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EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE ISO 9001: 2015 CERTIFIED
QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

City of Dasmariñas,Cavite
Interior or Internal Ballistics

- It is that branch of ballistics which treats of
the motion of the projectile while still
inside the firearm (chamber/barrel) which
extends from the breach to the muzzle.
VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE


The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

A. Firing pin hitting the primer.
B. Ignition of the priming mixture.
C. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or
propellant.
D. Expansion of heated gas.
E. Pressure developed.
F. Energy generated
G. Recoil of the gun.
H. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel. Rotation of the
bullet inside the barrel.
I. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel.
J. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
A. FIRING PIN HITTING THE PRIMER

- Upon the squeeze of the trigger, the
hammer will be released which causes the
firing pin to be pushed and hit the base
portion of the cartridge where the primer is
located.

B. IGNITION OF THE PRIMING

MIXTURE (PERCUSSION ACTION)
- The priming mixture (composing of the
KCL03, sulfur and carbon) located either at
the activity rim or at the center of the primer
upon the striking effect of the firing pin will
ignite and such action is known as
“Percussion Action”

THE CONDITIONS ATTRIBUTED TO INTERNAL BALLISTICS
C. COMBUSTION OF THE
GUNPOWDER/POWDER CHARGE
OR PROPELLANT
- After the ignition of the priming mixture,
the ignition is imparted to the gunpowder by
passing through the vent or flash hole, thus
burning the gun powder and converts it into
an expanded hot gas.

THE CONDITIONS ATTRIBUTED TO INTERNAL BALLISTICS
D. EXPANDED OF HEATED GAS.

- Once burned the charged powder is
converted into a heated gas, and due to
more elastic property of gases, its particles
will spread and fill the entire container.
(Cartridge case/shell).

E. PRESSURE DEVELOPED.
• The outward push of the gases to the
burned powder pressure is developed due
to the great amount of gas that is expanding
within the shell causing the withdrawal of
the bullet from the shell.

F. ENERGY GENERATED
• Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential

energy serves as the propellant of the expanded
gases, inasmuch as the pressure that is
developed has that degree of energy to force the
projectile out of the shell. It is the measure of
force in foot-pound necessary for an action.

▪ RECOIL OF THE GUN

This is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement
of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward of the gun in relation to
the forward movement of the bullet may be divided into two divisions:
The first which occurs while the bullet is still inside the barrel and which is
relatively small in intensity; and the second which occurs just after the bullet
leaves the muzzle of the gun and this is more violent backward impulse when
hot gasses rush up and out of the muzzle and set against the gun. Another
reason and which is of greatest influence in the recoil of the gun the firing
mechanisms are generally categorized as:
The blow back type, the gas operated, and the recoil operated.
Among this firing mechanism, the blow back type has the lesser recoil and
this can be observed in firing a pistol.
Jump is another portion of the recoil action that is characterized as the
backward and upward movement takes place before the bullet leaves the
muzzle.
▪ VELOCITY OF THE BULLET INSIDE THE BARREL
It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the
barrel or at which it leaves the gun muzzle.

▪ROTATION OF THE BULLET INSIDE THE BARREL
IT REFERS TO THE TWIST OF THE BULLET CAUSED BY THE CYLINDRICAL

GROOVED PORTION OF THE BARREL OF THE MOST FIREARMS. IN SOME
INSTANCE, THIS CONDITION MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE ESPECIALLY WHEN THE
BULLET PASSES THROUGH A SMOOTH BORE BARREL.

▪ENGRAVING OF THE CYLINDRICAL SURFACE OF THE BULLET
ONCE THE BULLET HAS PASSED THROUGH THE BARREL OF ANY FIREARMS
BE IT RIFLED (WITH CYLINDRICAL GROOVED CUT) OR A SMOOTH BORE,
WHATEVER IMPERFECTIONS OR SCRATCHES THE INTERIOR BARREL OF
THE GUN HAS WILL BE IMPRESSED AND LEFT ON THE CYLINDRICAL
SURFACE OF THE BULLET SERVING AS ITS THUMBPRINT. THIS BECOMES
ONE OF THE MOST VALUABLE MARKS THAT WOULD SERVE AS ITS
INDIVIDUALITY.

