10 Science Iit Notes

2012
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science

Olympiad Curriculum & Chapter
Notes
Jai Kumar Gupta

Brilliant Public School , Sitamarhi
19/04/2012
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Curriculum
Chapter as per NCERT Text Book Topics
Physics- X
Reflection
Spherical Mirrors
1. Light – Reflection and Refraction
Refraction Basics
Refraction by Spherical Lenses
Human Eye
2. Human Eye and Colourful World
Dispersion and Scattering of Light
Current Electricity Basics
3. Electricity Current Electricity Circuits
Heating effect of Electric Current
Magnetic effect of Electric Current
4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
Electro Magnetic Induction
5. Sources of Energy Sources of Energy
Chemistry- X
Chemical reactions and equations
1. Chemical Reactions and Equations
Types of Chemical Reaction
Acids
Bases
2. Acids, Bases and Salts
Strength of Acids and Bases
Salts
Metals and Nonmetals
3. Metals and Non-metals
Activity Series
Forms of Carbon
Bonding In Carbon
Hydrocarbons
4. Carbon and its Compounds Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds
Important Carbon Compounds
Soaps and Detergents
History of Periodic Table
5. Periodic Classification of Elements Modern Periodic Table
Periodic Properties
Biology- X
Photosynthesis
Digestion
Respiration
1. Life Processes
Transportation in Animals
Transportation in Plants
Excretion
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Curriculum Page 1
Biology- X
Nervous system
2. Control and Coordination Hormones in Animals
Co-ordination in Plants
Reproduction and Its Significance
Reproduction in Unicellular and Multicellular
3. How do Organisms Reproduce? Organisms
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Reproduction in Animals
Heredity and Variations
4. Heredity and Evolution Evolutionary Relationships 1
Evolutionary Relationships 2
5. Our Environment Our Environment
Management of Forest Resources
6. Management of Natural Resources
Management of Water and Coal Resources
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Curriculum Page 2

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes
Chapter as per NCERT Text Book Lessons

Reflection
Spherical Mirrors
Refraction Basics
2. Human Eye and Colourful World Human Eye


3. Electricity
Current Electricity Circuits
Heating effect of Electric Current
4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Magnetic effect of Electric Current

5. Sources of Energy Sources of Energy
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 1

Reflection
Reflection is the process where the incident light

on an object is bounced back into the same
medium.
Light is the form of energy, which enables us to interact with our surroundings in a most
effective way. It gives us the sensation of vision. There are two major phenomena of light that
takes place in the process of "seeing". They are "reflection" and "refraction".
In general reflection is the process where the incident light on an object is bounced back into
the same medium.
All objects reflect the light incident on them to different extent. Some of the objects which have
a smooth surface reflect the incident light to the maximum extent. An object that reflects 100%
of the incident light is called a "mirror". If the surface of the mirror is plane, it is referred to as a
plane mirror. Other types of mirrors are spherical mirrors.
We find our images in proper proportions in plane mirrors due to regular reflection.
We cannot observe our images formed by plane mirrors on a screen as they are virtual images
unlike those which are formed on a screen and termed real images. The reflection that takes
place on other surfaces other than plane mirrors is the irregular reflection. Irrespective of the
type of reflection, the light ray (which is the path of light) follows two laws of reflection.
The first law tells that the angle of incidence (which is the angle between the incident ray and
the normal at the point of incidence) is equal to the angle of reflection (which is the angle

between the normal and the reflected ray). The second law is that the incident ray, reflected
ray and the corresponding normal, all lie in a plane.
The rear view mirror in a car is a plane mirror as it helps us to estimate the distances of the
vehicles that are behind our car in motion. In a plane mirror, the object distance is equal to the
image distance.
Want to observe your full size image in a plane mirror? Just stand at any distance in front of
one whose length is half your height.
If we rotate a plane mirror maintaining the object position, through certain angle we find that
the reflected ray rotates twice the angle.
Regular Reflection
In general, reflection is the process where the light incident on an object bounces back into the
same medium. This happens when light is incident on a translucent or an opaque medium.
When light is incident on a transparent medium, all the incident light passes through the
medium, and reflection does not take place. In the case of translucent medium, a part of the
incident light is reflected, and the rest is transmitted through the medium.
We get light from a luminous object, which we refer to as a source of light. If the size of the
source of light is very small, then we call it a point source of light. If the size of the source of
light is considerable, then we say it is an extended source. Light rays from a point source of light

travel in all directions, moving away with time. Such a beam of light is called a divergent beam
of light.
If the light source is an extended source, then we get a parallel beam of light from it. Consider
a parallel beam of light from an extended source, incident on a plane surface like a mirror. As
the beam of light is parallel, and the surface on which the beam is incident is a plane surface,
the angle made by each ray with the normal at the point of incidence on the surface is equal,
which implies that the angle of incidence of all the rays is equal. Each ray of light follows the
laws of reflection irrespective of whether it is from a parallel beam or not. According to the
laws of reflection, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. Thus, for every ray
of light incident on the mirror, the angle of reflection is equal to its angle of incidence.
As the angles of incidence of all the rays are equal, we now have the angles of reflection of all
the rays equal. This implies that all the reflected rays are parallel. When all the reflected rays,
reflected from a given surface, are parallel, then it is called regular reflection. If the surface is

not a plane surface, then the reflected rays are not parallel to each other. In such a case, the
reflection is called diffused reflection.
Spherical Mirrors
Generally mirrors refer to plane mirrors. But if the

surface of a mirror is curved we call it a spherical
mirror.
Mirrors are the basic means of viewing our own beauty. Generally mirrors refer to plane
mirrors. But if the surface of a mirror is curved we call it a spherical mirror. The mirror that is
coated outside and reflecting inside is the concave mirror. Whereas the mirror that is reflecting
outside is the convex mirror. Even spherical mirrors follow the laws of reflection.
The geometric centre of a spherical mirror is called its pole. The centre of the hollow sphere for
which the mirror is a part, is called the centre of curvature. The line joining the centre of
curvature and the pole is the principal axis. A light ray incident on a spherical mirror, after
reflection appears to pass through the principal focus in the case of a convex mirror and passes
through the focus in the case of concave mirror. The diameter of the spherical mirror gives the
measure of its aperture.
Convex mirrors diverge the light incident on it. Hence, called the diverging mirrors. Due to this
they always form diminished, virtual and erect images irrespective of the position of the object
in front of them. Thus, the magnification produced by these mirrors is always less than one.
Concave mirrors converge the light and hence are called the converging mirrors. You can
observe yourself magnified when the mirror is placed close to your face. This is due the
position of the object between the focus and the pole. As the object moves away from the
mirror, the size of its image reduces along with its distance from the mirror.
The distance from the principal focus to the pole of the mirror is the focal length of the mirror
and is equal to half the radius of curvature, which is the distance between the centre of
curvature and the pole.
The relation between the focal length (f), object distance (u) and the image distance (v) is given
by 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
All the distances are measured from the pole of the mirror. If we measure the distances in the
direction of the incident light, then they are taken positive and else they are taken negative.
These constitute the sign conventions.
Rear view mirrors of vehicles and the ones used in ATM centres are convex.
Mirrors used by dentists to view a magnified view of the interior parts of the mouth are
concave.
Concave Mirror
There are two types of mirrors - plane mirrors and curved mirrors. If the curved mirror is a part
of a huge sphere, then the mirror is a spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors can be further classified into two types - concave mirrors and convex mirrors.
If a part of a hollow glass sphere is cut, its outer surface is convex and its inner surface is

concave. If the cut part of the sphere is coated outside with silver or similar material, then its
inner surface reflects the entire light incident on it, and thus, forms a mirror. Since the inner
surface is a concave surface, the mirror so formed is called a concave mirror.
The geometric centre of a concave mirror is called its pole. The centre of the sphere from which
the mirror was cut is called the centre of curvature of the mirror. The distance from any point
on the concave mirror to its centre of curvature is called the radius of curvature. An imaginary
line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror is called its principal
axis.
If a parallel beam of light, parallel to the principal axis is incident on the concave mirror, then,
after reflection, the rays converge at a point on the principal axis. Hence, it is called a
converging mirror. This point is called the principal focus. The length along the principal axis
from the pole to the principal focus is called the focal length. The area of a concave mirror that
is exposed to incident light is called the aperture. If the aperture of a concave mirror is small,
then its focal length is equal to half its radius of curvature.
If an object is placed close to a concave mirror such that the distance between the mirror and
the object is less than its focal length, then a magnified and virtual image is formed. Due to this
property, concave mirrors are used in many applications. A concave mirror can be used as a
shaving mirror, and by dentists to view clearly the inner parts of the mouth.

Convex Mirror
There are two types of mirrors - plane mirrors and curved mirrors. If a curved mirror is a part of
a huge sphere, then the mirror is a spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors can be further classified into two types - concave mirrors and convex mirrors.
If a part of a hollow glass sphere is cut, its outer surface is convex and its inner surface is
concave. If the cut part of the sphere is coated from inside with silver or a similar material, then
its outer surface reflects the entire light incident on it, and thus, forms a mirror. Since the outer
surface is a convex surface, the mirror so formed is called a convex mirror.
The geometric centre of a convex mirror is called its pole. The centre of the sphere from which
the mirror was cut is called the centre of curvature of the mirror. The distance from any point
on the convex mirror to its centre of curvature is called the radius of curvature. An imaginary
line passing through the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror is called its principal
axis.
If a beam of light, parallel to the principal axis is incident on a convex mirror, then, after
reflection, the rays diverge from each other. Hence, it is called a diverging mirror. The reflected
rays, when projected backwards, appear to meet at a point on the principal axis. This point is
called the principal focus. The length along the principal axis from the pole to the principal
focus is called the focal length. The area of a convex mirror that is exposed to incident light is
called the aperture. If the aperture of a convex mirror is small, then its focal length is equal to
half its radius of curvature.
The field of view for a convex mirror is greater than that for a plane mirror, the aperture being
the same. Hence, convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles. It is also installed
behind automated teller machines as a security measure. The images formed by convex mirrors
are always diminished, virtual and erect, irrespective of the position of the object.

Refraction Basics
Refraction is one of the important phenomenons

that help us to see the things around us.
Refraction is one of the important phenomenons that help us to see the things around us. Light
bends while travelling from one medium to another as its velocity differs from one medium to
another. The speed of light in optically rarer medium is larger compared to that in optically
denser medium. Hence, while travelling from one medium to another, light bends and this is
called refraction.
Light ray passing from rarer to denser medium bends towards the normal. This makes the angle
of incidence (angle between the incident ray and the normal at the point of incidence) larger
than that of the angle of refraction (angle between the normal and the refracted ray). The
incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray, all lie in a plane. If the light ray retraces its path
while travelling from denser to rarer, the angle of incidence is lesser than that of the refraction.
This is the principle of reversibility.
The extent to which a light ray bends depends on the refrangibility of the ray with respect to
the medium. The ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to that in a medium, which is the absolute
refractive index (m) of the medium, is the measure of the ability of light to get bend in the given
medium. Measuring speed of light is difficult. Hence, Snell's law helps to determine the
refractive index. According to Snell's law, .
When a light ray, incident at an angle, passes through a glass slab, the emergent ray is shifted
laterally. The lateral shift depends on the thickness and refractive index of the glass slab.
When a light ray bends from denser to rarer medium, it bends away from the normal. If the
angle of incidence gradually increases, the angle of refraction too increases. At a particular
angle of incidence in the denser medium, the refracted ray emerges along the surface. That
particular angle is the critical angle. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
the ray undergoes total internal reflection. It is due to this phenomenon we observe mirages in
deserts.
The bottom of a water glass appears to rise upwards when viewed normally. This is due to the
vertical shift of the bottom of the glass, which takes place because of refraction.
The distance from the principal focus to the optic

centre of the lens is the focal length of the lens.
Lenses are the most used things in optical devices like microscopes and telescopes. Bi-convex
and bi-concave lenses are the most popular ones in use among school labs. Lenses use the
phenomenon of refraction of light to form images.
The geometric centre of a lens is called its optic centre. The line passing through the optic
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the lens is the principal axis. A light ray incident on a
lens, after refraction appears to emanate from the principal focus in the case of a concave lens
and passes through the focus in the case of a convex lens. The diameter of the lens gives the
measure of its aperture.
If a light ray parallel to the principal axis passing through the lens passes (for a convex lens) or
appears to pass (for a concave lens) through the focus, it is called second principal focus. If the
light ray passing through the focus (for a convex lens) or directed towards the focus (for a
concave lens) after refraction through the lens passes parallel to the principal axis, the focus is
the first principal focus.
Concave lens diverge the light incident on it. Hence, called the diverging lens. Due to this these
lenses always form diminished, virtual and erect images irrespective of the position of the
object in front of them. Thus, the magnification produced by these lenses is always less than
one.
Convex lenses converge the light and hence are called the converging lenses. You can observe
the magnified image of your palm when the lens is placed close to your palm. This is due the
position of the object between the focus and the optic centre. As the object moves away from
the lens, the size of its image reduces along with its distance from the lens. Convex lenses form
erect, virtual, magnified images or inverted, real, diminished/magnified images depending on
the position of the object.
The distance from the principal focus to the optic centre of the lens is the focal length of the
lens.
The relation between the focal length (f), object distance (u) and the image distance (v) is
given by 1/f = 1/v - 1/u.
All the distances are measured from the optic centre. If we measure the distances in the
direction of the incident light, then they are taken positive and else they are taken negative.
These constitute the sign conventions.

