Regardless of the many languages one is fortunate to be fluent in, English takes

its place as one of the world’s predominant forms of communication with its influences
extending over as much as +2 billion people globally.

Quirks and inconsistencies aside, the history surrounding its monumental rise is
both a fascinating and rich one, and while we promise to be brief, you just might pick up
a thing or two that may stimulate your interest in studying English with us here at Oxford
International English Schools.

Where it all started

Many of you will be forgiven for thinking that studying an English Language
course consists of English grammar more than anything else. While English grammar
does play a part when taking courses to improve English overall, it is but a small part of
the overall curriculum where one becomes immersed in a history that was partly
influenced by myths, battles, and legends on one hand, and the everyday workings of
its various social class on the other.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, the English language itself really took
off with the invasion of Britain during the 5th century. Three Germanic tribes, the Jutes,
Saxons and Angles were seeking new lands to conquer, and crossed over from the
North Sea. It must be noted that the English language we know and study through
various English language courses today had yet to be created as the inhabitants of
Britain spoke various dialect of the Celtic language.

During the invasion, the native Britons were driven north and west into lands we
now refer to as Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The word England and English originated
from the Old English word Engla-land, literally meaning “the land of the Angles” where
they spoke Englisc.

Old English (5th to 11th Century)

Albert Baugh, a notable English professor at the University of Pennsylvania notes

amongst his published work that around 85% of Old English is no longer in use;
however, surviving elements form the basis of the Modern English language today.

Old English can be further subdivided into the following:

Prehistoric or Primitive (5th to 7th Century) – available literature or

documentation referencing this period is not available aside from limited examples of
Anglo-Saxon runes;

Early Old English (7th to 10th Century) – this period contains some of the earliest
documented evidence of the English language, showcasing notable authors and poets
like Cynewulf and Aldhelm who were leading figures in the world of Anglo-Saxon
literature.

Late Old English (10th to 11th Century) – can be considered the final phase of
the Old English language which was brought about by the Norman invasion of England.
This period ended with the consequential evolution of the English language towards
Early Middle English.

Early Middle English

It was during this period that the English language, and more specifically, English
grammar, started evolving with particular attention to syntax. Syntax is “the arrangement
of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language,” and we find that
while the British government and its wealthy citizens Anglicised the language, Norman
and French influences remained the dominant language until the 14th century.

An interesting fact to note is that this period has been attributed with the loss of
case endings that ultimately resulted in inflection markers being replaced by more
complex features of the language. Case endings are “a suffix on an inflected noun,
pronoun, or adjective that indicates its grammatical function.”

History of the English language

Charles Laurence Barber[3] comments, “The loss and weakening of unstressed

syllables at the ends of words destroyed many of the distinctive inflections of Old
English.”

Similarly, John McWhorter points out that while the Norsemen and their English
counterparts were able to comprehend one another in a manner of speaking, the
Norsemen’s inability to pronounce the endings of various words ultimately resulted in
the loss of inflectional endings.

This brings to mind a colleague’s lisp and I take to wondering: if this were a few
hundred years ago, and we were in medieval Britain, could we have imagined that a
speech defect would bring about the amazing changes modern history is now looking
back on? Something to ponder…

Refer to the image below for an idea of the changes to the English language
during this time frame.

Late Middle English

It was during the 14th century that a different dialect (known as the East-
Midlands) began to develop around the London area.

Geoffrey Chaucer, a writer we have come to identify as the Father of English

Literature and author of the widely renowned Canterbury Tales, was often heralded as
the greatest poet of that particular time. It was through his various works that the
English language was more or less “approved” alongside those of French and Latin,
though he continued to write up some of his characters in the northern dialects.

It was during the mid-1400s that the Chancery English standard was brought
about. The story goes that the clerks working for the Chancery in London were fluent in
both French and Latin. It was their job to prepare official court documents and prior to
the 1430s, both the aforementioned languages were mainly used by royalty, the church,
and wealthy Britons. After this date, the clerks started using a dialect that sounded as
follows:

gaf (gave) not yaf (Chaucer’s East Midland dialect)

such not swich
theyre (their) not hir

As you can see, the above is starting to sound more like the present-day English
language we know.

If one thinks about it, these clerks held enormous influence over the manner of
influential communication, which ultimately shaped the foundations of Early Modern
English.
Early Modern English

The changes in the English language during this period occurred from the 15th to
mid-17th Century, and signified not only a change in pronunciation, vocabulary or
grammar itself but also the start of the English Renaissance.