COMMON PARTS OF DIFFERENT GUNS

1. Barrel
2. Breechblock
3. Chamber
4. Choke
5. Ejector
6. Extractor
7. Firing Pin
8. Front and Rear Sight
9. Hammer
10. Handle or Butt
1. Barrel – it is the hard metal whether smooth or rifled bore that houses the
cylindrical passage through which the bullet travels. It initiates the path of
the bullet.
2. Breechblock – the steel block that closes the rear of the bore against the
force of the charge. The portion of this block which comes in contact with the
base of the cartridge is known as the breechface.
3. Chamber – the place where the cartridge is held in position before the fire
mechanism starts.
4. Choke – It is the degree of constriction applied in the muzzle of the
shotgun to decrease the spread of the shots.
5. Ejector – it is the mechanism by which the empty shell or ammunition is
thrown out from the firearm.

6. Extractor – it is a mechanism which the empty shell or ammunition is

withdrawn from the firing chamber.
7. Firing Pin – it is a part of the firearm which strikes the primer that causes
the firing of the cartridge.
8. Front and Rear Sight – It is that mechanical part purposely aligned and
constructed to serve as a guide for the firer’s line of sight through his or her
target.
9. Hammer - it is that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger, which
causes the firing pin to strike the primer of a cartridge or ammunition.
10. Handle or Butt – the portion of the firearm used for handling it. It may
house the magazine.

Barrel Breechblock

Chamber Choke

Ejector Extractor

Firing Pin Front and Rear Sight

Hammer Handle or Butt

INTERNAL PARTS OF GUN

PISTOL
- A pistol is a handgun, more
specifically one with
the chamber integral to its gun
barrel, though in common usage
the two terms are often used
interchangeably.
- Synonym for a handgun that does
not have a revolving cylinder, the
chamber is part of the barrel


RIFLE
- A rifle is a long-
barrelled firearm designed for
accurate shooting, with a barrel that
has a helical pattern of grooves
("rifling") cut into the bore wall. In
keeping with their focus on
accuracy, rifles are typically
designed to be held with both hands
and braced firmly against the
shooter's shoulder via a buttstock for
stability during shooting.


REVOLVER
- Handgun that has a cylinder with
holes to contain the cartridges. The
cylinder revolves to bring the cartridge
into position to be fired. This is "single-
action" when the hammer must be
cocked before the trigger can fire the
weapon. It is "double-action" when
pulling the trigger both cocks and fires
the gun.


SHOTGUN
- A shoulder fired (long gun) with a
smoothbore designed to fire shotshells
containing numerous pellets or
sometimes a single projectile.


MAIN PARTS OF AMMUNITION

1) Bullet – It is the metallic or non-metallic object propelled from a FA.
2) Gunpowder – It is a powder charge used to initiate pressure through
heated gas when burned.
3) Cartridge Case – It is the metallic tube which holds the three other parts
in place.
4) Primer – It houses the priming mixture that initiates the percussion
ignition

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITION
A. General Types According to Mechanical Construction and Purpose
of Use
1) Dummy Ammunition – It is very carefully made replica of a cartridge,
usually of tool steel and carefully dimensioned to be used by weapon
instructions.
2) Drill Ammunition – It refers to explosive and ammo used in training for
practice loading. It is sometimes called “dummy” although in the strict
sense there is a difference.
3) Blank Ammunition – It is designed to generate a loud noise firing. This
cartridge is used for theatrical performance or film making, training dogs
and military training.
4) Live Ammunition – It refers to the term applied for complete unit of
unfired cartridge.

B. ACCORDING TO AMMUNITION VARIANTS

1) Other variations can occur in the bullet weight and bullet construction
within the same cartridge seen on the right are in the .22 caliber “family”
yet each has a different cartridge designation. From the left they are: 22
Black, 22 Short, 22 Long, 22 Long Rifle Shot, 22 Viper, 22 Long Rifle, 22
Stinger, 22 Magnum , and 22 Maximum.
2) Long or Magnum cartridge may also have a heavier bullet when
compared to the standard or short versions. Figure shows the 32 S&W
cartridge. Magnum is a family of high-powered or high-velocity cartridges
which often have larger cases than usual for their caliber. They often use
a belted case.

C. ACCORDING CALIBER
- Caliber designation and their interpretation is one of the difficult
factors to explain in a layman’s way due to its inconsistence and
varieties. In English speaking countries (.01”) or one thousands
(.001”) of an inch is used, thus, we have cal. .22 inches, .25 cal., etc. In
countries using the metric system of the measurements the caliber is
expressed in millimeters, thus, we have 6.35mm, 7.62mm, 9mm,
11mm etc. In cartridges, caliber is generally referred to the base
diameter of the bullet.