2. Human Eye and Colourful World
Human Eye
Eye is the most important organ of our body. It

consists of a tough fibrous membrane called
sclera that protects the internal parts of the eye.
Eye is the most important organ of our body. It consists of a tough fibrous membrane called
sclera that protects the internal parts of the eye. Cornea is the membrane covering the front of
the eye that is bulged out and is responsible for the maximum refraction of the light that enters
the eye. Behind it lies aqueous humour that enables the eye to cope up with the atmospheric
changes. Iris forms the coloured part of the eye. It adjusts the size of the pupil, thereby controls
the amount of light entering the eye. Behind it lies the crystalline lens, a biconvex structure
that helps in fine adjustment to the refracted light so that it is focused on the screen of the eye,
which is referred to as retina. Ciliary muscle helps in adjusting the focal length of the lens by
contraction or relaxing. Behind the lens lies vitreous humour which is a dense, clear, jelly like
fluid which helps to maintain the shape of the eye and focus the image clearly on the retina.
Retina is actually a canopy of the nerve endings of the optical nerve through which images are
converted into electrical impulses and transferred to the brain for realization of the image. The
eye can focus near objects as well distant objects and this is accommodation of the eye. The
minimum distance of the object at which an eye can focus clearly is the near point the
maximum is called the far point. If an eye is unable to focus the nearby objects and is able to
view clearly the far off objects, the defect is called hypermetropia or long sightedness and can
be corrected by a suitable convex lens. On the other hand if a person is able to view the nearby
objects clearly and unable to view the distant objects the defect is myopia or short sightedness

and can be corrected by a suitable concave lens. The power of the corrective lens is calculated
by using lens formula and is measured in dioptre.
When a light ray enters one refracting surface of

the prism, it bends towards the normal and when
it emerges out of the other refracting surface it
bends away from the normal.
Rainbow is the natural phenomenon in which dispersion takes place. The cause of dispersion is
that sun light consists of seven constituents (colours namely violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange and red popularly referred to as VIBGYOR) that have different refractive index with
respect to a medium. The wavelength of each colour is different that causes the difference in
velocity of the corresponding light when passing from one medium to another.
This phenomenon can be observed in a lab environment using a triangular glass prism. It is a
solid structure having three rectangular and two triangular surfaces. Any two rectangular faces
are the refracting surfaces and the third one is the base. The angle between the refracting
surfaces is the angle of the prism or refracting angle. The edge formed by the two refracting
surfaces is the refracting edge. When a light ray enters one refracting surface of the prism, it
bends towards the normal and when it emerges out of the other refracting surface it bends
away from the normal. The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray is the angle
of deviation.
Another important natural phenomenon where we encounter atmospheric refraction is

scattering of light. Tyndall effect explains the scattering of light by colloidal particles in a
medium.

3. Electricity
Electricity is one of the oldest branches of science

without which we cannot just imagine ourselves
in the current world.
Electricity is one of the oldest branches of science without which we cannot just imagine
ourselves in the current world. The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is termed the
electric current and is measured in ampere. The potential difference across the conductor
causes the charge flow between them. The potential difference is measured in volt and is the
work done in moving a unit positive charge between two points in an electric field. It implies
that one joule per coulomb is one volt. In circuits potential difference is measured using a
voltmeter and the current by an ammeter. The current flow from a high potential area to a low
potential area is termed the conventional current whereas the flow of electrons constitute the
electron current and is in a direction opposite to that of the conventional current.
As per electricity, we have two categories of materials, namely conductors and insulators. All of
the conductors do not conduct electricity the same way. Some of them offer a restriction to the
flow of charge and are referred to as resistors. The restriction to the flow of charge is electrical
resistance and depends on the physical dimensions and temperature of the conductor. The
resistance (R) of a conductor varies directly with its length (l) and inversely with its area of
cross-section (A). The mathematical expression is where 'r' is the constant called
resistivity or specific resistance of the material which depends on the nature and temperature
of the material. Resistivity is measured in ohm-metre.

At a given temperature, the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends and is known as Ohm's law.
Current Electricity Circuits
An electric circuit is a closed path for flow of

electricity through which electricity can be
converted into different forms.
An electric circuit is a closed path for flow of electricity through which electricity can be
converted into different forms. An electric circuit basically contains a source of electricity, a
load resistance, a switch or a key for making the circuit on or off at ones convenience (which
makes or breaks the circuit correspondingly). The diagrammatic representation of an electric
circuit is called the circuit diagram. Each electric component in a circuit has a unique symbol
through which it is represented in a circuit diagram. If a circuit is switched off, it is called an
open circuit and if the circuit is switched on it is called a closed circuit. When two or more
resistors are connected such a way that the terminus of one resistance is connected to the
starting end of the other, such a combination of resistance is called the series connection and
the circuit is called series circuit. On the other hand, if the starting ends of two resistors are
joined to a point and the terminal ends of the two are combined and given connection to a
source of electricity, such a combination is called parallel connection and the circuit is called
parallel circuit. The potential difference or voltage drop across a resistance is the cause of
electric current through it.
For a number of resistors connected in parallel, the electric potential drop across them remains
the same and the electric current through each of them varies as their resistance.

For a number of resistors connected in series, the electric current through them remains the
same and the potential drop across each of them varies as their resistance. The net resistance
or equivalent resistance of a number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
The reciprocal of the net resistance or equivalent resistance of a number of resistors

connected in parallel is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Heating Effect of Electric Current
Heating effect of electricity is one of the widely

used effects in the world.
Heating effect of electricity is one of the widely used effects in the world. When electric
current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the resistance it offers to the
current flow. The work done in overcoming the resistance is generated as heat. This is studied
by James Prescott Joule and he enunciated various factors that affect the heat generated. The
heat produced by a heating element is directly proportional to the square of the electric
current (I) passing through the conductor, directly proportional to the resistance (R) of the
conductor, time (t) for which current passes through the conductor. It is given by the
expression H = I2Rt and is well known as Joule’s Law.
Applications of the heating effect of electric current include appliances like electric immersion
water heater, electric iron box, etc. All of these have a heating element in it. Heating elements
are generally made of specific alloys like, nichrome, manganin, constantan etc. A good heating
element has high resistivity and high melting point. An electric fuse is an example for the
application of heating effect of electric current. The rating of 3 A of an electric fuse implies the
maximum current it can sustain is three ampere.

4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
A current carrying conductor creates a magnetic

field around it, which can be comprehended by
using magnetic lines of force or magnetic field
lines.
Magnetic effect of electric current is one of the major effects of electric current in use, without
the applications of which we cannot have motors in the existing world. A current carrying
conductor creates a magnetic field around it, which can be comprehended by using magnetic
lines of force or magnetic field lines. The nature of the magnetic field lines around a straight
current carrying conductor is concentric circles with centre at the axis of the conductor. The
direction of the magnetic field lines of force around a conductor is given by the Maxwell’s right
hand grip rule or the right handed cork screw rule. The strength of the magnetic field created
depends on the current through the conductor. If the conductor is in the form of a circular
loop, the loop behaves like a magnet. If the current in the loop is in the anticlockwise direction,
a north pole is formed and if the current is in the clockwise direction a south pole is formed.
A current carrying conductor in the form of a rectangular loop behaves like a magnet and when
suspended in an external magnetic field experiences force. The direction of the force is given by
Fleming’s left hand rule. This gives the basis for an electric motor. An electric motor essentially
consists of a coil as an armature, a split ring commutator for changing the direction of the
current in the coil. There are two brushes linked with the split rings that maintain the contact
with the armature for the current flow. Electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.

A number of such loops form a coil and the coil is termed solenoid. If there is a soft iron core in
the solenoid, it behaves like a magnet as long as there is current through the coil. Thus it is an
electromagnet.
Electromagnetism created a revolution by leading

to the devices called motors which convert
electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Electromagnetism created a revolution by leading to the devices called motors which convert
electrical energy to mechanical energy. Experiments by scientists like Oersted and Faraday
made a long leap by converting mechanical energy to electrical energy. When a straight
conductor is moved in a magnetic field an electric current is induced in it and the phenomenon
is electromagnetic induction. The emf caused is the induced emf and the current is induced
current. Oersted found the same by relative motion of a magnet with respect to a coil.
Faraday's experiment proved that the strength of the induced current depends on several
factors like the strength of the magnet, the speed of motion of the magnet, its orientation, the
number of turns in the coil and the diameter of the coil. The induced current can be detected
by a galvanometer. Fleming’s right hand rule gives the direction of the induced current in a
conductor when it is moved in a magnetic field. Transformers are based on this principle, which
consist of a primary coil and a secondary coil. The number of turns in the coils is selected based
on the type of the transformer to be made, namely, step-up or step-down.
Electric generators work on the same principle. They have an armature which is free to rotate
in a magnetic field. Its terminals are connected to two slip rings, which are further connected to
two brushes and they are connected across a load resistance through which the generated
electricity can be trapped. The rotation of the armature in the magnetic field changes the

magnetic flux in the coil of the armature and an electric current is induced. For every half
rotation, the direction of the induced changes and hence called alternating current.
The current at the power plants is distributed through transmission lines at a high voltage and
hence the lines are referred to as high tension power lines. At the substations these are
stepped down to a lower voltage and supplied to houses at a low voltage. A domestic electric
circuit essentially contains mains, a fuse, live or line, neutral and earth wires. From the poles
supply cables bring the current to the mains. Within the house, all the equipments are
connected in parallel combination.

5. Sources of Energy
Sources of energy can be categorized into non-

renewable and renewable.
We cannot imagine the world without energy. The source of energy is important as well. There
are various sources of energy available today to the mankind. On a broad sense, sources of
energy can be categorized into non-renewable and renewable. Wood, coal, oil, natural gas are
some of the non-renewable sources as they cannot be renewable. These are also called the
conventional sources of energy. Nuclear fuels like uranium produce energy by fission process.
Nuclear energy from sun is obtained by nuclear fusion process.
Conventional fuels and sources of energy cause a lot of pollution to mankind and hence there is
a need for looking towards alternate sources of energy, which are most likely to be renewable.
Solar energy, energy from wind, hydro energy, geothermal energy and energy from biomass
are some of the alternate sources of energy. Wind energy can be harnessed by using wind mills
that can be erected at suitable locations. Hydroelectric plants make use of hydro energy. In
most of the rural areas biomass is utilized.

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Chemistry Chapter Notes
Chemical reactions and equations

Types of Chemical Reaction
Acids
Bases
Salts
Metals and Nonmetals
Activity Series
Forms of Carbon
Bonding In Carbon
Hydrocarbons
4. Carbon and its Compounds Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
5. Periodic Classification of Elements Modern Periodic Table
Periodic Properties
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Chemistry Chapter Notes Page 1

Chemical equations
A chemical reaction involves a change in the

physical and chemical properties, the
composition and the physical state of a
substance.
A chemical reaction involves a change in the physical and chemical properties, the
composition and the physical state of a substance. A chemical equation is a symbolic
representation of the reactants and the products using their chemical formulae.
A chemical equation contains:
-Reactants
-Products
-An arrow separates the reactants and products
Symbols for physical state of reactants and products:
- Solid(s)
- Liquid(l)
- Gas (g)
- Aqueous solution (aq)
- Gas produced ((↑))
- Precipitate formed ((↓))

- Direction of reaction ((→))
The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the reactants and the products
should be equal.
The process of balancing chemical equation involves four steps:
1. Determining the reactants and products in a reaction.
2. Counting the number of atoms of each on both sides.
3. Selecting the elements that occur for the least number of times in the equation.
4. Changing the coefficient of the molecules of reactants or products as required.
Represents an unbalanced equation for the formation of water
Represents balanced equation for the formation of water
Represents an unbalanced chemical equation for the combustion of ethyl alcohol.
Represents balanced chemical equation for the combustion of ethyl alcohol.
Represents an unbalanced chemical equation for the decomposition of potassium chlorate.
Represents balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of potassium chlorate.

Represents an unbalanced chemical equation for the reaction of sulphuric acid with copper
to form copper sulphate, water and sulphur dioxide.
Represents a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of sulphuric aicd with copper to
form copper sulphate, water and sulphur dioxide.
Represents an unbalanced chemical equation for the decomposition of sodium thiosulphate

with hydrochloric acid to give sodium chloride, sulphur dioxide, sulphur and water
Represents a balanced chemical equation for the decomposition of sodium thiosulphate with
hydrochloric acid to give sodium chloride, sulphur dioxide, sulphur and water.
Types of chemical reactions
A combination reaction is one in which two or more reactants combine to form a single
product.
Examples :
Combustion of coal and reaction of calcium oxide with water

Decomposition reactions are those in which a substance splits into two or more
simpler substances.
Examples:
The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate,
Electrolysis of water
photolysis of silver chloride
2AgCl --------> 2Ag +Cl2
Single displacement reaction is the one in which one element substitutes or displaces
another element in a compound to give new compound.
Example:
The reaction of magnesium with copper chloride
Reaction in which hydrogen ions of an acid react with hydroxide ions of a base to form
water is an neutralization reaction.
Example :
The reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide.