The English Renaissance has much quieter foundations than its pan-European
cousin, the Italian Renaissance, and sprouted during the end of the 15th century. It was
associated with the rebirth of societal and cultural movements, and while slow to gather
steam during the initial phases, it celebrated the heights of glory during the Elizabethan
Age.

It was William Caxton’s innovation of an early printing press that allowed Early
Modern English to become mainstream, something we as English learners should be
grateful for! The Printing Press was a key in standardizing the English language through
distribution of the English Bible.

Caxton’s publishing of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (the Death of Arthur)

is regarded as print material’s first bestseller. Malory’s interpretation of various tales
surrounding the legendary King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, in his own
words, and the ensuing popularity indirectly ensured that Early Modern English was
here to stay.

It was during Henry the VIII’s reign that English commoners were finally able to
read the Bible in a language they understood, which to its own degree, helped spread
the dialect of the common folk.

The end of the 16th century brought about the first complete translation of the
Catholic Bible, and though it didn’t make a markable impact, it played an important role
in the continued development of the English language, especially with the English-
speaking Catholic population worldwide.

The end of the 16th and start of the 17th century would see the writings of actor
and playwright, William Shakespeare, take the world by storm.

Why was Shakespeare’s influence important during those times? Shakespeare

started writing during a time when the English language was undergoing serious
changes due to contact with other nations through war, colonisation, and the likes.
These changes were further cemented through Shakespeare and other emerging
playwrights who found their ideas could not be expressed through the English language
currently in circulation. Thus, the “adoption” of words or phrases from other languages
were modified and added to the English language, creating a richer experience for all
concerned.

It was during the early 17th century that we saw the establishment of the first
successful English colony in what was called The New World. Jamestown, Virginia, also
saw the dawn of American English with English colonizers adopting indigenous words,
and adding them to the English language.

The constant influx of new blood due to voluntary and involuntary (i.e. slaves)
migration during the 17th, 18th and 19th century meant a variety of English dialects had
sprung to life, this included West African, Native American, Spanish and European
influences.

Meanwhile, back home, the English Civil War, starting mid-17th century, brought
with it political mayhem and social instability. At the same time, England’s puritanical
streak had taken off after the execution of Charles I. Censorship was a given, and after
the Parliamentarian victory during the War, Puritans promoted an austere lifestyle in
reaction to what they viewed as excesses by the previous regime[7]. England would
undergo little more than a decade under Puritan leadership before the crowning of
Charles II. His rule, effectively the return of the Stuart Monarchy, would bring about the
Restoration period which saw the rise of poetry, philosophical writing, and much more.

It was during this age that literary classics, like those of John Milton’s Paradise
Lost, were published, and are considered relevant to this age!

Late Modern English

The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of the British Empire during the 18th, 19th
and early 20th-century saw the expansion of the English language.

The advances and discoveries in science and technology during the Industrial
Revolution saw a need for new words, phrases, and concepts to describe these ideas
and inventions. Due to the nature of these works, scientists and scholars created words
using Greek and Latin roots e.g. bacteria, histology, nuclear, biology. You may be
shocked to read that these words were created but one can learn a multitude of new
facts through English language courses as you are doing now!

Colonialism brought with it a double-edged sword. It can be said that the nations
under the British Empire’s rule saw the introduction of the English language as a way for
them to learn, engage, and hopefully, benefit from “overseas” influence. While scientific
and technological discoveries were some of the benefits that could be shared, colonial
Britain saw this as a way to not only teach their language but impart their culture and
traditions upon societies they deemed as backward, especially those in Africa and Asia.

The idea may have backfired as the English language walked away with a large
number of foreign words that have now become part and parcel of the English language
e.g. shampoo, candy, cot and many others originated in India!

English in the 21st Century

If one endeavors to study various English language courses taught today, we

would find almost no immediate similarities between Modern English and Old English.
English grammar has become exceedingly refined (even though smartphone messaging
have made a mockery of the English language itself) where perfect living examples
would be that of the current British Royal Family. This has given many an idea that
speaking proper English is a touch snooty and high-handed. Before you scoff, think
about what you have just read. The basic history and development of a language that
literally spawned from the embers of wars fought between ferocious civilizations.
Imagine everything that our descendants went through, their trials and tribulations, their
willingness to give up everything in order to achieve freedom of speech and expression.