Calibers of cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in

millimeter and their usage:
Inches Millimeters (MM)
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm-used in revolver, pistol and rifles
Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm-used in pistol and rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm-(mauser) for carbines and other rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolver
Cal. .380 about 9 mm-used for pistols
Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers.
Cal. .45 about 11 mm-used in automatic pistols
Cal. .50 used in .50 ca. machine gun

SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE
- It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer,
case, wads, top wad, and gunpowder.
PARTS OF SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE
1) Case or Casing – It is usually made from plastic or paper rolled which houses
the powder, pellets and wads.
2) Primer – It is a battery type primer containing the igniter.
3) Pellets – It refers to a number of lead shots contained in the case.
4) Wad – It is a paper designed to separate the pellets from the powder charge.
5) Top Wad – It refers to the paper closure at the mouth of a shot shell. It often
contains data about the loading, propellant or loader.
6) Powder Charge – It is also known as the propellant or gun powder.

GAUGE
- Compared with other type of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in
terms of its diameter designation both for its firearm and cartridge used. The unit
of measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. It is the method of
describing bore diameter of shotguns, the number of balls of bore diameter which
can be cast from a pound of lead. Thus, a 12 Gauge bore.
The equivalent Guage to Inch diameter is as follows:
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch
16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
.410 .410 inch

TYPES OF SHOTS
1) Soft of Drop Shots – These are made by pure or nearby pure lead, to
which a small amount of arsenic has been added to make it on the form
of a spherical drop as it fall down the shot tower.
2) Chilled or Hard Shots – These are shots with a small amount of
antimony mixed with lead to increase hardness.
3) Buck Shots – They are large size lead size used in shotgun.
4) Coated or Plated Shots – Also called as “lubaloy” shot which is a chilled
shot coated with thin copper through electroplating design for greater
strength and elasticity, great resistance to deformation and leading and
better pattern.

BULLET
The word Bullet was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a
small ball. This term is generally used when referring to a projectile fired
from any small arms, which has a variety of form, especially during the
earlier history.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLET
A. GENERAL TYPES ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL STRUCTURE
1) Lead Bullet – It is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead metal. Its
use was due to its density; having a good weight and small size that is easy for
casting. At present it is being mixed with a small amount percentage of
antimony or zinc in order to add harness and prevent “lead fouling”. In some
cases lead metal are used as core for jacketed type of a bullet. It is also
commonly used in modern construction having its rear section jacketed, leaving
the lead core exposed.
2) Synthetic Bullet – Those that are made of plastic/plasticine and other
composition or those made of sand polymer mixed. Such bullets were designed
for special purpose.
3) 3) Jacketed Bullet – Those with a core of lead covered with a jacket of harder
material such as: gilding metal, a copper alloy of approximately 90% copper
and 10% zinc. It is purposely constructed in order to prevent lead fouling of the
barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high powered guns.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF JACKETED BULLET

A. Totally-Metal-Jacketed Bullets (TMJ) – Also termed as encapsulated bullets,
this is usually have an opening at the base or the nose but some are have no
opening in the jacketed material.
B. Steel Jacketed Bullets (Steel cores from 7.62x39mm) – Jacketed bullets
may also contain something other than a lead or steel core. Some may contain
small lead pellets, plastic, or maybe even a silicone rubber material.
C. Federal Expanding Full-Metal-Jacketed (EFMJ) – This bullet type has
silicone nose material Glaser Safety Slug containing small lead pellets and a
plastic plug.
D. Remington Accelerator “sabot” Enclosed Bullet – This is an unusual
jacketed bullet which is a center-fire riffle bullet consists of a copper jacketed
bullet that is of a smaller caliber than the rifle it is fired in. This smaller bullet is
surrounded by what is called a “sabot”. The sabot actually rides down the rifling
of the barrel and once leaving the barrel of the rifle, the sabot and the bullet
separate.

Copper Jacketed full-metal-case

Totally-Metalic-Jacketed Winchester “silver-tip” bullet and cross section
Copper plated steel Remington

jacketed bullet Accelerator “sabot”
Glaser Safety Slug containing small

lead pellets and plastic plug &
Federal Expanding Full-Metal-
Jacketed (EFMJ)