A double displacement reaction involves exchange of ions between the reactants.
Example:
The reaction of magnesium oxide with calcium sulphide.
Combustion reaction is the burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen,

resulting in the release of energy.
Example:
Combustion of ethylene gas.
Oxidation reaction involves the addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen from a
substance. Rusting and rancidity are two examples of oxidation reaction.
· Coating iron articles with enamel, paint or red lead oxide prevents rust.
· Addition of an anti-oxidant such as butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) and butylated

hydroxy toluene (BHT)
Packing food in nitrogen gas prevents oxidation of food.
Reduction reaction involves addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen from a

substance. Photosynthesis is a reduction reaction.
Oxidation and reduction reactions occurring together are known as redox reactions.
Chemical reactions in which energy is released are known as exothermic reactions

and those which involve absorption of energy are known as endothermic reactions.

Acids
The word "acid" comes from the Latin word

"acidus," which means sour. Any substance
that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in
water is an acid.
The word "acid" comes from the Latin word "acidus," which means sour. Any substance
that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water is an acid.
Acids obtained from food like curd, lemons, grapes, raw mango, citrus fruits and
gooseberry are called organic acids. Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid
are called inorganic or mineral acids.
Acids turn blue litmus red, methyl orange red and have corrosive action on skin, and
are good conductors of electricity. The action of acids with water is exothermic as heat
is generated on dilution.
Acids react with metals to form metal salts. In this reaction, hydrogen gas is liberated.
Acids react with metal carbonates to form corresponding salts, carbon dioxide and
water. Acids react with metal hydrogen carbonates and form corresponding salts,
carbon dioxide and water. Acids react with metal oxide to form salt and water.
An acid base indicator is the one which exhibits different colour in acids and bases. Red
cabbage is a visual indicator used to detect acids.
Onions are called olfactory indicators. Litmus is a natural indicator and is extracted
from lichens.
Apart from natural indicators there are a few synthetic indicators, such as methyl
orange and phenolphthalein.

o Methyl orange turns red in an acid and yellow in a base.
o Phenolphthalein does not change colour in an acid. It turns pink in a base.
o Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilisers, paints, dyes, chemicals,

plastics and synthetic fibres. It is also used in car batteries.
o Nitric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilisers, explosives like TNT, dyes and
drugs.
o Hydrochloric acid is used before galvanising, to remove oxide film from steel
and also as a descaling agent for boilers. It is also used in the textile, leather
and food industry.
Bases
Any substance that can produce hydroxide ions

when dissolved in water is known as a base.
Any substance that can produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water is known as a
base.
The physical properties of bases :

bitter to taste,soapy to touch,good conductors of electricity,turn red litmus blue,
methyl orange to yellow,phenolphthalein to pink, liberate heat on dilution
The chemical properties of bases are:
1. Bases react with some metals like zinc and liberate hydrogen.

2. Bases react with non-metallic oxides to form salt and water. This is similar to a
neutralization reaction between an acid and a base. From this, we can say that non-
metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Mild bases neutralise the acidity in the stomach.

Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soaps, paper and synthetic fibres like
rayon.
Calcium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of bleaching powder. Bleaching powder is
used as a disinfectant.
Magnesium hydroxide is used as an antacid to neutralize the acid in the stomach.
Ammonium hydroxide is used in the preparation of fertilizers like ammonium
phosphate and ammonium sulphate.
Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which an

acid reacts with a base to form salt and
water.
Neutralisation is a chemical reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form salt
and water. In this process, a hydrogen ion of the acid combines with a hydroxide ion of
the base to form a water molecule. The anion of the acid combines with the cation of the
base to form a salt.
Household cleaners contain ammonium hydroxide, which is a weak base. An acid or

base is considered b or weak depending on the concentration of hydrogen and
hydroxide ions within it. This concentration or the power of hydrogen differs from
substance to substance and can be measured using a scale, called the pH scale. A neutral
solution is indicated by a pH value of 7 on the scale. A solution that has a pH value of
less than 7 is acidic and a solution with a pH value of more than 7 is basic.
Antacids like Milk of Magnesia are mild bases that neutralise the acids in the stomach
and aid digestion. If the pH lowers, the acidity in the mouth increases and leads to
tooth decay. Toothpastes are basic in nature and they counteract the acid in the
mouth.
Hydrangea produces pink flowers when the soil has a pH value of 6.8 or higher and
blue flowers when the pH value is 6.0 or less.
If the soil is acidic, then the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be
absorbed by the soil. In order to neutralise the soil, suitable bases are used. Generally,
salts of calcium or magnesium, which are basic, are used to neutralise soil acidity.
When a bee stings, formic acid is released. That is what makes the skin burn. Baking
soda, which is a base, neutralises the formic acid and provides relief from the pain.
Salts
Neutralisation is a chemical reaction in which an

acid reacts with a base to form salt and
water.
The compound formed by the reaction between an acid and a base is known as a salt. Salts
like magnesium chloride, potassium nitrate, zinc carbonate and copper sulphate are
useful to us in many ways.
Salts are ionic compounds which contain positively charged cations and negatively
charged anions.
Salts formed from any hydroxide and:

Hydrochloric acid are called chlorides.
Sulphuric acid are called sulphates.
Nitric acid are known as nitrates.
Carbonic acid are known as carbonates.

Salts formed from:
b acids and b bases are called neutral salts.
b acids and weak bases are called acidic salts.
Weak acids and b bases are called basic salts.
Sodium chloride is obtained from the sea water by the process of evaporation. It is
referred to as table salt.
Sodium chloride is used:
To preserve pickles, fish and meat.
To manufacture soap.
To melt ice formed on roads in cold countries and
As a raw material for the manufacture of other compounds.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in the baking industryas an antacid, In soda acid
fire extinguishers. Sodium carbonate is used to manufacture of glass, cleansing
agents, soap, glass and paper, sodium compounds like borax.
Bleaching powder chemically known as calcium oxy chloride is used to bleach cotton,
linen textiles and wood pulp, to disinfect drinking water, Sodium hydroxide is
produced by the electrolysis of aqueous solution of sodium chloride, called brine. The
electrolysis of brine is called the 'chlor-alkali' process. In the process of electrolysis of
brine hydrogen is collected at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
The hydrogen formed in this process is used to manufacture fuels, margarine, and
ammonia for fertilizers.
Chlorine is used for water treatment, in swimming pools, to manufacture chloro-
flouro carbons, PVC, chemical compounds like chloroform, carbon tetra chloride,
disinfectants, and pesticides.
Sodium hydroxide is used to manufacture soaps, detergents, paper, artificial fibres

like rayon and dyes.
Some salts have a fixed number of water molecules as an essential part of their crystal.
These water molecules which form the part of the crystal are called water of
crystallisation and such salts are called hydrated salts.
Sodium carbonate decahydrate………Na2CO3.10 H2O
Ferrous sulphate heptahydrate FeSO4.7H2O
Zinc Sulphate heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O

Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate or Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
Potash alum K2SO4 Al2 (SO4)3 .24H2O.
Plaster of paris which is chemically called calcium sulphate hemihydrate is used as a

bandage, proofing material, sealing agent, for making statues, toys and decorative
articles and for smoothening wall surfaces.

Metals and non-metals
Metals are the elements that lose electrons and form cations.
Ex: Sodium (Na)
Non-metals:
Non metals are the elements that accept electrons and form anions.
Ex: Chlorine (Cl)
The physical properties of metals :

- Solid form, except mercury.
- Lustre.
Examples: Gold and silver.

- High density, except lithium, sodium and potassium.
Examples: Tin and lead.

- Highly malleable.
Examples: Aluminium and zinc.

Highly ductile.
Examples: Copper and silver.

- Conduct heat and electricity.
Examples: Copper.
- High melting point.
Example: Tungsten.
- Metals react with non-metals to form ionic compounds.
Metals form basic metal oxides.
- Metal oxides form b alkaline metal hydroxide solutions.
- Metals are good reducing agents.
Physical properties of non-metals

- Found as solids, liquids and gases
Examples:
Solids: Silicon and carbon.
Liquid: Bromine.
Gases: Chlorine, fluorine and oxygen.
- Non-lustrous
Examples: Sulphur and phosphorus.

- Less denser than metals
Examples: Oxygen and nitrogen.

- Not malleable
Examples: Sulphur and iodine.

- Not ductile
Examples: Phosphorous and bromine.

- Do not conduct heat and electricity, except graphite
Examples: Sulphur and phosphorus.

- Low melting and boiling points
Example: Sulphur and phosphorus.

Chemical properties of non-metals:

Formation of covalent compounds
Non-metals form acidic or neutral oxides.
Nitric oxide is a neutral oxide
Non-metal oxides dissolve in water and form acidic solutions
Non-metals are good oxidizing agents.
Metals and non-metals are separated through electrolysis
Activity-Series
The arrangement of metals in the decreasing

order of their reactivity is known as activity
series.
 The arrangement of metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is known

as activity series.
 In the activity series the most reactive are placed at the top and the least
reactive at the bottom.
 For any two metals in the series, the metal placed higher in the series can
displace the other metal from its salt solution.
 Oxides of highly reactive metals like magnesium and aluminium are not
reduced easily either by hydrogen, carbon or carbon monoxide.

 Metals that are placed below copper do not rust easily because of their low
reactivity.
Metals are available in the form of their ores.
 Methods of extraction are based on the reactivity of metals.
Methods of extraction
 Reduction
 Electrolysis
Reduction is the process of removal of oxygen for extraction of metals from their
oxide ores.
The common reducing agents used for reduction of metal oxides are:
 Carbon monoxide
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
Electrolysis is the process of decomposition of a substance by passing electricity through

it in a molten or dissolved state.
Electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride gives magnesium at cathode and chlorine
at anode
Important ores of aluminium are:
 Bauxite, represented by the formula Al2O32H20

 Corundum, represented by the formula Al2O3 , and
Cryolite, with the formula Na3AlF6.
Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminium. The extraction of aluminium from bauxite
involves three steps:
 The purification of bauxite using Bayer's process.

 The electrolytic reduction of anhydrous Al2O3 by Hall and Herault's process.
 The last step is the purification of impure aluminium by Hoope's process
Aluminium is used in :

 Manufacture of automobile components
 Construction process
 Manufacture of electric wires
 Packing medicines and pharmaceutical products
 Manufacture of soft drink cans and espresso coffee makers
 Manufacture of utensils
An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of solid solution of two or more metals or

metals with non-metals.
Duralumin is a light and tensile alloy of aluminium.
Duralumin is used in the making of air craft frames, pressure cookers
Magnalium is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium
 Magnalium is used in the making of balances because of its high structural

strength and resistance to corrosion.
It is also used in the making of optical instruments like cameras and microscopes due
to its light weight and resistant to corrosion

4. Carbon and its Compounds
Forms of Carbon
Carbon exists both in crystalline and amorphous

allotropic forms.
Allotropy is the property of an element to exist in more than one physical forms having
similar chemical properties but different physical properties. Carbon exists both in
crystalline and amorphous allotropic forms.
Diamond, graphite and fullerene are the crystalline forms of carbon. Coal, coke, wood
charcoal, animal charcoal, lampblack, gas carbon, petroleum, coke and sugar
charcoal are the different amorphous allotropes of carbon.
Diamond
In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by a single covalent
bond. This is why a diamond is a rigid, compact, three dimensional structure and is
very hard to break. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, as there are no free
electrons present in it.
Structure of diamond.

Graphite contains carbon atoms in hexagonal rings and the rings in turn are joined
together to form a layer. A series of such layers are piled one over the other.The layers of
carbon can slide over each other, because there are no b covalent bonds between the atoms
of two adjacent layers. Since graphite contains free electrons, it is a good conductor of
heat and electricity. Lead pencils contain graphite encased in a wooden covering
structure of graphite
Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley
for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry for the year 1996. A fullerene
molecule consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons, like in a
standard football. Fullerenes are also called Buckminsterfullerenes as they are shaped
like the geodesic dome designed and built by the US architect Buckminster Fuller.
fullerenes, buckminster fullerene

Bonding-In-Carbon
Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points. For example, chloroform
has a boiling point of 60 degree centigrade. Covalent compounds are non conductors of
electricity this is due to the absence of free ions.
Sharing of electrons results in a covalent bond. A Lewis structure is a type of shorthand
notation. The Lewis dot structures provide a picture of the bonding in molecules in terms
of the shared pairs of electrons and the octet rule.
Locate a central atom.
Connect to other atoms with a single bond.
Determine the number of valence electrons.
Arrange the electrons for bond formation.
A shared electron pair is known as bond pair. A single covalent bond is formed by
sharing a pair of electrons. Example, hydrogen molecule.
A double covalent bond is formed by sharing two pairs of electrons. For example,
oxygen molecule.
A triple covalent bond is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons. For example,
nitrogen molecule.

