication. One of them is use to get the message, because in a society,

there are so many people who have different characteristics. So, the use of style

is expected without distributing others either partially or personally.

Furthermore, Badiah (1994) defines the functions of language styles as;

To increase the reader’s taste, To persuade the reader, To add the artistic effect

of the idea being offered by the write, To make the writer’s idea clearer, and To

create certain mood. The function of language styles is to tell the hearer or

reader how they act to the messages given by the speaker or author seriously,

humorously, as sarcasm, happy or sadly, or in some other ways. The other

function is to control for one style that must be chosen, in order to control the

speaker or author in delivering the messages thus, the reader or hearer should

understand the messages.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Advertisement

Advertisement is an important tool in industrial world. Arens (2006)

states that advertisement is the structured-non personal communication of

information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about products

through various media. Many advertisers compete each other to make a good
offer for their companies. The companies will make advertisement of the

products to attract and get targeted readers attention.

There are many definitions of advertising given by experts. Weilbacher

(1984) as cited by Fauziah (2018) states that advertising consist of media

messages paid for and signed by a business frim or institution that wishes to

increase the probability that those reached by these messages will behave or

believes as the advertiser wishes them to behave or believe.

According to Gaw (1961) as cited by Fauziah (2018) states that

advertising is a tool for selling ideas, goods, or service to a group; it employs

paid space or uses vehicle to carry its message that does not disguise or hide

the identity of the advertiser or his relationship to the sales effort.

In addition, the techniques and practices used to bring products,

services, opinions, or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the

public to respond in a certain way toward what is advertised. Most

advertisements involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar methods

are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to

vote for political candidates, among many other examples. In many countries

advertising is the most important source of income for the media

(e.g., newspapers, magazines, or television stations) through which it is

conducted. In the noncommunist world advertising has become a large and

important service industry (Britannica 2021).

 For an advertisement to be effective, its production and placement must

be based on a knowledge of the public and a skilled use of the media.

Advertising agencies serve to orchestrate complex campaigns whose strategies

of media use are based on research into consumer behavior

and demographic analysis of the market area. A strategy will combine creativity

in the production of the advertising messages with canny scheduling and

placement, so that the messages are seen by, and will have an effect on, the

people the advertiser most wants to address. Given a fixed budget, advertisers

face a basic choice: they can have their message seen or heard by many people

fewer times, or by fewer people many times. This and other strategic decisions

are made in light of tests of the effectiveness of advertising campaigns

(Encyclopedia Britannica 2021).

Advertisement in Online

Online advertising compared to traditional advertising radio, newspapers,

billboards or direct mail is based on large exposure and a particularly wide
audience. Internet advertising, on the other hand, is based on relatively few
channels that coalesce to bring forth a maximized target customer. Internet is
the world's most powerful media advertising for two main reasons: First,
almost every home has continuous access to the Internet. Second, the Internet
has a daily audience that is greater than the sum of the entire historical
audience of traditional media. The possibility of reaching a predefined target
audience leverages the brand, induces the effectiveness of the website’s
sales, and conduces the transfer of information to consumers. Internet
advertising helps to market products and services through interactive and
colorful catalogs and provides audience with current and available
information. It also allows them to make both local and international
purchases. Today, there are numerous websites designed to promote sales and
to maintain relationships with customers. As opposed to other media tools, a
company website can provide more comprehensive information on the product
line and can turn directly to the target audience. With this information, the
target audience can make the purchasing decision more efficiently (Luk, Chan
and Li (2002).
According to (Tchai 2011), the rapid technology development and the

rise of new media and communication channels tremendously changed

the advertisement business landscape. However, the growing dependency on

internet as the ultimate source information and communication, make it

a leading advertisement platform.

The most popular uses of the Internet are searching through data

and information, and the purchasing of products and services. In light of

these, it is understandable why many companies advertise their products

and services online. In addition, advertisers can quickly benefit from

changing advertising scripts, from the possibility of better segmenting

their market, and from relatively low costs. Such great population of

Internet users had now undoubtly encouraged businesses and

entrepreneurs to advertise online (Bruner, 2000; Ducoffe, 2004).

The development of the internet has increased the number of online

shopping activities (Hill and Beatty, 2011). Due to Internet advertising's

proliferation, it is important to examine the types of online advertisements

and the types of buyers and the factors affecting online buyers behavior that

affect its effectiveness.