C. ACCORDING TO USE AND MAXIMUM EFFECT TO THE TARGET

1) Ball Type – Those have soft cores inside a jacket and are used against personnel only.
2) Armor Piercing – Those that have steel cores and are fired against vehicles and other
armored targets in general. It was first patented on 1903 by Roth of Vienna, although, it was
largely introduced for snipers countering the small armor shield in the year 1914-1918.
3) Explosive (fragmentary) Bullet – Those type of bullets that contain a highly charged
explosive which will detonate on impact. Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a
fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions.
4) Incendiary Bullet – This is a type of bullet that contains mixture which can be set on fire by
impact. They are used against the targets that will readily burn such as aircrafts or gasoline
depots. It is constructed by having the front of the bullet be filled with white phosphorous, a
chemical capable of spontaneous ignition while in contact with the air.
5) Tracer Bullet – Those that contain compound (mixture of magnesium powder, barium
nitrate and metallic salts) at its base, which is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The
flashing smokes from these burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen especially at
night time. This type of bullet is primarily used for target acquisition. It given the gunner the
chance to observe the strike of the shot or make adjustment in the event of a miss.

D. MISCELLANEOUS TYPES
1) Baton Round – It is the proper name used when referring to a “rubber bullet”. This type of
bullet was first developed for the Hong Kong Police that was made out of wood that has the
ability to split on impact to any target of just hit the ground, thus, making it possible to inflict
wounds. It was later replaced by a rubber. This is generally a plain cylindrical rubber or
plastic used in 12-bore, 26mm or 37mm riot gun and fired with a low power charge.
2) Compound Bullet – This is a type of a bullet having its core of dense metal covered with
jacket of lighter metal which does not bring lead into contact with the rifling of the weapon
and which was designed by Major Rubin of the Swiss army in the year 1880’s.
3) Discarding Sabot – It is a special type of bullet in which solid ball or pin is placed in a case
which separates when the bullet is fired, thus, giving an extra velocity to the projectile. A
bullet of this type was manufactured by Remington and it was given the name Accelerator
Bullet.
4) Dum-Dum Bullet – It is a type of bullet designed in India in the year 1890’s by Captain
Bertie Clay. It consisted of a service ball having its nose exposed. Now the term is loosely
used in describing any expanding bullet.

5) Frangible Ball Type – It is a type of bullet design for training purposes

especially for aerial targets. It does not cause any damage to the target rather
leaving a paint mark for the purpose of assessing the gunner.
6) Flechette – It refers to a dark-like solid projectile, stabilized in flight by fins. It
was in use as early as 1914 and at present the cartridge for 12 gauges is loaded
with 20 steel flechettes.
7) Heel Bullet – It is a type of bullet commonly used in pistol having its rear portion
reduced in diameter in order to fit into mouth of the shell thus making the rest of
its part appears flush with the mouth of the shell.
8) Hallow Point – It is the type of bullet in which the nose is drilled out to a certain
depth leaving a hole. The purpose is to be able for the bullet to deform upon
impact making a “mushroom”.
9) Lethal Ball – This is a British term used when referring to a single shot used. It
was issued to the members of the home guard anti personal use during World
War 2.

10) Multiple Bullet – It is the term applied to a number or two (duplex) or

three (triplex) bullet formed a cartridge and was patented by George Luger
in the early 1990’s.
11) Soft Point – It refers to any type of bullet having its jacket short which
the nose of soft core is exposed, thus, capable of deforming upon impact.
It is common for hunting purposes.
12) Spitzer Bullet – It is the term used by the Americans and British
sportsmen when referring to a pointed bullet.
13) Streamlines Bullet – It is a type of a bullet that has its front section
being tapered to a point and its rear section tapered also into smaller
diameter, thus, reducing the base drag.

INTERNAL PARTS AND

FUNCTION

FUNCTION OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1 . It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the fire arm .
2 . it is use to carry the means of ignition .
3. it provides gas seals at the breech against the unwanted escape of propellant gas
upon firing .
4 . Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or water charge .
5 . Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the
chamber in rapid firing of firearms .

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIGE CASE

• ACCORDING TO ITS PARTS
● Base
● Rim
● Extracting grooves
● Primer Pocket
● Body
● Shoulder
● Cannelure
● Neck
● Crimp
● Vent or Flash Hole

ACCORDING TO ITS SHAPES

1. Straight
2. Tapered
3. Bottle neck

ACCORDING TO ITS BASE

● Rimmed
This type is generally designed for revolvers and carbines .
● Semi-Rimmed
These types are designed for authomatic weapon such as pistols and sub machine guns
like the super 38’s and UZI submachine guns, 9mm.
● Rimless
these are cases wherein the diameter of the base of the cartridge case or shell is the
same as the body .

● Rebated
these are cases wherein the diameter of the base of the cartridge case
or shell is smaller than the body .
● Belted
these are cases with a prominent raise belt around its body just in front
of the extracting groove.