During the formation of a methane molecule, one electron of a carbon atom pairs with
one electron of a hydrogen atom to form a bond pair. In this way, four bond pairs which
are four C-H bonds, are produced.
Ethane exists as a gas.
Hydrocarbons
Carbon shares four electrons with other atoms

and forms four single covalent bonds and it is
known as tetravalency.
The vital force theory received a severe blow when wohler prepared urea in the
laboratory from inorganic compound ammonium cyanate in the laboratory. The unique
properties of carbon such as tetravalency, catenation and formation of multiple bonds
are responsible for it to form millions of compounds.
Carbon shares four electrons with other atoms and forms four single covalent bonds and it
is known as tetravalency. The property of self linkage among identical atoms to form long
chain compounds is known as catenation. , n-butane is a straight chain compound, 2-
methyl butane is a branched chain compound, and cyclobutane is a cyclic compound.
Compounds of carbon linked by single bonds are known as saturated compounds.
Example methane, ethane. The compounds of carbon linked by double and triple

bonds are called unsaturated compounds. Example - ethene and ethyne.
The compounds of carbon which contain a closed ring of carbon atoms are regarded as
cyclic hydrocarbons. They are of two types.
 Alicyclic and
 Aromatic.

Cyclo propane and cyclo butane are alicyclic compounds and benzene is an aromatic
compound.
The carbon atom together with hetero atoms is known as functional group. When carbon
compounds with same functional group are arranged in ascending order of their molecular
weights, the difference between the two consecutive members of the series is -CH2 and
such a series is called homologous series.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds
Functional groups are specific atoms, ions, or groups of atoms that have consistent
properties.
In organic chemistry, apart from hydrocarbons, there are other molecules where carbon
forms bonds with other elements, such as halogens, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
rational system of naming carbon compounds was developed. It was modified by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and is followed all over
the world. According to the IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of an organic
compound consists of a root word, a suffix and a prefix.
1. For saturated hydrocarbons, the primary suffix "ane" should be added. For
example, the IUPAC name of
is ethane.
2. Hydrocarbons containing double bonds are known as alkenes. For such hydrocarbons,
the primary suffix "ene" should be added to the root word. For example,

the IUPAC name of is written as Ethene
3. Hydrocarbons that contain a triple bond between carbon atoms are known as alkynes
and for naming such hydrocarbons the primary suffix "yne "should be added. For
example, the IUPAC name of
is written as propyne.
A secondary suffix indicates the functional group present in the carbon compound.
For example a molecule of ethyl alcohol contains two carbon atoms, so the root word is
"eth". It is saturated so the primary suffix should be "ane" but as there is a functional group
-OH in the molecule, remove the "e" from the name of the molecule and add the secondary
suffix "ol". Therefore, the IUPAC name of ethyl alcohol is "ethanol".

Using the same set of rules, the IUPAC name of the propanaldehyde molecule can be
written as Propanal, acetone can be written as propanone. Similarly, the IUPAC name of
propionic acid can be written as propanoic acid.
The parts of the name that precede the root word are called prefixes. For example, in the
compound, cyclobutane, "cyclo" is the prefix that indicates the alicyclic nature of the
compounds
Coal and petroleum are the fossils fuels. Carbon compounds undergo different types
of chemical reactions. All carbon compounds react with oxygen to produce heat and
light along with carbon dioxide and water. This reaction of carbon with oxygen is called
combustion.
Carbon Compound + Oxygen
Aliphatic compounds on combustion produce a non-sooty flame. for example, alcohol

burns with a blue flame and does not produce any soot. Aromatic compounds on

combustion produce sooty flame. For example, naphthalene and camphor burn with a
yellow flame and produce soot.
Alcohols undergo oxidation in presence of oxidising agents like alkaline potassium
permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate to form carboxylic acids. For
example, ethyl alcohol on oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified
potassium dichromate gives acetic acid.
Addition reaction is the one in which a molecule adds across a double bond or a triple
bond.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions. Hydrogenation reaction involves

the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons in presence of catalyst like nickel
to form saturated hydrocarbons.
A substitution reaction involves the replacement of an atom or group of atoms by other

atom or group. Alkanes undergo substitution reactions. For example chlorination of
methane in presence of sunlight gives a mixture of products like methyl chloride,
methylene chloride, chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride.

Properties of two commercially important compounds - ethanol and ethanoic acid.

Properties of ethyl alcohol.
The molecular formula of ethyl alcohol is C2H5OH, and its IUPAC name is ethanol. It is
the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. It is also called grain alcohol and spirit of
wine
Ethanol can be manufactured through fermentation of molasses.
Physical properties of ethyl alcohol.
1. Colorless, inflammable, sweet smelling liquid that burns with a blue flame.
2. miscible with water,
3. good solvent
Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol can cause drunkenness. Absolute

alcohol which is pure form of alcohol when consumed even in small quantities is proven to
be fatal.
To prevent the misuse of ethanol that is produced for industrial use, it is made unfit by
adding methanol to it. To identify it easily, dyes are added to it, this is called denatured
alcohol.
Chemical properties of alcohol
1. Reaction of ethanol with sodium
2Na + 2CH3CH2OH →2CH3CH2O-Na+ + H2
2. Reaction of ethyl alcohol with concentrated sulphuric acid

The organic compounds containing carboxylic group (COOH) are known as carboxylic acids.
Acetic acid whose IUPAC name is ethanoic acid is a carboxylic acid. Vinegar is 5-8%
solution of acetic acid in water.
Reaction of ethyl alcohol with acidified potassium dichromate
As the melting point of acetic acid is very low it often freezes in cold countries and hence
the name glacial acetic acid. Compared to mineral acids acetic acid is a weak acid.
Chemical properties of acetic acid.
Reaction of acetic acid with sodium carbonate:
Esterification reaction:
An ester is formed when an acid and alcohol react.. Esters are sweet smelling substances
which are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents.
Saponification reaction:

The soapiness in soap comes from the sodium

salts of fatty acids like stearic acid, oleic acid
and palmitic acid.
Soaps are sodium salts of long chain carboxylic acids. The soapiness in soap comes
from the sodium salts of fatty acids like stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid.
Sodium Oleate Sodium Palmitate
The ionic end of the soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain dissolves in oil. The
positively charged heads of the soap molecules repel each other and form a closed
structure. This structure is called a micelle. The dirt is pulled and absorbed into the centre
of the micelle. This property of soap makes it an emulsifier.
Sometimes, soaps don't lather well with hard water. Hard water contains calcium and
magnesium, which combine with soap molecules to form insoluble precipitates.
Detergents consist of long chain molecules such as sodium n-dodecyl benzene

sulphonate and sodium n- dodecyl sulphate. The charged ends of these compounds do
not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in water.
Detergents are used in shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
structure of sodium n-dodecyl benzene sulphonate,

structure of sodium n-dodecyl sulphate

5. Periodic Classification of Elements
The earliest classification categorised elements into metals and non-metals.

It was difficult to classify the elements, such as boron, which exhibited the properties of
both metals as well as non-metals.
Dobereiner's law of triads states that, the atomic mass of the middle element of a triad
is the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
Drawbacks of this law:
 All the known elements could not be arranged in the form of triads and it did not
hold good for elements with very low or very high atomic mass
Newlands Law of Octaves:
The property of every eighth element is similar to that of the first element, similar to
the first and the eighth notes in the musical scale.
Drawbacks
 Not valid for elements having atomic masses higher than calcium.
Newly discovered elements could not find a place in Newlands table.

Mendeleev's periodic law states that the physical and chemical properties of all
elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.

Atomic weight and chemical reactivity are the two parameters he chose for classifying
the elements:
The main features of Mendeleev's periodic table are:
 The table had 8 vertical columns called groups, and 12 horizontal rows called
periods.
 In every group, a gradation of physical and chemical properties of elements was
observed.
 The table provided gaps for undiscovered elements.

 The table helped predict the properties of three elements. These elements were
named eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon.
When these elements were discovered, they were named scandium, gallium and
germanium.
The properties of these elements were very close to those predicted by Mendeleev.
Merits:
The table helped in the correction of atomic mass for many elements.
It predicted the existence of some elements that have not been discovered at the time
the table was created.
Demerits:
The atomic weights of two pairs of elements were reversed.
Alkali metals and coinage metals were placed in the same group.
Lanthanides and actinides were not given proper place in the periodic table.
Isotopes were not placed in the periodic table.

The position of hydrogen was not clearly discussed.

Modern Periodic Table
Atomic number is the basis for modern periodic table. Atomic number is the number of
protons in the nucleus, it is also equal to the number of electrons in the atom.
Electronic configuration is the arrangement of electrons in an atom around its
nucleus. The important features of Bohr's atomic theory are:
 Electrons occur in definite electronic shells.

 The shells in an atom can be named alphabetically as K,L,M,N and so on.
The main features of modern periodic table are:
 Elements are arranged in the increasing order of atomic numbers.

 There are 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical columns called
groups.
Elements are placed in periods based on the number of shells in their atoms.
The shortest period is the first period which contains only two elements - hydrogen and
helium.
The second period contains elements from lithium to neon.
The third period contains elements from sodium to argon.
The fourth period contains elements from potassium to krypton.
The fifth period contains elements from rubidium to xenon.

The sixth period contains elements from cesium to radon and seventh period is
incomplete.
Classification of elements into groups is based on the number of valence electrons in
an atom.

The first group has hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium and
francium. Their general electronic configuration is ns1 and are known as alkali
metals.
Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium are second group
elements whose general electronic configuration is ns2 and are known as alkaline
earth metals.
Boron, aluminium, gallium, indium and thallium are the elements of third group
whose electronic configuration is ns2np1. They form covalent compounds.
Carbon, silicon, germanium and tin are the fourth group elements whose general
electronic configuration is ns2np2. Nitrogen, phosphorous, arsenic, antimony and
bismuth are the elements of fifth group whose general electronic configuration is
ns2np3. Oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium and polonium are the sixth group
elements whose general electronic configuration is ns2np4. Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine are the seventh group elements whose electronic
configuration is ns2np5. Helium, neon, argon, krypton, radon and xenon are
elements of eighth group or zero group. Their electronic configuration is ns2np6 .
they are also known as inert gas elements.
Periodic Properties
The properties that recur at regular intervals are called periodic properties.
Important periodic properties are:
 Atomic radius
 Ionization energy
 Electron affinity
 Electronegativity

Metallic and non-metallic character
 Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the valence
electron in an energy level.
 Atomic radius is expressed in angstrom units.
 The atomic radius decreases across a period and increases down the group.
 Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius of 0.72 angstrom units while cesium
(Cs) has the highest atomic radius of 2.62 angstrom units.
Ionization Energy is the minimum energy required to remove the outermost electron
from a gaseous neutral atom to form a cation.
The unit for ionization energy is electron volts or kilo joules per mole
Ionization energy increases across a period

Ionization energy decreases down the group
Helium has the highest ionization energy in the periodic table while cesium has the
lowest.
The energy released when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom is known as
electron affinity. The unit for electron affinity is kilo joules per mole. The electron
affinity increases across a period while it decreases down a group
The zero group elements have the lowest electron affinity values. Electron affinity
values are negative.
The tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is known as
electronegativity. Electronegativity increases across a period while it decreases
down a group.
Fluorine has the highest electronegativity of 4.0 while cesium has the lowest value
of 0.7
Metallic character is the tendency of an atom to lose electrons and non-metallic
character is the tendency to gain electrons. Metallic character decreases or non-
metallic character increases across a period while metallic character increases or
non-metallic character decreases down a group.
In the periodic table metals are placed on the left, non-metals on the right and
metalloids in between.

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Biology Chapter Notes

Photosynthesis
Digestion
Respiration
1. Life Processes
Excretion
Nervous system
2. Control and Coordination Hormones in Animals
Reproduction and Its Significance
Reproduction in Unicellular and Multicellular
3. How do Organisms Reproduce? Organisms
4. Heredity and Evolution Evolutionary Relationships 1
5. Our Environment Our Environment
X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Biology Chapter Notes Page 1

1. Life Processes
Photosynthesis
Life Processes are the basic functions performed by living organisms to maintain their life on this earth.
Nutrition is the process by which the organisms can assimilate and utilize the food for their basic needs
. Autotrophs are the organisms which can synthesize their own food. Autotrophic Nutrition is the
process in which the green plants and certain bacteria can synthesize their own food for basic needs.
Heterotrophs are the organisms like animals and non - green plants which can depend on other
organisms for their food. Heterotrophic Nutrition is the process in which herbivores and consumers
depend on others for food and utilize the food for their basic needs. Photosynthesis is the synthesis of
food by plants using light.
Stomata are small pores present on the surface of leaves and green parts of plant . Opeining and closing
of stomata are controlled by guard cells.Plastids with chlorophyll pigments are chloroplasts. Thylakoids
are round sacs in stroma. The stacks of thylakoids are grana. Matrix of chloroplast is stroma. Green
pigments in chloroplast are called chlorophyll. ATP: Adenosine Tri Phosphate, an energy form. NADP:
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. NADPH: Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Light
reaction occurs in grana of chloroplast. Dark reaction occurs in stroma of chloroplast.
The processes that help carry out metabolic functions, such as respiration, digestion, excretion, circulation
or transport, and reproduction, are collectively called life processes.