 Figures of Speech

Perrine (1965) as cited by Rossy (2017) says that figures of speech

should not be taken literally only. It is because figures of speech make the

speaker express something in a nonordinary way. The purpose of figures of

speech is to give another meaning into one thing being said.

Meanwhile, Znamenskaya (2004) writes in her book that figures of

speech are stylistic devices which include schemes, tropes, and other

syntactical expressive means like foreign words and neologisms. For identifying

features in figures of speech, tropes and schemes are often useful categories. A

linguistic reinterpretation of the traditional distinction between schemes and

tropes is given by Leech (1969) as cited by Rossy (2017). He defines schemes as

foregrounded repetitions of expression’ and tropes as foregrounded

irregularities of content‘. Further information is presented as follows.

Schemes deal with order, syntax, letter, sounds, and the style forming

features such as anaphora and antithesis (Znamenskaya, 2004). There are two

types of schemes which are grammatical: lexical schemes and phonological

schemes. Grammatical and lexical schemes deal with formal and structural

repetition, like anaphora, and rhetorical effect of antithesis. Besides,

phonological schemes consider phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration,

and assonance.
 Tropes alter the meaning of a word or phrase to create a particular

mental image such as metaphors and similes (Simpson, 2004). This alteration,

also, might make a neologism which violates a linguistic code and invents a

new word.

Types of Figures of Speech

According to Perrine (1969) as cited by Rossy (2017), figures of speech

are any way of saying something other than the ordinary way, and he has

classified it into three categories. The first one is figures of speech by

comparison, which are metaphor, simile, apostrophe, and personification.

Second, there are figures of speech by association which consist of metonymy,

synecdoche, symbol, and allegory. The last classification is figures of speech by

contrast which include paradox, irony, hyperbole, and litotes.

Figures of Speech by Comparison

Metaphor. Comes from Greek which means carrying from one place to
another. Glucksberg (2001) states that metaphor is a figure of speech in which
a word or phrase is substituted to an object or action different from its literally
applicable meaning. Also, it may be considered as a representative of abstract
concept which cannot be easily described.
The comparison between two objects in metaphor is implied or indirect

(Perrine, 1969 as cited by Rossy (2017). That means that the metaphorical
word is closely connected with the literal term. It does not use any connector to

compare the two objects.

Simile. Metaphor and simile are both used as a means of comparing

things that are essentially unlike (Perrine, 1969) as cited by Rossy (2017). In

simile, the comparison is expressed directly by the use of a connector word.

Ortony via Glucksberg (2001) says that metaphor is an indirect comparison,

while a simile is a direct comparison. Simile is a type of figures of speech which

compares two things with the use of connector words so the readers can easily

understand the comparison (Gill, 2004). Connector words that are usually

used in simile are like, as, than, similar to, resembles, and seems.

Personification. Gives the attributes of a human being to an animal, an

object, or a concept (Perrine, 1969) as cited by (Rossy 2017). In accordance

with Perrine, Kovecses (2002) says personification occurs when human

qualities are put into a word or phrase to non-human entities. It gives more

sense of imagination to non-human entities in a text because they are lack of

human traits. An animal, an object, or a concept can be described like having

human‘s actions or emotions. Kennedy (1979) as cited by Rossy (2017) adds

some description that personification delivers a dramatic effect when non-

human entities are given the human qualities. Author hoped that the readers

can feel the excitement when they notice a comparison of human

characteristics into non-human object or abstract concept. The readers can

imagine the non-human object becoming alive with human characteristics.

Adds vividness to an expression as readers can look at their world from a

human perspective. A writer relies on personification to bring inanimate things

to life, so that their nature is understood in a better way, because it is easier

for readers to relate to something that is human or that possesses human

traits.

Apostrophe. Closely related to personification is apostrophe. Johnson

(1986) as cited by Rossy (2017) states that apostrophe is when a speaker puts

voice, life, and human ability into the addressee. It is a figure of speech which

addresses someone absent, dead, or something non-human as if that person or

thing were present and could reply (Perrine, 1969). Through apostrophe

readers may feel the presence of the absent and dead, also imagine that non-

human things can react to the summons.

Figures of Speech by Association

This figure of speech is used to emphasize the meaning or sense of words

by associating it to other words metonymy, synecdoche, symbol and allegory

are types of figures of speech by association.