Alfred Nobel
• Invented a smokeless powder called ‘Ballistite’ with nitroglycerine
(40%) and nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition.
British
they utilized picric acid in addition to cellulose powder which they
called “ lyddite “ also prof Abel , a chemist in the british war
department , develop “cordite”.
Early 1890
smokeless powder had replaced black powder .
TYPES OF PROPELLANT
1. Black powder
it is considered to be the oldest known explosive which was initially
made from saltpeter (75%) , charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%) . This
formula varies in percentage and even in composition in different
countries throughout the world .
2. smokeless powder
the basic ingredient use for this powder is the nitrocellulose that was
first produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber. Almost all
smokeless powder grains have a perpectly definitely shape such as
small squares ,discs ,flakes ,strips pellets or perforated cylinders.
MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER

• 1.Single base propellant or nitrocellulose .
it is a term to describe propellant powder which are made from nitrocellulose
with addition of every small quantities of chemical to promote chemical stability ,
flashlessness or to assist in the manufacturing process.
2. Double Base Propellant .

It is a type of propellant provider which uses three principal ingredients
nitrocellulose , nitroglycerine and nitro guanidine .
3. High Ignition temperature propellant .

It is a type of propellant in which the main constituent is from the hexogen RDX
group of high explosives

TYPES OF PRIMER CONSTRUCTION

1. BERDAN TYPE (1860)
✓ Designed by Col. Hiram S. Berdan (September 6, 1824 – March 31, 1893)
of the U.S. Army Ordinance Department. He was an American engineer
and military officer, world renowned marksman and guiding force
behind the famed United States Sharpshooters during the American Civil
War.
✓ The Berdan is a type of primer that is similar to the caps used in the
caplock system being small metal cups with pressure-sensitive explosive
in them.

✓ Berdan cases are reusable, although

the process is rather involved.
✓ The Berdan primer is difficult to
remove from the case without
damaging the anvil, that’s why Berdan
priming is used by nearly all militaries
and most civilian manufacturers (with
the exception of those in the United
States) to discourage reloading of
ammunition.

TYPES OF PRIMER CONSTRUCTION

2. BOXER TYPE (1866)
✓ Invented by Col. Edward m. Boxer of the Royal
laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal. He was a British
Army Officer who was Superintendent of the
Government Ammunition factory at Woolwich
and boxer type were created shortly after the U.S.
Civil War in Great Britain.
✓In this type the anvil was formed separately from
the shell and became part of the ignition cap
making a single flash hole to serve as the passage
of ignition. Although its manufacture serves to be
quite difficult, it becomes more popular because
of its adaptability for reloading.
DEVELOPMENT OF IGNITION SYSTEM

THE TERM LOCK WAS USED DURING THE ANCIENT TIME WHEN REFFERRING TO
IGNITION SYSTEM. ANCIENT WEAPONS SUCH AS THE MUSKETS WERE FOUND IN
VARITIES OF IGNITION SYSTEM. THE FOLLOWING ARE THE DEVELOPMENTS OF
LOCKS OR IGNITION SYSTEM.
1. Match Lock
✓ Considered as the earliest of all locks and is referred to as refined “serpentine
lock”. A metal rod, often in the shape of a gently curved “S,” held a match at one
end and pivoted about the center. The opposite end from the match projected
below the gun barrel where the operator could push or pull on it to cause the
match to meet the touchhole. This class of firearms is called matchlocks. To allow
the shooter to control and aim this firearm, the design of stock evolved to
support the pivoting match holder. Illustrations of early matchlocks show the
familiar form associated today with shoulder-fired small arms.


2. Wheel Lock
✓The first flint-fired arms were wheel locks from the early sixteenth century.
History credits the wheel lock to Germany and/or Austria. A steel wheel
with a serrated or knurled outer edge projected through the lock plate (the
mounting plate for the ignition parts). The wheel was attached internally to
a spiral spring and could be wound like a clock, storing energy in the wheel.
A cock gripped a piece of flint (or iron pyrite) and could be lowered onto the
wheel. Pulling the trigger momentarily released the wheel and lowered the
flint on the spinning wheel, producing sparks. The sparks fell into a small
pan containing a few grains of powder. A small hole, the vent, connected
the exterior pan to the main powder charge in the barrel. When the powder
in the pan fired, some of the fire traveled down the vent and initiated the
main charge. The lighting mechanism of a modern cigarette lighter has
corresponding parts; the wheel is turned manually and the lighter uses a
fuel-soaked wick or butane jet in place of a powder pan.