Nutrition is theprocess by which organisms can assimilate and utilise food for their basic needs.
Autotrophs are organisms such as plants and some bacteria that can synthesise their own food. This type
of nutrition is known as autotrophic nutrition.
Heterotrophs are organisms like animals and non-green plants that depend on other organisms for food,
and utilise this food for their basic needs. This type of nutrition is known as heterotrophic nutrition

Plants synthesise organic nutrients with the help of chlorophyll, atmospheric carbon dioxide, water and
solar energy. This process is known as photosynthesis.
Leaves have tiny pores on their surface, called stomata. The stomata contain guard cells that regulate the
opening and closing of the stomata. They are opened only when the plant needs carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.

The chloroplasts in leaves contain closely packed flattened sacs, called thylakoids, arranged in piles,
called granum.
Granum lies in a colourless ground substance, called stroma.

Thylakoids contain green pigments, called chlorophyll, which trap solar energy.
Photosynthesis involves a series of photochemical reactions in two phases: Light reactions and dark
reactions.
Light reaction occurs in the grana of the chloroplasts. Using light energy, water molecules split to
release oxygen.

The chlorophyll pigments trap light energy and excite an electron. This excited electron converts light
energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy is stored as ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) and
NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate).
Dark reaction takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts by reducing carbon dioxide to carbohydrates,
utilising energy from ATP.

Digestion
The type of nutrition in fungi is saprophytic.Parasites depend on host for their food Without killing them
to meet basic needs is parasitic nutrition. The type of Nutrition in amoeba is holozoic.The type of
Nutrition in paramecium is holozoic.The process of breakdown of complex molecules into simple
molecules is digestion. Mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestine, rectum and anus
are the parts of Digestive system.Glottis has a cartilaginous flap called Epiglottis.Wave like muscle
contractions of alimentary canal that pass the food bolus is Peristalsis.
Partially digested food in the stomach is Chyme.Largest digestive gland is Liver.Digestive juice secreted
by liver is Bile Juice. An organ stores bile juice is gall bladder.Digestive juice secreted by pancreas is
Pancreatic juicePosterior part of small intestine is IleumSmall finger like projections of the wall of
ileum are Villi.Rectum is a part of large intestine which absorbs water from undigested food.Appendix is
vestigial and an extended part of lower end of rectum of human.Anus is an opening of rectum which
ejects excreta.Saliva protects tooth due to presence of amylase , lysozyme and minerals.

Animals that depend on plants or other animals for their nutrition are called heterotrophs. This type of
nutrition is called heterotrophic nutrition.
Nutrition in unicellular organisms like the amoeba and paramecium is of holozoic type. It involves the
ingestion of liquid or solid organic material, digestion, absorption and assimilation to utilise it. The food
in the food vacuoles of the amoeba and paramecium is digested by lytic enzymes.
The process of breaking down complex molecules into simple molecules is called digestion.

In man, the digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and digestive glands. The mouth, buccal
cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestine, rectum and anus are parts of the alimentary canal.
The digestive glands are the salivary glands, the gastric glands, the liver, the pancreas and the intestinal
glands.

In man, three pairs of salivary glands open into the oral cavity, namely the submaxillary, sublingual and
parotid glands.
Amylase, a digestive enzyme in saliva, breaks down the starch in food into simpler sugar.

Saliva also prevents tooth decay due to the presence of amylase, lysozyme and minerals.
A series of muscular contractions in the oesophagus that pushes food forward to the stomach is called
peristalsis.
The stomach is divided into cardiac, fundus or body, and pylorus. At the junction of the oesophagus and
stomach, and of the stomach and duodenum are valves.

In the stomach, food is mixed with the gastric juices secreted by the gastric glands, which contain
chemicals like hydrochloric acid, and enzymes like pepsin, rennin and lipase. Partially digested food in
the stomach is acidic, and is known as chyme.
The liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile juice, which helps in the emulsification of fats,
and makes the medium alkaline for the action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes in the duodenum and
the small intestine.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which includes trypsin and lipase that help break down proteins
and fats.
In the small intestine, the intestinal enzymes such as invertase, maltase and lipase act upon partially
digested proteins, carbohydrates and fats. They are simplified into amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and
glycerolin a liquid medium known as chyle.

The villi in the small intestine increase its surface area to ensure efficient and rapid absorption of
nutrients. Blood capillaries in the villi absorb nutrients and transport the food to all the cells in the body.
The large intestine absorbs water from undigested food and forms solid waste. The rectum stores the
solid excreta until it is ready to be excreted from the digestive system through the anus.

The appendix is a small, hollow, finger-like pouch, which hangs at the end of the cecum. It does not have
any function in the digestive system of humans. However, it is functional in herbivores such as cows.
Respiration
The process which helps in releasing of energy from cells of the body is RespirationBreakdown of
glucose to release energy from the cells in anaerobic conditions is FermentationBreakdown of glucose
in cells in the presence of oxygen is Aerobic respiration.The cells of organisms which can release
energy in the presence of oxygen are Aerobic organisms.Breakdown of glucose in cells in the absence
of oxygen is Anaerobic respiration.The cells of organisms which can release energy in the absence of
oxygen are Anaerobic organisms.Pyruvate is derived from breakdown of glucose .Fate of pyruvate in
aerobic respiration: Pyruvate is oxidised and release carbon dioxide, water and energy. Role of
mitochondria in aerobic respiration: Mitochondria contains the enzymes for the breakdown of pyruvate
into carbon dioxide and water. Fate of pyruvate in Anaerobic respiration: Pyruvate molecule is further
broken down in the mitochondria of a cell into carbon dioxide and water. Energy-ATP is Adenosine Tri
phosphate. Small pores on leaf are Stomata. The movement of a substance from higher concentration to
lower concentration is Diffusion.Respiration in Plants is performed through opening and closing of
stomata.
Respiration in aquatic animals is performed through diffusion, gills.Trachea is a windpipe that helps in
transport of gases to lungs. Bronchii are braches of trachea.Alveoli are small units of lungs.Diaphragm
is thin membrane separating thorax and abdomen.Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment.
Respiration is a metabolic process of the oxidation of food that results in the release of energy, carbon
dioxide and water. The process begins with breathing, which is inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon
dioxide.

The breakdown of glucose to release energy from the cells in anaerobic conditions is fermentation.
Aerobic organisms break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen. This
type of respiration is known as aerobic respiration.

Anaerobic organisms like yeast break down food into alcohol and carbon dioxide in the absence of
oxygen. This type of respiration is known as anaerobic respiration. In both aerobic and anaerobic
organism, respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell.
During respiration, a glucose molecule that contains six carbon atoms is broken down into a molecule that
contains three carbon atoms. This new molecule is called a pyruvate.

In aerobic organisms, the pyruvate molecule is further broken down in the mitochondria of a cell.
The pyruvate molecule that contains three carbon atoms is broken down into three molecules of carbon
dioxide and three molecules of water.
Sometimes, due to a lack of sufficient oxygen in our muscle cells, the pyruvate molecules are broken
down by the anaerobic process. The pyruvate molecules get converted into lactic acid, which is also a
three-carbon molecule. This lactic acid builds up in our muscle cells and causes cramps.
Both aerobic and anaerobic respiration releases energy - ATP. The energy released in the aerobic process
is 19 times greater than in the anaerobic process.
The energy from ATP is used for cellular activities such as the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis,
and conduction of nervous impulses.

In plants, carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged through the stomata by diffusion. The movement of
a substance from a higher concentration to a lower concentration isdiffusion.
The rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than in terrestrial organisms.
Respiration in aquatic animals is performed through diffusion and the gills.
Fish take in water that has dissolved oxygen in it through the mouth. The dissolved oxygen diffuses into
their blood. The water is then forced out through their gills.

Terrestrial animals have special organs for taking in oxygen from the atmosphere. For instance,
cockroaches respire through the trachea, and scorpions through the book lungs.
Air enters a human body through the nostril, then the trachea. From the trachea, air enters the bronchi
and then goes into the lungs. The bronchi form a network of bronchioles. Each bronchiole has alveoli at
the end in the lungs.

The diaphragm is a thin membrane separating the thorax and the abdomen, and helps in respiration
The respiratory pigment, haemoglobin, in blood absorbs oxygen from the lungs and carries it to tissues
all over the body.

Blood is a fluid connective tissue that includes plasma, blood cell and platelets.Plasma is a fluid
substance that transports gases, nutrients, nitrogenous waste.Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment which
carries oxygen through red blood cells. The amount of haemoglobin varies in different animals.Blood
vessels are tube like and forming a intricate net work to transport blood to various parts of body. They are
mainly arteries and veins.Arteries carry oxygenate blood from heart to different parts of body.Veins
carry deoxygenated blood from body parts to heart. Capillaries are the fine branches of blood vessels
which are deeply innervated into the tissues, organs and organ systems.Platelets prevents bleeding of
blood from blood vessels and body parts by forming a blood clot. Lymph is a colourless tissue fluid
which contains less proteins than plasma and lacks RBC.Structure of heart consists of two atria and two
ventricles in mammals. Fishes are able to extract 80% of the oxygen contained in water passing over their
gills.Heart is a pumping organ for blood in animals. It has structural differences in animals.Blood
circulation - Deoxygenated blood carried to right atrium, and oxygenated blood carried to left atrium.
Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs and left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to body
organs. The force applied by blood in blood vessels is called Blood pressure. The pressure exerted by
blood against the wall of the artery during ventricular contraction or systole is called systolic pressure.
In the circulatory system, blood is the most important mode of transport.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that includes plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Plasma is a pale yellowish fluid that transports gases, nutrients and nitrogenous waste.
Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment that carries oxygen through red blood cells. The amount of
haemoglobin varies in from animal to animal.

Blood vessels are like tubes, and form an intricate network to transport blood to various parts of the body.
They are classified as arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood needs to be pumped through the blood vessels
by a pumping organ known as the heart.
Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body. The walls of the arteries are
thick and elastic. The smallest vessels have walls that are one cell thick, and are called capillaries.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from parts of the body to the heart. They have thinner and less muscular
walls.

Platelets prevent bleeding from blood vessels and body parts by forming blood clots.
Lymph is a colourless fluid that contains less protein than plasma, and lacks RBC.

The heart consists of two atria and two ventricles in mammals. In humans, it is about the size of their
fist.
Fish have a two-chambered heart with one ventricle and one atrium. Fish have single circulation.
Amphibians and reptiles have three-chambered hearts with two atria and one ventricle. They have
incomplete double circulation.

In humans, deoxygenated blood is carried to the right atrium, and oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated
blood to the organs of the body. Humans have complete double circulation.
The valves in the ventricles and atria ensure that blood does not flow backwards during contraction or
expansion.

The force applied by blood in blood vessels is called blood pressure. This pressure is much greater in the
arteries than in the veins.
The pressure exerted by blood against the wall of an artery during ventricular contraction or systole is
called systolic pressure, and that exerted during ventricular expansion or diastole is called diastolic
pressure.

An instrument called the sphygmomanometer is used to measure blood pressure. The normal systolic
pressure is about 120 mm of Hg, and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

Source of minerals in Plants is soil, water and fertilizers. Need for transportation in Plants is to
distribute water and nutrients to various parts. Vascular tissues are tissues that conduct water, minerals
and nutrients throughout the plant body in higher plants. Xylem is a conducting tissue for water and
minerals from roots to various parts of plant body. Transpiration is a process in which water evaporated
from leaves through stoma. Root pressure is a phenomenon to absorb water from soil.
Guttation is appearance of xylem sap drops on tips and margins of leaves. Translocation is transport of
nutrients from leaves to other parts of plant body. Phloem is a conducting tissue for nutrients from leaves
to other parts of plant body. Active transport is transport of a substance across a cell membrane against
the concentration gradient, requires an expenditure of energy.
Transportation is a method of circulation of water and minerals from soil throughout the body of a plant.
Vascular tissues like the xylem and phloem help in the conduction of water, minerals and nutrients
throughout a plant's body.

Xylem tissue is present in the roots, stems and leaves. It has four different types of cells: tracheids,
vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. The xylemtransports waterand minerals from the roots to
the leaves.
Tracheids and vessels are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels that
reach all parts of a plant.
Cells in the roots take up ions to create a high ion concentration. This causes water to move into the roots.

Transpiration is the process of loss of water from a plant's body. It causes the movement of water and
dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves through the xylem.
In herbs, root pressure plays a very important role in the transportation of water.

Translocation is the process of the movement of dissolved substances from the leaves to the roots and
other parts of a plant's body through the phloem.
The phloem is a conducting tissue for nutrients from the leaves to the other parts of a plant's body. The
phloem is made of four types of cells: sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem
parenchyma.

Translocation takes place in the sieve tubes, with the help of adjacent companion cells.
Glucose molecules in the leaves are transferred to the phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This process
is called active transport.

