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General Chemistry 1
Lesson 2.1

Lesson Title: Isotopes

I. Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1. Identify an isotope.
2. Determine the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons.
3. Recognize the common isotopes and its uses.

II. Lesson Content:

Atomic structure

Three subatomic particles:

1. Electrons - the negatively charged subatomic particle with a mass of 9.11x10 -28g. 2.
Protons - the positively charged subatomic particle with a mass of 1.6726x10 -24g. 3.
Neutrons - the electrically neutral subatomic particle with a mass of 1.6749 x10-24g.

Atomic number – is equal to the number of protons in an atom.

- An electrically neutral atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of
electrons in the same atom.
- Atoms bearing the same atomic number are atoms of the same element.

Use the following formula to determine the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons of
isotope. Atomic number = no. of protons
Mass number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Neutrons = mass number – protons
Electron = no. of proton (NEUTRAL ATOM)

Isotopes are atoms of the same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Isotope Notation
The superscript notation used for identifying isotopes represents
the sum of protons and neutrons, which is the mass number.

The subscript notation represents the number of protons in an

element, which is the atomic number.

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Changing the number of neutrons in an atom does not change the element. Atoms of elements
with different numbers of neutrons are called "isotopes" of that element.

Three Isotopes of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is the only element where the isotopes are given
specific names. Common hydrogen, which has zero neutrons, is
called protium. Hydrogen with one neutron is called
deuterium and hydrogen with two neutrons is called tritium.

Table 1 Application of Different isotopes

Isotope Symbol Isotope Name Application
3
H Tritium Radio labeling of
organic compounds
and in
archaeological dating
11
C Carbon-11 Positron emission tomography
14
C Carbon-14 Radio labeling of
organic compounds
and in
archaeological dating
24
Na Sodium-24 Obstruction testing in
circulatory system
32
P Phosphorus-32 Blood volume determination

51
Cr Chromium-51 Measuring of formation
and lifetime of
erythrocytes
60
Co Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy for cancer
treatment

131
I Iodine-131 Measuring of thyroid
activity and treatment of
thyroid
disorders
153
Gd Gadolinium-153 Measuring the density
of bones

226
Ra Radium-226 Radiotherapy for cancer
treatment
235
U Uranium-235 Production of nuclear
reactors and weaponry

238
U Uranium-238 Archaeological dating
192
Ir Iridium-192 Industrial tracer
241
Am Americium-241 Smoke detectors

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General Chemistry 1
Lesson 2.2
Lesson Title: Ions and Molecules

I. Learning Objectives:
 At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:
1. Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural formulas and models.
2. Name compounds given their formula.
3. Write a formula given the name of the compound.

II. Lesson Content:

Ions and Molecules

Ions are form from loss or gain of electrons.

Classified further as monoatomic and polyatomic:

Monoatomic ions - ions containing only one atom. They could have either positive or negative
charge.
cation - when an atom gives off an electron, its charge becomes positive.
Example: Fe2+- ferrous ion
Fe3+- ferric ion
anion - when an atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged.
Example: S2-- sulfide ion
O2-oxide ion

Polyatomic ions - ions that contain two or more atoms but behave as a single unit as either positively or
negatively charged. These ions are a tightly bound group of atoms that behave as a unit and carry a
charge.

Table 1 Common polyatomic ions.

Charge: 1- Charge: 2- Charge: 3- Charge: 1+
H2PO4-(dihydrogen HPO42-(hydrogen PO33- NH4+
phosphate) phosphate) (phosphite) (ammonium)
C3H2O2-(acetate)

HSO3-( hydrogen sulfite) C2O42-(oxalate)

HSO4-(hydrogen sulfate) SO32-(sulfite)

HCO3-(hydrogen carbonate) SO42-(sulfate)

NO2-( nitrite ) CO32-(carbonate)

NO3-(nitrate)

CN-(cyanide) PO43-
(phosphate)
OH -(hydroxide) CrO42-(chromate)

MnO4-(permanganate)

ClO-(hypochlorite) Cr2O72-(dichromate)

ClO2-(chlorite)

ClO3-(chlorate) SiO32-(silicate)

ClO4-(perchlorate)

Molecules are collection of two or more atoms held in a specific arrangement due to sharing of electrons
and acts as a single unit. Molecules can just be a combination of the same element, which are called
diatomic molecules
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DIFFERENT REPRESENTATIONS OF MOLECULES

1. Molecular Formula - shows the type of atom and the number constituting a certain molecule. 2.
Structural Formula - shows the order in which the atoms in the molecules are bonded. 3. Ball and
stick model - type of perspective drawing that shows the three-dimensional orientation of molecules.
4. Space-filling model - similar to the ball and stick model; however, the line that denotes the
sharing of electrons is omitted. Instead, atoms are fused together.

Examples of Different Representation of Molecules

Binary compound is a substance composed of exactly two different elements.