3. Flint Lock
✓Early ignition systems held the charge of priming powder in an open pan above
the lock, exposing the priming charge (powder) to the environment. The priming
charge could be rendered inert by rain. A gust of wind could empty the pan of
powder, as could merely tipping the muzzle up or down too far. No powder in the
pan meant a misfire; the sparks alone could seldom reach the main charge
through the flash hole. Some designs were fitted with sliding or pivoting pan
covers that were manually moved for firing. This worked until the shooter forgot
to move it or when the part was damaged. Finer designs incorporated an
automatic pan cover that could be pushed aside as the hammer fell across the
anvil. However, finely fitted covers were prone to damage from flame and
corrosive residue, potentially causing the firearm to jam.


4. Percussion Cap
✓To use percussion caps, a firearm required three basic modifications from a
classic flintlock. First, an enlarged hollow projection (called the drum or bolster)
had to be installed near the vent hole and pan. In most firearms, the drum is
integrated with the barrel. Some are fitted with an access port that can be
removed to allow for thorough cleaning. The internal passage in the drum
typically starts at right angles to the bore and then turns 90° to the rear and
approximately 45° upward to meet the hammer.
✓The second modification was a removable, replaceable tapered tube (nipple)
which screwed into the drum and held the percussion cap. Nipples take direct
blows from the hammer and are subjected to high heat and pressure. The
tapering of the nipple allowed a snug-fitting cap, keeping it in place during
routine gun handling.
✓The third modification was the transition from the cock to the hammer.
The flint clamp was replaced by a one-piece hammer with a nose fitted
to directly contact the rear face of the nipple. The surface that
contacted the nipple was flat and typically surrounded by extra metal in
the form of a skirt, which improved the degree of sealing provided by
the percussion system.
✓The percussion cap contributed to the sealing of the breech end of the
barrel, improving ballistic performance and weatherproofing.


TYPES OF PRIMER AS TO THE POSITION OF ITS PRIMING MIXTURE

1. Pin-fire
✓ it is a type of cartridge wherein a pin protruding at or near the base of
the cartridge case (obsolete).

2. Rim-fire
✓ it refers to a type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is located
at the rim of the base of the cartridge base.

3. Center-fire
✓ it is a type of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is located at the center
most portion of the base of the cartridge case.

PARTS OF PRIMER
▪ Primer cup – it is the brass gilding metal cup contains the priming mixture,
the disc and the anvil.
▪ Priming mixture – it is the highly sensitive chemical compound with ignites
by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. Also called as percussion powder.
▪ Anvil – it is the portion of the primer that provides solid support and
absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates
ignition.
▪ Disc – it is a thin paper or foil pressed over the priming mixture in order to
protect it from moisture attack.


TYPES OF PRIMING MIXTURE COMPUNDS

▪ Corrosive – it is one containing potassium chlorate which when ignite
produce moisture causing the formation of rust in the bore of the
firearm. Other components are antinomy and mercury fulminate.
▪ Non-corrosive – it is one which is designed for less chances of rusting

by replacing the potassium chlorate with nitrate.

BASIS FOR FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

1. Firearm identification is actually refined tools marks identification. It means
that the identification of firearm is based on minute imperfection caused by
final polishing of the tools involved.
2. The natural wear and tear of tools is also involved. Every firearm is not
permanent for they are subject to deterioration on worm out.
3. When the softer surface comes in contact with the harder surface, it is
always the softer surface that will be engraved or marked by whatever
impression or marks present on the harder surface.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike in firearm. There
can be some sort of similarity in general properties but not on the
individuality or minute imperfections.
PRINCIPLES IN BULLET IDENTIFICATION

1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all
possesses individual characteristic markings of their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling
and this engraving will vary in its minute details with every individual bore. So
it happens that engraving on the bullet fired from one barrel will be different
from that on a similar bullet fired from another barrel. Conversely, the
engravings on bullets fired from the same barrel will be the same.
3. Every barrel leaves its thumbmark on every bullet which is fired through it, just
as every breechface leaves its thumbmark on the base of every fired cartridge
case.

PRINCIPLES IN CARTRIDGES CASE IDENTIFICATION

1. The breechface and striker of every single firearm leaves microscopic
individualities of their own.
2. A firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumbmark on every cartridge case
which is fired through it.
3. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the
breechface of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge
cases which it fired imprinted with these individualities. The imprint on
all cartridges fired from different weapons must always be different.