Excretion
Excretion is a process of removal of waste from the body. Excretion in unicellular organisms is
performed by body wall or contractile vacuoles.Excretion in multi-cellular organisms is performed by
flame cells, nephrons.Homeostasis is maintenance of internal environment of body.Urinary system helps
in removal of liquid waste.Kidneys are major organs of excretion.Excretory system in humans is
formed by kidneys, liver.Medulla is an inner part of kidney. Cortex is an outer part of kidney.Nephron
is a unit of excretory system.Structure of Nephron includes Malpighian cup and renal
tubule.Glomerulus is formed by afferent arteriole.Bowman's Capsule is a funnel like proximal part of
nephron.Henle's Loop is hair pin turn part of renal tube.
Ureter is a tube extending from pelvis.Urinary bladder is a storage organ of urine. Urethra is a small
duct of urinary bladder.Kidney-excretory pathway -blood carried by renal artery to nephron , to renal
pyramid, to pelvis , to ureter, to urinary bladder, to urethra , to outside.Urine is pale yellowish liquid
waste.Ultra filtration takes place in Malpighian cup.Selective reabsorption occurs in renal
tubule.Tubular Secretion occurs in distal convoluted tubule.Artificial Kidney is a dialysis machine.
Dialysis is a process in which patient's blood is purified outside the body by a machine.Cork is a dead
tissue derived from plant body.Vacuoles are cell organelles of plant cell.Gum and Resins are excretory
substances of plant body.
The process of removing harmful metabolic waste such as urea, uric acid and salts from the body is
called excretion.
Unicellular organisms, like the amoeba, remove waste by simple diffusion from the body surface into
the surrounding water.

Lower multi-cellular organisms, like flat worms, use flame cells, while earthworms use nephridia for
excretion.
Higher multi-cellular organisms like fish, frogs, lizards, birds and humans use kidneys for excretion.

Homeostasis is maintenance of the internal environment of the body.
The excretory system in human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder, and
a urethra. This is also known as the urinary system.
The kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone. They act as excretory
organs, and also control the balance of water and mineral ions in the body.

Each kidney divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The medulla is composed of conical
masses of tissue that lead to the pelvis.
The cortex has a random arrangement of tiny tubules called nephrons, which are the functional units of
the kidney.

Each nephron consists of a corpuscle and a renal tubule.
A corpuscle is composed of tangled clusters of tiny blood capillaries called "glomerulus". This is called
the filtration unit. A thin-walled, sac-like structure, called "Bowman's capsule," surrounds the
glomerulus.
The renal tubule leads away from Bowman's capsule, and becomes highly coiled to form the "proximal
convoluted tubule." The tubule makes a hairpin loop, called the loop of Henle, and joins the distal
convoluted tubule. The distal convoluted tubule opens into a collecting duct, which passes into the renal
medulla.

From each kidney, a ureter arises and opens into the urinary bladder.
The urethra carries urine to the outside of the body. The urethra emerges through the penis in males, and
close to the vagina in females.

Excretory pathway in kidney - blood carried by the renal artery to the nephron, to the renal pyramid, to
the pelvis, to the ureter, to the urinary bladder, to the urethra, to outside.
The kidney performs three functions leading to urine formation - ultra-filtration, selective re-absorption
and tubular secretion.
Nephrons filter minerals, waste and water, but retain red cells, proteins and large molecules. This process
is known as ultra-filtration.

Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a major amount of water,
are selectively re-absorbed as urine flows along the tube.
Substances not required by the body may be secreted into the filtrate by the cells of the distal convoluted
tubule before it leaves the kidney. This process is known as tubular secretion.

Dialysis is a device used to remove nitrogenous wastes from blood. An artificial kidney contains a
number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in a tank filled with dialysing fluid.
The patient's blood is passed through these tubes. During this passage, waste products from the blood
pass into the dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified blood is pumped back into the patient.
Resins, gums and dead leaves are some excretory products of plants.

2. Control and Coordination
Nervous system
Impulses are signals of information.Nervous system parts are brain, spinal cord and nerves.Neuron is a
unit of nervous system.Parts of a Neuron are cyton, Dendrites and axon.Synapse is a gap between two
neurons.Types of Nerves are sensory, motor and mixed.Nerve Impulse is information signal.Reflex
Action is an automatic instinctive reaction to a stimulus. Reflex Arc is a neural path.Cranium is a brain
box. Nervous system is classified into cranial, peripheral and autonomous. Parts of a brain are fore
brain, mid brain and hind brain.Fore - brain is anterior region of brain.
Mid - brain is a middle region of brain.Hind - brain is posterior region of brain.Pons is a part of hind -
brain.Cerebellum is a part of hind - brain.Cerebrum is a part of fore - brain.Spinal - cord is part of
medulla oblongata.Peripheral nervous system includes cranial and spinal nerves.Cranial nerves are
nerves of brain.Spinal nerves are nerves of spinal cord.Autonomous nervous system is formed by some
cranial and some spinal nerves.Somatic nervous system is a part of Autonomous nervous system.
The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and a huge network of nerves that are spread
throughout the body.
The nervous system is responsible for sending, receiving and processing messages in the form of
chemical signals, called impulses.
A neuron is a unit of the nervous system. Each neuron consists of three parts, namely, the cell body or
cyton, branched projections, called the dendrite, and the long process from the cell body, called the axon.

Synapse is a gap between two neurons.
Types of nerves: Sensory, motor and mixed.

Sensory nerves send messages from the sense organs to the brain or spinal cord. Motor nerves carry
messages back from the brain or spinal cord to all the muscles and glands in the body. Mixed nerves
carry both sensory and motor nerves.
Reflex action is an involuntary action by the body.

Reflex arcs are formed in the spinal cord itself, although the information input goes on to reach the brain.
The nervous system is dividedinto two systems - the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system.
The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.
The forebrain is the main thinking part of the brain. It consists of the cerebrum and diencephalon. The
cerebrum is the seat of memory and intelligence, and of sensory centres like hearing, smell and sight. The
diencephalon is the seat for pressure and pain.

The midbrain connects the forebrain to the hindbrain, and controls the reflexes for sight and hearing.
The hindbrain consists of the cerebellum, pons and medulla. The cerebellum coordinates muscular
activities, and maintains balance and posture. The medulla controls involuntary activities like blood
pressure and beating of the heart.

The spinal cord extends from the medulla of the brain through the whole length of the vertebral column,
and is protected by the vertebral column or backbone.
The peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system
is divided into the autonomous nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
The cranial nerves originate from the brain. Some cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the central
nervous system. Some cranial nerves are mixed, while the others are sensory and motor nerves.

The spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord. All spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the central
nervous system. Spinal nerves are mixed nerves.
The autonomous nervous system includes motor nerves that control involuntary actions like breathing,
beating of the heart, and peristaltic movements of the alimentary canal.

Voluntary actions like muscle movement and blinking of the eyelid are carried out by the somatic
nervous system.
Hormones in Animals
Endocrine system is formed by ductless glands. Characteristics of Hormones are minute, chemical
messengers, act on target organs. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood. Pituitary
gland is the master gland and secrets many hormones. Hypothalamus is a neuro - endocrine part.
Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland.Thyroxine is the hormone of thyroid gland.Cretinism is a
disease in children. Myxoedema is due to hypothyroidism.Exopthlamic goitre is due to
hyperthyroidism.Goitre is due to deficiency of iodine in food.Parathyroid is located on
thyroid.Parathormone is secreted by parathyroid.Tetany is sustained contraction of muscle.
Osteoporosis is a bone related complication.Supra renal glands are located on kidneys.Adrenalin

secreted by adrenal glands.Insulin secreted by pancreas.Glucagon, Somatostatin, Pancreatic
Polypeptide are also secreted by pancreas.Diabetes mellitus is a disease due to deficiency of

insulin.Oestrogen is a female hormone secreted by ovary.Progesterone maintains uterus during
pregnancy.Testosterone is a male hormone for secondary sexual characters.Pineal gland is located at
dorsal to diencephalon.Melatonin is a hormone secreted by pineal gland.
The endocrine system consists of glands called ductless glands, because they empty their secretions
directly into the blood.
Characteristics of hormones: They may be steroids, proteins, peptides or amino acid derivatives.
The endocrine glands are the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the
parathyroid, the thymus, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the testes and the ovary.

The pituitary gland is the master gland, and secrets many hormones. It secretes a large number of
hormones that regulate the organs as well as the other glands. Hence, it is also known as the master gland.
The hypothalamus is a neuro-endocrine part. It links the nervous system and the endocrine system
through the pituitary gland.

The thyroid gland is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx. It is the largest endocrine gland.
It produces thyroxine, a hormone that regulates the carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body,
so as to provide the best balance for growth.
Hyposecretion of thyroxine leads to cretinin in children, and myxoedema in adults, whereas

hypersecretion leads to exopthalamic goitre in adults.

Goitre is due to a deficiency of iodine in food. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine.
Parathyroid glands are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands embedded on the dorsal surface of the
thyroid gland in the neck.

Parathormone helps regulate calcium and phosphate ions in the bones and blood.
Hyposecretion leads to parathyroid tetany, and hypersecretion causes osteoporosis.
The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys, and hence, are suprarenal glands. They secrete a
hormone called adrenaline.

Adrenaline is also called the "hormone of fight or flight," or the emergency hormone. It prepares the
body to face an emergency condition of physical stress, like danger, anger and excitement.
The pancreas is located just below the stomach within the curve of the duodenum. It secretes hormones
such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.

Insulin regulates the sugar level in our blood. If insulin is secreted in small amounts, then the sugar level
in our blood rises and causes a disease called diabetes mellitus.
A pair of ovaries is the female sex organ that lies in the abdominal cavity. They produce two hormones,
namely, oestrogen and progesterone.
Oestrogen controls the changes that occur during puberty, like a feminine voice, soft skin and mammary
glands.
Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle, and helps in the maintenance of
pregnancy.
A pair of testes is the male sex organ located in the scrotum, which is outside the abdomen. They produce
the hormone testosterone.

Testosterone controls the changes, which occur during puberty, like a deeper voice, and facial and body
hair.
The pineal gland is located near the centre of the brain, dorsal to the diencephalon. It produces the
hormone melatonin.

Melatonin affects reproductive development, modulation of wake and sleep patterns, and seasonal
functions.
The thymus is located in the front of the heart in the upper part of the sternum. It produces the hormone
thymosine, and helps in the maturation of T-lymphocytes.

Tropic movement is a growth movement of a plant part in response to external stimulus.Phototropism is

a growth movement of a plant part towards sun light.Geotropism is a growth movement of a plant part
towards gravitation.Thigmotropism is a growth movement of a plant part towards touch or contact
stimuli.Hydrotropism is a growth movement of a plant part towards water.Chemotropism is a growth
movement of a plant part towards chemical.
Nastic responses are non - directional movements of plant parts.Auxins are hormones synthesized in the
tip of stem and useful in cell elongation.Giberellins are involved in seed germination, bolting and
flowering.Cytokinins are hormones useful in elongation of internodes and organ formation.Abscisic Acid
is a hormone to inhibit the growth, closure of stomata.
The movement of a plant during its growth can be directional or non-directional. If movement occurs in
the direction of the stimulus, it is known as tropic movement.

The most common tropic movements are phototropism and geotropism.
Shoots respond by bending towards light, thus showing positive phototropism. They grow away from
gravity, thus showing negative geotropism.
Roots bend away from light, indicating negative phototropism, and grow towards gravity, indicating
positive geotropism.

The directional growth of a plant part in response to the touch stimulus of an object is called
thigmotropism.
Hydrotropism is a growth response in which the direction is determined by the stimuli of water.

Chemotropism is a growth movement of a plant part in response to chemical stimulus. The growth of
pollen tubes towards ovules is an example of this type of tropism.
Nastic responses are non-directional movements of plant parts.
Auxins are hormones synthesised at the tip of a stem that help the plant to grow by cell elongation.

Gibberellins are hormones that help in the growth of the stem, seed germination, bolting, and flowering.
Cytokinins are hormones present in large numbers in areas of rapid cell division, such as fruits and seeds.
They also promote the opening of the stomata.

Abscisic acid is a hormone that inhibits the growth and closure of the stomata.

3. How do Organisms Reproduce?
Reproduction and It's Significance
Significance of reproduction - Organisms reproduce to keep the species alive.Significance of Evolution

is a long drawn out process that takes place over millions of years. They live together in a well defined
environment.Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid is a genetic material present in chromosomes and carry
information from partents to children.
DNA replication is a creation of same DNA during reproduction.DNA is not identically copied,
variations occurs in genes and passed on to subsequent generations. They help species to live in diverse
conditions.
Reproduction is the process by which an organism gives birth to a new individual.
Significance of reproduction - Organisms reproduce to keep the species alive.
Evolution is a long drawn out process with gradual changes, which takes place over millions of years.
Organisms live together in a well-defined environment.
During reproduction, these organisms produce body design features suitable for that environment. For
example, over generations, giraffes developed long necks to eat leaves growing high up on trees.
Deoxyribo nucleic acid is a genetic material present in chromosomes. It carries information from parents
to children.
DNA replication is the creation of similar DNA during reproduction.