Ionic Compounds are formed between metals and non-metals.
Covalent compounds are formed between two nonmetals bond together by sharing their
electrons.
Steps in naming ionic and covalent compounds
1. Write the name of the first and second element.
Example: a. CO2 - Carbon Oxygen
b. FeCl2 - Iron Chlorine
2. Replace ‘ide’ to the end of the second element’s name.
Example:
a. CO2 - Carbon Oxide
b. FeCl2 - Iron Chloride
3. See if you need prefixes. Prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element. Take note that the
prefix mono is not used in naming the first element.
Examples:
a. CO2 = carbon dioxide
b. N2O5 = dinitrogen pentoxide
c. CO = carbon monoxide

4. Roman Numerals
Example:
a. FeCl2 - Iron(II) Chloride
b. FeCl3 - Iron(III) Chloride

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Ternary Compounds are made up of three or more different elements.

Example:
NaNO3 - sodium nitrate
BaCrO4 - barium chromate

Binary Acids are composed of hydrogen and another element, usually

nonmetal. hydro - (root name of element) -ic + acid

Example:
HCl - hydrochloric acid
HI - hydroiodic acid
 Ternary Acids are made up of hydrogen and an anion, usually containing
oxygen. (root name of element) -ic(or -ous) + acid
Example:
HNO3 - nitric acid
HNO2 - nitrous acid

Steps in writing Ionic compounds

1. Identify the cation and anion. Write the correct formula and charge for the cation and
anion. Ex: sodium chloride
Na+ Cl
2. Crisscross the charges of the ions. The charge of the cation will then be the subscript of the anion and
the charge of the anion will be the subscript of the cation.
Na+ Cl- NaCl
3. Make sure that the net charge is equal to zero, because all compounds are neutral. To verify this,
multiply the subscripts of the ions with the charge of the ion, and then get the sum of the two ions.

NaCl
(1)(+1) + (1)(-1) = 0

Example: Write the formula of ferric oxide.

Step1. Fe3+ O2-
Step2. Fe3+ O2- Fe2O3
Step3. (2)(+3) + (3)(-2) = 0
Steps in writing covalent compounds
1. Write the symbol of the first and second element of a compound’s name.
Ex. Carbon disulfide
CS
2. Indicate how many atoms of each element contain using subscripts after the atomic symbol.
Ex. Carbon disulfide 5|PAGE

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General Chemistry 1
Lesson 2.3

Lesson Title: Chemical Formula

I. Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, students are expected to:

1. Determine the percent composition of a compound.
2. Calculate the chemical formula from the percent composition of a compound and the
molecular formula given molar mass.

II. Lesson Content:

Chemical formula is a chemical symbol of a substance used to illustrate the composition of a

compound. It can be categorized further into molecular formula, empirical formula, or formula unit.
Molecular formula (MF) is the actual chemical formula of a compound that reflects the
composition of a molecule. The symbols of elements with numerical subscripts constitute a molecular
formula.
Empirical formula (EF) is the chemical formula that shows the simple whole number ratios
among the atoms of elements in the compound.

Table 2 Molecular and empirical formulas of some compounds

 Compound C Molecular formula Empirical formula

water H2O H2O

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO

glucose C₆H₁₂O₆ CH₂O

methane CH4 CH4

ethane C2H6 CH3

Percentage Composition refers to the relative amount of the components of a compound or mixture
expressed in terms of percentage.

Equation to compute for percentage by mass:

Steps in calculating the Percent Composition of Compounds

1. Write the formula.
2. Use the formula to determine molar mass.
3. Use the molar mass to determine the mass percentage of each element.

Example # 1:
Step1 and 2. If you have a compound that has the formula C2H5OH, first determine the mass of each
element.

mass of C = ( ) ( )= 24 g C mass of H = ( ) ( )= 6 g H mass of O = ( ) ( )= 16 g O

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Step3. Determine the percent of each element in the total compound.

Total mass = 24 g + 6 g + 16 g = 46 g

%C= %H=
% = 52% = 13%

%O= = 35%
Steps in Determining the Empirical Formula
1. Find the percent composition.
2. Use the percent composition to determine the mass composition.
3. Use the mass composition to determine the composition in moles.
4. Use the composition in moles to find the smallest whole number ratio of atoms.

Example 2.
Step 1 and 2. For example 1, compound has 52% of C, 13% of H and 35% of O. Determine the mass of each of
the elements in 100g of the substance.
52g C 13g H 35g O

Step 3. Determine how many moles there are of each element in 100g of the substance by using the molar mass of
each element.

Use this equation:

 ( )( )

( )( )

( )( )
Step4. Divide each one by the smallest number of moles. Round off to the nearest whole

C= =6O=
number. =2H= =1

Empirical Formula (EF) = C2H6O/C2H5OH

Molecular Formula

Mass ratio =

Example:
Given: Molar mass = 27.7 g/mol

EF = B , M of B= 10.81g/mol , M of H= 1.01 g/mol

Empirical Formula mass =10.81g/mol+ (3x1.01g/mol) = 13.84g/mol

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Mass ratio =

=
= 2.001
=2
To get the molecular formula, multiply the subscripts of the empirical formula by the mass ratio of the
MF and EF.

EF = B , mass ratio = 2

Molecular Formula (MF) =