Metonymy. Gibbs via Glucksberg (2001) states that a metonymic

expression can function as metaphors when it involves transference by

bridging or mapping between the abstract and the concrete. As examples from

Glucksberg (2001) are the substitution of bench for the law, car bomb for

terrorism, pen for a writer, and oval office for the presidency. When a referring

expression functions solely to identify an entity and nothing more, then it is

not considered metaphoric. Leech (1969) argued that metonymy associates the

name of one thing into something else. It is functioned to connect a name of

thing in people‘s mind with something else.

Synecdoche. Kovecses (2001) says that it is kind of figures of speech in

which a part acts for the whole or the whole represent a part. Synecdoche and

metonymy are so much alike that it is hard to distinguish between them.

According to Leech, both synecdoche and metonymy have a common

characteristic which is replacing something refers to one of its parts or

replacing something that is a part (1968).

Symbol. Is a word that points to or stands for more meaning than its

literal meaning (Gill, 2004). There are two kinds of symbol, i.e. traditional and

new symbol. Traditional symbol has been existed since a long time ago and has

been recognized by most people. Meanwhile, new symbol is originally created

by a literary man.

Allegory. Is less popular in modern literature than it was in medieval

writing. Allegory is a narrative or description that has a second meaning

beneath the surface. The forms of allegory can be seen in a story, a play, a

poem, a picture or other works in which the characters and events represent

particular qualities or ideas such as morality, religion or politics (Perrine,

1969).

Figures of Speech by Contrast

 This figure of speech is used to emphasize the meaning or sense of words

by contrasting it to other words. Paradox, irony, hyperbole, and litotes are

types of figures of speech by contrast.

Paradox. McArthur (1996) says that paradox is a term in rhetoric for a

situation that seems self- contradictory and even absurd, but may contain an

insight into life.

Irony. Is often confused with satire and sarcasm, but it can be used with

either a satirical or sarcastic intent (McArthur, 1996). It is because irony is

often used as a device for sarcasm and satire. Sarcasm, which in Greek means

to tear a flesh ‘, has an intention to wound feelings. It is simply a bitter or

cutting speech.

Hyperbole. The function of hyperbole in a text is to emphasize a certain

point in an exaggerating way (Kovecses, 2002). It is used to magnify a fact or

emotion to make an emphasis of its importance. Hyperbole is concerned with

personal values and emotions that make a subjective exaggeration (Leech,

1968). A writer over-states the truth for showing a certain interest. By using

hyperbole, the writer makes common human feelings remarkable that they do

not remain ordinary. This technique is employed to catch the reader‘s

attention.

Litotes. It is paradoxical that one can emphasize truth either by

overstating it or by understating it. Litotes or understatement is different from

hyperbole. It does not exaggerate a point, it is instead saying less than what a
speaker means (Perrine, 1969). In litotes, a positive statement is expressed by

negating its opposite expressions. Leech & Short (2007) state that litotes uses a

negative expression where a positive one would have been more forceful and

direct.

Functions of Figures of Speech

Stanley (2007) shares the same opinion upon the aim of figures of speech

in a text. He mentions that it is to add force, to add a more vivid imagery, to

add a stronger feeling, and to give an additional detail that makes a sentence

more beautiful.

Whittier (1958) as cited by Fuziah 2018, argues the language used in

advertisement should be creative, interested, informative, and persuasive.

Creative means that the words used have to illustrate and arrange with

different ways, such as contain of a jargon, hyperbole, personification,

metaphor or good diction. Moreover, to be creative advertisement have own

style in producing their message.

To be interested advertisement language uses a provocative phrase in

sentence. It also contains newest information about technology or economy

development that the reader wants to know more and want to try the good

advertised (Whittier 1958).

Types of Language Style in Facebook

 Newsfeed Advertisement

Stylistics is the study that investigates language and style. Verdonk

(2002) states that stylistics is a linguistic description on a language style study.

Since the main study of stylistics is language, then stylistics is the study under

linguistics although on its investigation, it can use literature perspective.

Figure of speech is one of language style aspect commonly discussed.

The language style can be seen in figurative language through figures of

speech. According to Leech & Short (2007) figures of speech are the features

which are foregrounded by virtue of departing in some way from general norms

of communication by means of the language code.

DISCUSSION

Language style according to Byrne (2004) using variation of style

depends on the environment in which the message is presented; the language

style used in upper class environment is different from the style used for the

lower-class environment. The environment also refers to the stratification, such

as age, gender, and other 14 social status. To sell a product, advertisement has

varieties concept or style in presenting its message, which contributes to the

successful of advertisement purpose. The creative concept of advertisement

language brings the idea to life. Since effective advertisement is built on

strategy, it is important to understand how different strategy effect creative

perception of the reader.