Sometimes, mutation leads to variations in DNA.
Some variations might cause new born cells to die or survive. Thus, the surviving cells are similar to or
different from each other. Such variations can help species to evolve and survive in adverse conditions.
This was the reason that giraffes, snakes and bacteria were able adapt to the changing environment.
Reproduction in Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Types of reproduction in Plants are Asexual and Sexual types.Types of Asexual reproduction in
Plants are vegetative propogation and tissue culture.Fission is a asexual method in unicellular organisms
like amoeba, paramecium, Leishmania.Fragmentation is a asexual method in spirogyra.Regeneration is
a asexual method in multicellular planarians.Budding is a asexual method in yeast and hydra.
Morphollaxis is a regenerative method in invertebrates like lobsters. Vegetative Propogation in plants
are stem cutting, layering and grafting.
Grafting is vegetative method for apple and rose.Leaf Buds can grow as young plants in
Bryophyllum.Rhizome is a horizontal plant stem with shoots above and roots below serving as a
reproductive structure. In Rhizopus, spore formation occurs in sporangia as tiny units. Reproduction in
Rhizopus takes place through spore formation.Tissue Culture is an asexual method in which specific
organs are selected for new Plants of same kind.Callus is a mass of selected tissue of plant body for
tissue culture.
There are two types of reproduction in plants - asexual and sexual.
In the asexual mode of reproduction, a single individual is responsible for creating a new generation of
species. For example, new plants are grown without the production of seeds.

In the sexual mode of reproduction, two individuals are responsible for creating a new generation of
species.
Among the types of Asexual reproduction are fission, fragmentation, regeneration, budding, vegetative
propagation and spore formation.
Fission: The mother cell divides to form two daughter cells. In unicellular organisms like amoeba, the
splitting of the cells during division can take place along any plane. This is called transverse binary
fission.
In Leishmania, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to the whip-like structures
located at one end of the cell. This is called longitudinal binary fission.
Multiple fission: The mother cell divides into many daughter cells simultaneously. The malarial parasite,
Plasmodium, is a unicellular organism, and reproduces by multiple fission.
Multi-cellular organisms can reproduce asexually as well as sexually.
Fragmentation: The organism breaks up into smaller pieces on maturation. Each fragment grows into a
new individual. Spirogyra reproduces by fragmentation.
Regeneration: If the organism is cut up, its pieces can grow into separate individuals. It occurs in some
fully differentiated organisms like Hydraand Planaria. Regeneration is also called morphallaxis.
Budding: In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at a specific site. Each
such bud develops into a tiny individual hydra.
Vegetative propagation involves production of new plants using the vegetative parts of an existing plant.
The methods of vegetative propagation in plants include stem cutting, layering and grafting.
In grafting, the tissues of one plant are encouraged to fuse with those of another. Grafting is a vegetative
method of propagation for apples and roses.
Leaf buds can grow as young plants in Bryophyllum. When a leaf touches moist soil, each bud grows
into a new plantlet.

A horizontal plant stem, with shoots and roots, usually underground, serves as a reproductive structure.
Such horizontal underground plant stems are called rhizomes.
Spore formation: Sporangia contain spores that are very light and are covered by thick walls that protect
them. When these spores come in contact with a moist surface, they begin to grow. For example, rhizopus
Tissue culture: Plant tissue culture is a method used to propagate exact copies of plants under hygienic
conditions.
Callus is a mass of selected tissue of a plant body for tissue culture.
Pollen is yellowish pollen grains produced by anther. Parts of a Flower consists of sepals, petals,
stamens and carpel. A flower with either male or female reproductive organs is termed unisexual flower.
A flower with both male and female reproductive organs in the same flower is Bisexual Flower. Stamen
is the male reproductive organ consists of filament and anther. Pollination is a phenomenon that transfers
of pollen grains from anther to stigma of carpel. Self pollination is a process in which pollen of a flower
reach the stigma of same flower.
Cross pollination is a process in which transfer of pollen grain of one flower to stigma of another flower
of same kind. Insects, animals , wind, birds and water are known as Agents of Pollination. Carpel is a
female reproductive organ consists of ovary, style and stima. Pollen tube is tube that grows out from
pollen to reach the ovum in ovary. Syngamy is a fusion of male and female gametes. Germination is the
growing of a seed by using endosperm stored in the seed to gives rise to shoot and root systems.

Sexual reproduction: Pollen is a coarse powder that carries the male gamete of the seed plants to the
female part of the flower. An offspring derives half the amount of DNA from the female gamete, and the
other half from the male gamete.
Parts of a flower: A flowerconsists of sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. The stamen and carpel are the
reproductive parts of a flower.
A unisexual flower contains either stamens or carpels. For example, papaya and watermelon are
unisexual flowers.

A bisexual flower contains stamens as well as carpels. For example, hibiscus and mustard flowers are
bisexual.
The stamen is the male reproductive organ that consists of filament and anther. The anther produces
yellowish pollen grains from the pollen sacs inside.

Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the carpel.
Self-pollination: The transfer ofpollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
Cross-pollination: The transfer ofpollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower.

Agents of pollination: Wind, water, animals, birds, insects and, of course, human beings.
Petals attract insect or bird pollinators by their colour, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some
part of the flower.

The carpel is the female reproductive organ located at the centre of a flower. It consists of the ovary, style
and stigma. The ovary is the swollen part at the bottom of the carpel. The elongated part in the centre of
the carpel is the style. The stigma is sticky so that it can trap pollen grains easily.
Pollen tube: A tube that grows from the pollen grain to the ovary to aid fertilisation.
Fertilisation: The fusion of the male germ cell with the female germ cell. This fusion of two gametes or
germ cells is also called syngamy.

Changes after fertilisation: After fertilisation, the zygote forms an embryo. The ovule develops into a
seed. The ovary ripens to form a fruit.
Germination is the growth of an embryonic plant contained within a seed. It results in the formation of
the seedling.

Puberty is the stage of a boy and a girl able to reproduce.Testes are male sex organs.Testosterone is
male sex hormone secreted by testes.Vas deferens is a tube which carry sperm from testis.Prostate gland
and Seminal Vesicles secrete semen for sperm.Ovaries are female reproductive organs.Fallopian tube is
a oviduct which helps in fertilization.Uterus is a sac like structure that helps in development of embryo.
Cervix is the protective part of Uterus.Fertilization is a fusion of nuclei of a male sperm and a female
ovum.Zygote is formed by fusion of pronuclei of male and female gametes.Placenta is a connective
tissue between foetus and mother. blood.Menstruation is a process to release damaged thick wall of
uterus along withSexually Transmitted Diseases are syphilis and gonorrhoea and AIDS.
Puberty is the stage when a boy and a girl able to reproduce.
In the adolescent phase, the reproductive tissues begin to mature. This period in boys and girls is called
'puberty'.

In the male reproductive system, the germ cells, known as sperms, are formed in the testes located
outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.
Testosterone is the male sex hormone secreted by the testes. It regulates the development of sperms and
the secondary sexual characteristics, leading to puberty.

The vas deferens is a tube that carries sperm from the testes. It continues from the epididymis as a tube.
Prostate gland and seminal vesicles secrete semen to make the movement of sperms easier.
The urethra forms a common passage for both the sperm and urine as it is just one tube that connects the
glands - the bladder and the vas deferens.

In the female reproductive system, germ cells develop into eggs inside the ovaries. On puberty, these
eggs mature and are responsible for producing some hormones.
The egg is carried from the ovary to the womb through a thin oviduct, also known as the fallopian tube.

The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure, known as the uterus. The uterus opens into the
vagina through the cervix. The uterus helps in the development of the foetus.
Fertilization is the fusion of the nuclei of a male sperm and a female ovum in the oviduct.
A zygote is formed by the fusion of the pronuclei of the male and female gametes. It starts dividing and
gets implanted in the lining of the uterus.

The placenta is a connective tissue between the foetus and the mother. It provides a large surface area for
glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo.
Menstruation: If the egg does not get fertilised, then the endometrium lining is not needed, and hence, it
slowly breaks down and comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous. This cycle takes place
roughly every month, and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts for two to eight days.

Contraceptive devices like a loop or copper-T are placed in the uterus to block the passage of sperm. At
the same time, contraceptive drugs can also be taken orally as pills to avoid pregnancy.
Sexually transmitted diseases: Bacterial infections such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and viral infections
such as warts, and HIV, or AIDS, are some of the diseases that are transmitted sexually.

4. Heredity and Evolution
Trait is a distinguishing feature of character which occurs in two forms like dominant and recessive.The
Father of Genetics is Gregor Johann Mendel. He conducted experiments on garden pea plant. Heredity
is transfer of characters from parents to progeny.Gene is a structural and functional unit of heredity and
variations.Alleles are a pair of alternative forms of a gene.Homozygous is a condition in which a gene
possess a pair of same allels ( TT/tt) for a single character. Gene is a segment of DNA and formerly
called factors by Mendel.Heterozygous is a condition in which a gene possess a pair of different allels
(Tt) for a single character.
Phenotype is a morphological expression of a single character.Punnet Square is a statistical method

used by Mendel to check his experimental results.Filial generation is expressed as generations of
parents.Dominant trait is a trait which can express its character by suppressing the expression of another
trait.Recessive trait is a trait which can't individually express its character due to dominance of another
trait.Dihybrid Inheritance is conducted with two characters and their four contrasting traits.Sex
Determination is mainly expressed with sex chromosomes like X and Y. XX represents female and XY
represents male.
Any characteristic that is transferred from parent to offspring, such as height and colour, is known as a
trait. This process of passing traits from parent to offspring is called heredity.
Minor differences between offspring and parent are variations.
G. J. Mendel: Gregor Johann Mendel was a pioneer among geneticists who put forward the concept of
inheritance of characteristics or traits from parent to offspring. He proposed the principle of inheritance,

and is known as the "Father of Genetics". He experimented with pea plants and found variations among
them.
Gene is a structural and functional unit of heredity and variations. It is the DNA segment of the
chromosome. Genes control the expression of characteristics. Genes were called "factors" by Mendel.
Alleles are a pair of alternative forms of a gene. Each gene is present in two alternative forms, each called
an allele. Each allele controls a single trait.
Tallness in a plant is a dominant trait, controlled by a dominant allele, and is represented by "T"
(capital). Shortness in a plant is a recessive trait, controlled by a recessive allele, and is represented by "t"
(small).
Homozygous is a condition in which a gene possesses a pair of the same alleles (TT or tt) for a single
characteristic.
Heterozygous is a condition in which a gene possesses a pair of different alleles (Tt) for a single
characteristic.
Phenotype is a morphological expression of a single character. For example, if a particular plant is tall or
short, it is the tall or short phenotype.
Genotype is the genetic make-up of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele make-up
of the individual), usually with reference to a specific characteristic under consideration. Alleles combine
to make a genotype, such as TT or T, and t or tt.
Punnet square is a statistical method that was used by Mendel to predict the possible genotypes and
phenotypes of offspring.
Monohybrid inheritance: Mendel's experiment in which the inheritance of only one characteristic, for
instance, the height of the pea plant, is considered. Such an inheritance pattern is referred to as
monohybrid inheritance.
Monohybrid inheritance - F1 generation is the first filial generation offspring produced by crossing two
parental strains. In the first generation or F1 progeny, all the plants were tall. This means that only one of
the parental traits were visible. The F2 generation is the second filial generation offspring produced by

crossing F1's. Interestingly enough, the second generation, or F2 progeny, were not all tall. Instead, one
quarter of them was short. This indicates that both the traits - that of tallness and shortness -were inherited
in the F2 plants.
Dihybrid inheritance is conducted with two characteristics, and their four contrasting traits. For instance,
a plant producing round and yellow seeds (RR and YY) crossing with a plant producing wrinkled green
seeds (rr and yy). The inheritance of two such characteristics is known as dihybrid inheritance.
Dihybrid inheritance - F1 progeny produces round and yellow seeds (R and r, and Y and y). In such a
case, round and yellow seeds would be the dominant traits.
Dihybrid inheritance - F2 progeny were similar to their parents and produced round yellow seeds, while
some of them produced wrinkled green seeds. However, some plants of the F2 progeny even showed new
combinations, like round-green seeds and wrinkled-yellow seeds.Dihybrid inheritance - F1 progeny
produces round and yellow seeds (R and r, and Y and y). In such a case, round and yellow seeds would be
the dominant traits.
Sex determination is mainly expressed by sex chromosomes like X and Y. XX represents a female,
while XY represents a male. A child who inherits an X chromosome from her father will be a girl, and
one who inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.
Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes over millions of years in which new species are produced.
Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist proposed theory of Natural Selection. Variations are
the differences in characters among individuals of a species. Mutation is a sudden, random, unwanted
and heritable change in the organisms . Gene Flow is transfer of genes from one population to another

population. Movement of living organisms from one place to another place for protection, reproduction,
shelter is known as Migration. Natural selection explains that the organisms which are physiologically,
behaviourally better adapted for environment are selected. They can survive and reproduce.
Genetic Drift is a deviation from a small population due to chance variation.Species can be defined as a
group of individuals of same kind which can interbreed and produce fertile progeny. Any reproductive
isolation leads to Speciation, which mean formation of new species from a single species. Process of
speciation - genetic drift: It is due to changes in the frequencies of particular genes by chance alone.
Process of speciation - Natural selection: Variations caused in individuals due to natural selection leads
to formation of new species. Process of speciation - splitting of population: A population splits into
different sub populations due to geographical isolation that leads to formation of new species.
Evolution is the sequence of gradual changes over millions of years in which new species are produced.
Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist who observed various species of life on the earth, and
put forward the idea of "evolution of species by natural selection." He said that a species inherits its
characters from its ancestors.
Variations are the differences among individuals of a species, caused by genetic and environmental
factors.
Mutation is the change in the sequence of the nitrogen base pairs in DNA. A mutation in the gene for
green colouration in green beetles leads to offspring with brown colouration.
Gene flow is the transfer of genes from one population to another due to migration. Breeding between the
brown and green beetles introduces new gene combinations into the population.
Natural selection explains that organisms that are physiologically or behaviourally better adapted for the
environment are selected; they can survive and reproduce. The green beetle is better adapted to the
environment than the brown beetle.
Genetic variation in small populations caused by an environmental factor is called a genetic
Species can be defined as a group of individuals of the same kind that can interbreed and produce fertile
progeny.