BARREL AND BREECH BASIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
✓Barrel – all barrels irrespective of the types of weapons, for which they are
made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from which are
they made are carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical properties,
thus assuring a high-quality product after the various machine operations and
heat treatment are completed.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE STAGES IN MANUFACTURING A BARREL:
1. Drilling – a special deep-hole is used
though the center of which a lubricating
oil is forced under pressure.

2. Reaming – in this process some scars or

scratches left by the drilling operation are
removed. It includes rough finishing and
burnishing reamer to have a smooth bore
barrel.
3. Rifling – this process necessary for the
making of the helical grooves inside the barrel.
Its purpose is to impart a motion of rotation to
a bullet during its passage inside the barrel in
order to ensure gyroscopic stability on its flight,
and so that it will travel nose-on towards the
target.
4. Lapped – this is the polishing operation

in which a lead plug closely fitting the
interior of the barrel is drawn back and
forth on a rod carrying with a polishing
compound. This is the basis for which a
firearm are identified.
✓ Breech face – it is the portion of firearms
against which the shell or the cartridge case
is pressed backward every time that a cartridge
is fired on the chamber, impressing a mark in
the base portion of the cartridge case.
TWO GENERAL TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS MARKINGS
1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS. These are

those characteristic markings that are
determinable even prior to the
manufacture of the firearms. These
characteristics are of factory specifications
and are within the control of man and
they serve as basis to identify a certain
group or class of firearms, such as:
A. CALIBER (BORE DIAMETER). It refers

to the diameter of the inner surface of
the barrel that is measured between
two opposite lands. Measurement of
which is converted to approximately one
(1) inch/cal. is approximately to 25.4
mm. example are as follows;
i. Caliber .25 = 6.35 mm

ii. Caliber .22 – about 5.59 mm
iii.Caliber .32 – about 7.65 mm
iv.Caliber .30 – about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
v. Caliber .30 – about 7.65 mm (Luger)
vi.Caliber .38 – about 9 mm

B. NUMBER OF LANDS. It is the total

number of lands inside the gun barrel.

C. NUMBER OF GROOVES. It is the total

number of grooves inside the gun barrel.

D. WIDTH OF LANDS. It refers to the

measurement of thickness of the lands
inside the gun barrel.

E. WIDTH OF GROOVES. It refers to the

measurement of thickness of the
grooves inside the gun barrel.

F. TWIST OF RIFLING. It refers to the

direction of the twist of lands and
grooves, which is either left or right.

G. PITCH OF RIFLIING. Distance advanced

by the bullet in one complete turn. It is
the measurement of the rifling helix.

H. DEPTH OF GROOVES. It refers to the

length or height measurement of the
grooves inside the gun barrel.

EXAMPLE OF
MANUFACTURES’ CLASS
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE OF MANUFACTURES’ CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
i. BROWNING TYPE. Its rifling has six

lands and grooves, right hand twist, and
the width of the grooves is twice larger
than the width of the lands. (6RGR2X)

ii. CARBINE TYPE. Its rifling has four

lands and grooves, right hand
twist, and the width of the grooves
is twice broader than the width of
the lands. (4RG2x)

iii. STEYER TYPE. Its rifling has four lands

and grooves, right hand twist, and the
width of the grooves and lands are equal
(4RG=L).

iv. WINCHESTER TYPE. Its rifling has six

lands and grooves, right hand twist, and
the width of the grooves is thrice
broader than the width of the land
(6RG3x).

TWO GENERAL TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS MARKINGS
2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS. These are

those characteristics markings peculiar in a
particular firearm and which are not found in all
other firearms. They serve as basis to identify a
particular firearm. They are determinable only
after manufacture of the firearm. They are
characteristics whose existence is beyond the
control of man and which have random
distribution.
These are irregularities found on the inner

surface of the barrel and on the breech face of
the breechblock of the firearm as a result of
tools in the manufacture of firearms and the
natural causes. Their existence in a firearm is
brought about tools in their normal operation
resulting through wear and tear, abuse,
mutilations, corrosion, erosion and other
fortuitous causes.
CLASSIFICATION OF MARKING

CLASSIFICATION OF MARKING
1. ACCIDENTAL MARKINGS. These are

those marks that may beat some
importance to the investigation but are
considered of not much value in the
identification of the particular firearm or
weapon since they are not regularly
formed in the operation.
2. REPETITIVE MARKINGS. These are useful in identifying

the particular firearm from which a bullet and fired
cartridge was fired. Its types include the following;
a. IMPRESSION TYPE. These are those markings caused
by direct pressure contact like breechface and firing
pin mark.
b. STRIATED TYPE. These are those markings caused by
sliding contact or those minute striations on the
cylindrical surface of the bullet.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

1. LAND MARK. Marks left on a fired bullet

caused by its contact to the elevated portion
(lands) of the bore. It appears slight depression
or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired
bullet. This consider as one of the most
important mark found on a fired bullet used for
the purposes of identification.