 This result on symbol was categorized as association was found in

Facebook post advertisement and it was supported by Kennedy (1995) as cited

by SaniIda and Asri (2022) in their study “An Analysis of Figurative Language

of Slogan Biscuit Used in Commercial Media” symbol is any object or action

that represents something beyond its literal self. In addition, there are

similarities in the perception of researchers with previous researchers

(Ekoyono, 2008) A symbol is any object or action that represents something.

Fiske (2010) states that Symbolic communication present at the level of

image in online advertising involves message broadcasting by means of

different symbolic signs, representing a form of projective communication.

Contrast

Contrast is used to compare how some things may differ between them.

In this research we found hyperbole as the dominant type belong in contrast.

Followed by irony.

This result on hyperbole we found in Facebook newsfeed advertisement

was asserted by the findings of Aritonang (2012) in her research “THE

FIGURES OF SPEECH IN VOGUE’S ADVERTISEMENTS”. She also found out

that the hyperbole is the most dominant type because the exaggerating

meaning usually leaves something in the customer’s mind so the customer

would easily remember the advertisement and they would believe and

eventually buy the product. The hyperbole is found in almost every

advertisement. In another words, the hyperbole is used by the advertisers to

hypnotize the customer to buy the product.

Functions of Language styles in Facebook Post Advertisement

In this step we analyze functions of language styles used in the Facebook

post advertisement. Among the five suggested function of language style, we

found three function of language style that utilized in the Facebook post

advertisement and those are To persuade the reader, To create certain mood

and To add the artistic effect of the idea being offered by the writer. This

implies that advertisement nowadays was often utilized by this function of

language style because it can influence the buying public

To persuade the reader

In this result, to persuade the reader is one of the functions of language

styles we discovered in Facebook post advertisement. Figures of speech uses

“To persuade the reader” are metaphor, hyperbole and symbol. It is the most

common type of figures of speech that uses to persuade the reader because

offers some advantages to an advertiser to liven up writing or speech and grab

a reader’s or listener’s attention.

According to the research of Chamundeshwari (2019) entitled “Analyzing

the Language Style Used in Advertisements”, he found out that one of the

functions of language style of the advertising adjusts to attract and persuade

the audience. Moreover, advertising subjects are different for daily consumer

goods, technical equipment and service. Some words are comprehensible for

technical equipment which is acquainted with a particular field.

Advertisements no matter uses whatever kinds of sentences, content or words

attract the audience giving the information and making them to by the product

or to use the service.

The result of to persuade the reader was supported these studies. One of

the study was conducted by Švažienė (2010) entitled “The Persuasive Effect of

Metaphor in Advertising” She stated that metaphor is probably one of the most

influential stylistic means used in advertising. This also used as means to

attract and hold the audience’s attention to the advertiser’s informative

intention. Furthermore, metaphor by no means only the subject of linguistics

but a way of thinking, reflecting the reality and one’s way of perceiving things

as well.

In line with this result, the study Hamira Dwi Putra Arman Arman (2019)

entitled “Language Style in Beauty Advertisement Marie Claire Magazine”. He

found out that hyperbole was the most used language style in a beauty

advertisement Marie Claire Magazine. The application of hyperbole did not only

make advertisements attractive and informative but also made them

persuasive. Hyperbole also appears because the language of advertisement

might be aiming to persuade the consumers to buy the products.

 Furthermore, study by McCauly (2011) on “Symbolism in Marketing”. He

asserted that symbol is an easily recognizable representation of a deeper

meaning. Marketing and small business professionals often use symbols to

represent their business or brand, to make advertising materials easier to read

and understand, and to convey deeper meanings through writing.

To create certain mood

In this result, “To create certain mood” is one of the functions of

language styles we discovered in Facebook post advertisement. Figures of

speech uses “To create certain mood” are personification, symbol and

hyperbole. It is the most common type of figures of speech that uses “To create

certain mood” that positive moods create less elaboration, which results in

more heuristic processing and reduces the extent to which message evaluation-

itself favorably influenced by positive moods-mediates brand attitudes.

Based on the research of Fitriyah (2008) entitled “Language style in

Newsweek magazine” he found out that one of the functions of lanague style is

“To create certain mood”. He stated that the advertisement as a media of

selling a product still convey the message by the way of giving emotional

information or illustrates the message by selling moods and dreams more than

a feature.