Speciation is an event that splits a population into two independent species, which cannot reproduce with
each other.
Process of speciation - genetic drift: Occurdue to changes in the frequencies of particular genes by
chance alone. If a hurricane strikes the mainland, and bananas with beetle eggs on them are washed away
to an island, it is called a genetic drift.
Process of speciation - natural selection: Variations caused in individuals due to natural selection,
which leads to the formation of a new species. Ecological conditions are slightly different on the island as
compared to the mainland. This leads to a change in the morphology and food preferences in the beetles
over the course of generations.
Process of speciation - splitting of population: A population splits into different sub-populations due to
geographical isolation that leads to the formation of a new species.
Homologous Characteristics are the organs have the same basic structure but different functions. Ex:
Fore limbs of human, fore limb of lizard Analogous characteristics are the organs have different
structures but have same functions. Ex: Wing of insect, wing of bird Fossils are the remains of a plant or
animal that existed in a past geological age and that has been excavated from the soil. Fossilisation is the
process of fossilizing a plant or animal that existed in some earlier age.
When two unrelated organisms become quite alike after a period of time through few generations, it
assumes that both have common ancestor. This phenomenon is known as Biological
convergence.Broccoli, Kohlrabi, Kale are produced from its ancestor Wild cabbage by artificial

selection. Tools to trace evolutionary relationships are fossils, DNA sequences and embryological
evidences.
Homologous characteristics are organs that have the same basic structure, but different functions. For
example, mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have four limbs with the same basic limb layout
because they have inherited the limbs from a common ancestor. These limbs have been modified to
perform different functions.
Analogous characteristics are organs that have different structures, but have the same functions. The
design of the wings of bats and the wings of birds look similar because they have a common purpose - to
fly.
Fossils are the remains or traces of a plant or animal that existed in a past geological age, and that has
been excavated from the soil.
Fossilisation: The process in which an organism is converted into a fossil.
When two unrelated organisms become quite alike after a period of time through a few generations, it is
assumed that they have a common ancestor. This phenomenon is known as a biological convergence. For
example, the eyes of the octopus and the eyes of vertebrates have evolved entirely independently. These
similarities of structure, despite different origins, provide a classic example of biological convergence.
Adaptation: A characteristic of a particular animal may, post-evolution, be useful for performing a totally
different function. For example, long feathers were considered to provide insulation in cold weather.
Some reptiles like the dinosaur had feathers, but very few were adapted for flying. In the present day,
birds use feathers for flight, which is an example of adaptation.
Artificial selection: The use of plants with desirable characteristics to produce new varieties.
Broccoli, kohlrabi and kale are produced from its ancestor wild cabbage by artificial selection.
The tools to trace evolutionary relationships are excavation, time-dating, studying fossils, and
determining DNA sequences. These have been used for studying human evolution.

5. Our Environment
Our Environment
Ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting with each other as an
ecological unit, involving the flow of energy. Producers are green plants , phytoplanktons and occupy
first trophic level in ecosystem. Autotrophs are green plants and phytoplankton can synthesize their own
food. Consumers are animals feed on autotrophs and heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are animals such as
herbivores, omnivores, carnivores and parasites depend on others for food. Decomposers are mainly
bacteria and fungi. They breakdown the complex organic compounds present in dead animals and plants.
Saprobes are organisms depend on saprophytes and saprozoic animals. Food Chain is a chain of
organisms through which energy is transferred. The successive levels in food chains of a community are
trophic levels. A web of cross linked food chains is called Food web. Biological magnification is a
phenomenon that , accumulation of toxic substance from one trophic level to another trophic level.
Formation of Ozone: The high energy UV radiation coming from sun splits oxygen gas into free oxygen
atoms. Ozone is formed with three atoms of oxygen joined together.
The ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting with each other
as an ecological unit, involving the flow of energy.

An ecosystem consists of biotic components consisting of living organisms, and abiotic components
consisting of physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals.
Producers are organisms that produce their own food without the help of any other organism. They are
also known as autotrophs. They make their food from inorganic substances through a process called
photosynthesis.
Autotrophs are green plants, phytoplankton and blue green algae.

Consumers cannot produce food, and depend on producers and heterotrophs for it.
Heterotrophs are animals such as herbivores, omnivores, carnivores and parasites, which depend on
others for food.

Decomposers can break down the complex organic compounds present in dead animals and plants, which
are then used by other members of the ecosystem. Decomposers like bacteria and fungi are known as
saprobes.
The flow of energy from one species to another at various biotic levels forms a food chain.
The successive levels in the food chains of a community are the trophic levels.

A web of cross-linked food chains is called a food web.
Biological magnification is a phenomenon in which toxic substances accumulate from one trophic level
to another. As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these
chemicals gets accumulated in your body.

Ozone layer: The high energy of UV radiation coming from the sun splits oxygen into free oxygen
atoms. Ozone is formed with three atoms of oxygen combine. There is a layer of ozone in the
stratosphere. It acts as a natural sun-block and shields you from the UV radiations of the sun.
Ozone depletion: The amount of ozone in the stratosphere has begun to drop sharply due to
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) used as refrigerants and in fire extinguishers.

Pollution of the River Ganges is due to activities like bathing, washing of clothes, immersion of ashes of
dead and industrial effluents.Ganga Action Plan project was launched in 1985 to clean the river Ganga
and make its water pollution free.Forests are Biodiversity hotspots. It is measured by number of species
found in that forest.Stake holders are people who live in and around the forest, Forest department of
government, industrialists and forest and wildlife activists. Chipko Andolan originated in Reni in
Garhwal in the early 1970s.
Conservation of forests by Bishnoi community in Rajasthan popularised because of Amrita Devi Bishnoi
who sacrificed her life in 1731 for the protection of Khejri trees in Khejrali village.Ways to conserve our
resources are to use judiciously, consideration long term perspective, equitable distribution.Role of Govt
in forest conservation are owning of forest land, controlling industries , setting up of rules, ensuring
local people benefit, and controlling illegal activities. 3R's in conserving resources are Reduce, Recycle
and Reuse.
Natural resources include our forests, water, coal and petroleum reserves.

The river Ganga runs its course of over 2500 kilometres from Gangotri in the Himalayas to the Bay of
Bengal, through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Pollution of the river Ganga is due to activities
like bathing, washing clothes, immersion of the ashes of the dead, and industrial effluents.
The coliform bacteria are usually found in the human intestine, whose presence in the Ganga water
indicates contamination by faeces and disease-causing micro-organisms. The Ganga Action Plan project
was launched in 1985 to clean the Ganga and make its water free from pollution.

Forests are 'biodiversity hotspots' due to the sheer number as well as the variety of species of flora and
fauna that live in them.
Stake holders are people who live in and around a forest, the forest department of the government,
industrialists, and forest and wildlife activists.
The Chipko Andolan ('Hug the Trees Movement') originated in the 1970's, in a village called Reni in
Garhwal high up in the Himalayas. It was to save trees from being cut down.
The conservation of forests by the Bishnoi community in Rajasthan became well known because of
Amrita Devi Bishnoi, who sacrificed her life in 1731 for the protection of the Khejri trees in village
Khejrali.
The ways to conserve our resources are judicious use, long-term perspective, and equitable distribution.
The role of the government in forest conservation: Owning of forest land, controlling industries,
framing rules, ensuring that local people benefit, and controlling illegal activities.
The 3R's in conserving resources are Reduce, Recycle and Reuse.
Water from aquatic bodies evaporates into atmosphere due to sun light and condences to clouds. Due to
air currents clouds turns into rains and reach water bodies and ground called water cycle. The water
falling to earth in the form of rain or snow is Precipitation. Dams are structures used to divide and retain
water in a particular area. Some famous dams in India are the Bhakra Nangal Dam, the Sardar Sarovar
Dam and the Tehri Dam. Advantages of ground water are -it does not evaporate, recharge wells,
protected from contamination of human and animal waste. Disadvantages of dams are deforestation,
sedimentation, erosion of river beds, disruption of animal and plant life.
Traditional Water Harvesting Systems are Khadins, Nadis, Bhadaras, Tals, Eris etc Formation of
Coal is due to the action of heat and pressure on decaying, buried plants in the swampy areas of earth,
and it is a continuous process. Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels are release of carbon dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen, oxides of sulphur. Carbon dioxide cause global warming. Our role in energy conservation is to
make a habit of recycling and reusing plastic bags, Switch off lights, using CFL bulbs etc.
The rainfall pattern in India differs in different geographical regions. Tropical regions receive more
rainfall as compared to desert regions.
Water from aquatic bodies evaporates into the atmosphere due to sunlight, and condenses into clouds.
Due to air currents, the clouds turn into rains and reach water bodies and the ground. This passage of
water from water bodies to the atmosphere and back to the earth is called water cycle.
Forms of water: Around 97.5 per cent of water in the oceans is salty. About 1.75 per cent of fresh water
remains frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps, while the remaining, 0.75 per cent, exists as groundwater.
The advantages of groundwater are that it does not evaporate, it recharges wells, and it is protected from
contamination by human and animal waste.
Dams are structures used to divide and retain water in a particular area. Some famous dams in India are
the Bhakra Nangal Dam, the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the Tehri Dam.
The advantages of dams are that they can be used to generate hydroelectric power. They are also used to
supply water for agriculture, and drinking water in cities, through canal systems that transport stored
water to great distances. The Indira Gandhi Canal is one of the biggest canal projects in India, which
brought greenery to the north-western parts of Rajasthan.
The disadvantages of dams are deforestation, sedimentation, erosion of river beds, and disruption of
animal and plant life.
Watershed management aims at water conservation to increase biomass production.
Water harvesting is an age old concept in India. Water harvesting techniques are named differently at
different places, but the use remains the same. For example, Khadins and Nadis in Rajasthan, Bandharas
and Tals in Maharashtra, Bundhis in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, Ahars and Pynes in Bihar, and
Eris in Tamil Nadu.
Formation of coal: Coal was formed hundreds of millions of years ago as a result of the action of heat
and pressure on decaying, buried plants in the swampy areas of the earth. It is a continuous process.
Thermal electricity: About 37 per cent of the world's electricity is produced using coal. This is also
because coal is cheaper than other fuels like petroleum and gas, which are also non-renewable.
The disadvantages of fossil fuels are the release of carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of
sulphur. Carbon dioxide causes global warming.
Some alternative sources of energy are wind, solar and hydroelectric energy. These are all viable
options since they are more environment-friendly.
Energy conservation is to make a habit of recycling and reusing plastic bags, switching off lights, and
using CFL bulbs.

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2012

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science

Jai Kumar Gupta

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Curriculum Page 2

Chapter as per NCERT Text Book Lessons

2. Human Eye and Colourful World Human Eye

Current Electricity Basics

4. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current Magnetic effect of Electric Current

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 1

Reflection is the process where the incident light

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 2

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 3

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 4

Generally mirrors refer to plane mirrors. But if the

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 6

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 7

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 8

Refraction is one of the important phenomenons

refractive index. According to Snell's law, .

Refraction by Spherical Lenses

The distance from the principal focus to the optic

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 11

Eye is the most important organ of our body. It

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 12

Dispersion and Scattering of Light

When a light ray enters one refracting surface of

Another important natural phenomenon where we encounter atmospheric refraction is

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 13

Electricity is one of the oldest branches of science

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 15

Current Electricity Circuits

An electric circuit is a closed path for flow of

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 16

The reciprocal of the net resistance or equivalent resistance of a number of resistors

Heating Effect of Electric Current

Heating effect of electricity is one of the widely

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 17

A current carrying conductor creates a magnetic

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 18

Electro Magnetic Induction

Electromagnetism created a revolution by leading

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 19

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 20

Sources of energy can be categorized into non-

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Physics Chapter Notes Page 21

Chapter as per NCERT Text Book Topics

Chemical reactions and equations

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Chemistry Chapter Notes Page 1

A chemical reaction involves a change in the

A chemical equation contains:

-An arrow separates the reactants and products

Symbols for physical state of reactants and products:

- Aqueous solution (aq)

- Gas produced ((↑))

- Precipitate formed ((↓))

X I.I.T. Foundation & Science Olympiad Chemistry Chapter Notes Page 2

The process of balancing chemical equation involves four steps:

1. Determining the reactants and products in a reaction.

2. Counting the number of atoms of each on both sides.

4. Changing the coefficient of the molecules of reactants or products as required.

Represents an unbalanced equation for the formation of water

Represents balanced equation for the formation of water

Represents an unbalanced chemical equation for the combustion of ethyl alcohol.