2. GROOVES MARKS. Marks found on a

fired bullet caused by the grooves of the
barrel which is the same number as that
of the landmarks.

3. SKID MARKS. Marks created due to failure of

the bullet to rotate. Marks that are generally
found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is more
or less located at the anterior portion of the
fired bullet due to its forward movement from
the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it
initially rotates.

4. SHAVING MARKS. Marks commonly found

on bullet fired from a revolver cause by its
forward movement to the barrel that is
poorly aligned to the cylinder.

5. SLIPPAGE MARKS. It is when rifling is

badly deformed. Marks found on fired
bullets passing through either oily or
oversize barrel.
6. TRAILING EDGE MARKS. It is when the
bullet goes away from the axis.

8. STRIPPING MARKS. Marks found on those

bullet fired from a “loose-fit”. Worn out in
the rifling of the firearms can be cause by
either chemical reaction brought about by
rust (corrosion) or through excessive use
(erosion).

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED CARTRIDGE CASES (SHELLS)

1. FIRING PIN IMPRESSION. It is caused by

the impact of firing pin on the primer. Mark
generally found at the base portion of the
cartridge case more especially near center
fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-
fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most
important marks.
2. BREECHFACE MARK. It is caused by the

impact of breechface on the base of the
shell. Mark found at the base portion of the
shell cause by backward movement to the
breech face of the block of the firearm. This
is also one of the important marks in shell
identification.
3. EXTRACTOR MARK. Mark mostly found at the

extracting groove of the fired cartridge case.
Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
4. EJECTOR MARK. Mark most commonly found
on cartridge case from an automatic firearms. It
is located near the rim of the case cause by the
throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of
shooting.
5. CHAMBER MARK. Mark mostly found around

the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the
irregularities of nips inside the walls of the
chamber.
6. MAGAZINE LIPS MARKING. Marking found at
the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine
lips during the loading of the cartridge into the
magazine for firing.
7. SHEARING MARKS. Sometime called

“Secondary Firing Pin Mark” found in the primer
near the firing pin mark.

SIX PROBLEMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Worldwide use)
1. Given a bullet to determine the caliber, type and

possible make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a cartridge case to determine the caliber and
type of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given fired bullet(s) and a firearm to determine
whether or not the bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm.

SIX PROBLEMS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION (Worldwide use)
4. Given cartridge case(s) and a firearm to determine

whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the
suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets to determine
whether or not they were fired from one and same
firearm.
6. Given two or more cartridge cases to determine
whether they were fired from one and the same
firearm.

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EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE ISO 9001: 2015 CERTIFIED

QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Interior or Internal Ballistics

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

A. FIRING PIN HITTING THE PRIMER

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

B. IGNITION OF THE PRIMING

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

THE CONDITIONS ATTRIBUTED TO INTERNAL BALLISTICS

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

THE CONDITIONS ATTRIBUTED TO INTERNAL BALLISTICS

D. EXPANDED OF HEATED GAS.

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

• Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

▪ RECOIL OF THE GUN

▪ VELOCITY OF THE BULLET INSIDE THE BARREL

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

▪ROTATION OF THE BULLET INSIDE THE BARREL

IT REFERS TO THE TWIST OF THE BULLET CAUSED BY THE CYLINDRICAL

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

▪ENGRAVING OF THE CYLINDRICAL SURFACE OF THE BULLET

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

COMMON PARTS OF DIFFERENT GUNS

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

6. Extractor – it is a mechanism which the empty shell or ammunition is

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

Firing Pin Front and Rear Sight

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

Hammer Handle or Butt

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

INTERNAL PARTS OF GUN

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

INTERNAL PARTS OF GUN

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

INTERNAL PARTS OF GUN

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

INTERNAL PARTS OF GUN

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

MAIN PARTS OF AMMUNITION

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

B. ACCORDING TO AMMUNITION VARIANTS

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

Calibers of cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

DIFFERENT TYPES OF JACKETED BULLET

VIRTUE EXCELLENCE SERVICE

Copper Jacketed full-metal-case

Copper plated steel Remington