This result we found in “To create certain mood” was supported by these

studies. One of the studies supported this result was conducted by Kpedor
(2021) entitled “Personification in Advertising: A Rhetorical Analysis of Digital

Video Ads in the Insurance”. He found out that that appealing to ethos and

pathos seems to be a common rhetorical tactic that all three companies employ

as part of their larger strategy, which is using personification to communicate

brand knowledge. Learning that emotional appeals like fear can inhibit change

of attitude, and that humor sometimes not achieve its intended effect., can

inform insurance companies whose goal is to balance the two in persuasive

ways. This could enhance understanding of commercials and increase ad

retention and recall.

Moreover, “To create certain mood” accordingly to the study of A

Sociolinguistics Analysis of Language Style in “Wild Child” Movie by Maharani

(2009); the language style that is used by the actors can influence the

audiences feeling and thinking. Thus, how the actors use the language style in

their advertisement will create certain mood. According to Cook (1996), icon as

well as index are substantially useful in analyses of advertising. Nevertheless,

firstly, the meaning of the symbol must be briefly introduced, afterwards the

icon and the index will be discussed. The symbol is regarded as a sign that

signifies something else within a speech community (Hermeren, 1999, p. 72).

The symbol is explained as basically arbitrary and conventional, thus the

relationship between signifier and signified must be learnt (traffic signs)

(Chandler, 2017).
 The result present with subtle, intriguing, ambiguous, and illustrates

how advertisement sell moods and dreams more than product feature

according to Analysis of Language Style in the New York Times Advertisements

by Rahmawati (2019). It shows from the utterance in hyperbole is the common

one which can make advertisements more alive. As the consumer’s experiences

increase, advertisers have to be responsible for the advertised products

because advertisements can influence the development of the company

illustrates how advertisement sell moods and dreams more than product

feature.

To add artistic effect being offered by the writer

This result in “To add artistic effect being offered by the writer’ is one of

the functions of language styles we found in Facebook post advertisement.

Figures of speech uses “To add artistic effect being offered by the writer” are

hyperbole, personification and simile. It is the most common type of figures of

speech that uses “To add artistic effect being offered by the writer” to create

memorable touchpoints, increase credibility and trust from the audience, and

improve brands’ creativity; visual art is in charge of generating impression and

communicates directly with the audience.

The function of language style is to convey social or artistic effect. It

means that the language styles can be very important factor in group

identification, group solidarity and the signaling of differences, and when a

group is under attack from outside, signals of difference may become more

important and are exaggerated.

To result shows “To add artistic effect being offered by the writer” in the study

of Language Style of English Commercial Advertisement on Television by

Muthmainnah(2016) hyperbole make the viewers interested to see the

advertisement there are some strategies to create an advertisement, one of

them is making creative sentence by finding magic words because words are

powerful tool in advertising beside the interested picture or model which the

viewer see for the first time . Moreover, according to the study A Stylistic

Analysis Of Figures Of Speech in the Jakarta Post Headlines Under the Issue of

Kpk vs. Polri by Wildan Bilal Al-Qudsy (201); hyperbole is used to emphasize

something in the service of truth. Hyperbole often functions to make such big

effects in advertisement.

According to the study of Language Style of English Commercial

Advertisement on Television; personification style mostly appears in English

advertisement. This style is in the first rank because it appears many times in

advertisements. Personification style is simple and interesting style because it

used to persuade and influence the readers or viewer’s attention to use the

products that have been advertised on television. It means personification that

attaches values on the object or human being. Like the researcher explains

before, personification is describing a non living object as if there are and lives

like human being. Moreover, personification does not occur in the objects of
study since there is no human attribute given to un-living objects or non-

human in the researcher’s objects of study.

According to “Figurative Language Found in Printed Advertisement by

Suyasa 2016 , To add artistic effect being offered by the writer similes are

marked by comparing two things that has a different meanings which’s use a

word like or as. This is having aim in order to the reader more interesting

about the product or service they are offer. In the advertisement this kind and

function is very useful to give a sense to the reader. According to the findings of

that study concerning the intentions of using figures of speech, here we could

claim that both English and Iranian cultures benefit metaphor and simile

approximately to the same extent to add interest, compare similarities, and

provoke thought and feelings in their intended meaning and utterance.

However, there is a slight upward inclination of using simile in Persian lyrics.

Glucksberg and Keysar (1990) and Roberts and Kreuz (1994) as cited by Ali

Derakhshesh (2015) for forceful comparisons and similes for less strong

comparisons since there is more seriousness in metaphors and maybe more

humor in similes.