Everything has lead up to this point where English learners decide to study the
language at their fancy, something we take for granted as many of us have access to
courses to improve English at the touch of a button!

Perhaps you’re a fan of Shakespeare, maybe you’re more intune with John
Milton or J.K. Rowling? Whatever you fancy, these authors, poets and playwrights bring
to life more than just words on a page. With them comes a living history that continues
to evolve to this day!

Source: https://www.oxfordinternationalenglish.com/a-brief-history-of-the-english-
language/
 GRAMMAR

We use the term “grammar” with a systematic ambiguity. On the one hand, the
term refers to the explicit theory constructed by the linguist and proposed as a
description of the speaker’s competence. On the other hand, it refers to this
competence itself (Chomsky & Halle, The Sound Pattern of English, 1968).

The way we are using the word grammar differs from most common usages. In
our sense, the grammar is the knowledge speakers have about the units and rules of
their language—rules for combining sounds into words (called phonology), rules of word
formation (called morphology), rules for combining words into phrases and phrases into
sentences (called syntax), as well as the rules for assigning meaning (called
semantics). The grammar, together with a mental dictionary (called a lexicon) that lists
the words of the language, represents our linguistic competence. To understand the
nature of language we must understand the nature of grammar.

Every human being who speaks a language knows its grammar. When linguists
wish to describe a language, they make explicit the rules of the grammar of the
language that exist in the minds of its speakers. There will be some differences among
speakers, but there must be shared knowledge too. The shared knowledge—the
common parts of the grammar—makes it possible to communicate through language.

Descriptive Grammar

To the extent that the linguist’s description is a true model of the speakers’
linguistic capacity, it is a successful description of the grammar and of the language
itself. Such a model is called a descriptive grammar. It does not tell you how you should
speak; it describes your basic linguistic knowledge. It explains how it is possible for you
to speak and understand and make judgments about well-formedness, and it tells what
you know about the sounds, words, phrases, and sentences of your language.

When we say that a sentence is grammatical we mean that it conforms to the

rules of the mental grammar (as described by the linguist); when we say that it is
ungrammatical, we mean it deviates from the rules in some way. If, however, we posit a
rule for English that does not agree with your intuitions as a speaker, then the grammar
we are describing differs in some way from the mental grammar that represents your
linguistic competence; that is, your language is not the one described. No language or
variety of a language (called a dialect) is superior or inferior to any other in a linguistic
sense. Every grammar is equally complex, logical, and capable of producing an infinite
set of sentences to express any thought. If something can be expressed in one
language or one dialect, it can be expressed in any other language or dialect. It might
involve different means and different words, but it can be expressed.

Prescriptive Grammar

Not all grammarians, past or present, share the view that all grammars are equal.
Language “purists” of all ages believe that some versions of a language are better than
others, that there are certain “correct” forms that all educated people should use in
speaking and writing, and that language change is corruption. The Greek Alexandrians
in the first century, the Arabic scholars at Basra in the eighth century, and numerous
English grammarians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries held this view. They
wished to prescribe rather than describe the rules of grammar, which gave rise to the
writing of prescriptive grammars.

In the Renaissance a new middle class emerged who wanted their children to
speak the dialect of the “upper” classes. This desire led to the publication of many
prescriptive grammars. In 1762 Bishop Robert Lowth wrote A Short Introduction to
English Grammar with Critical Notes. Lowth prescribed a number of new rules for
English, many of them influenced by his personal taste.

Before the publication of his grammar, practically everyone—upper-class,

middle-class, and lower-class—said I don’t have none and You was wrong about that.
Lowth, however, decided that “two negatives make a positive” and therefore one should
say I don’t have any; and that even when you is singular it should be followed by the
plural were. Many of these prescriptive rules were based on Latin grammar and made
little sense for English. Because Lowth was influential and because the rising new class
wanted to speak “properly,” many of these new rules were legislated into English
grammar, at least for the prestige dialect—that variety of the language spoken by
people in positions of power.

All human languages and dialects are fully expressive, complete, and logical, as
much as they were two hundred or two thousand years ago. Hopefully (another
frowned-upon usage), this book will convince you that all languages and dialects are
rule-governed, whether spoken by rich or poor, powerful or weak, learned or illiterate.
Grammars and usages of particular groups in society may be dominant for social and
political reasons, but from a linguistic (scientific) perspective they are neither superior
nor inferior to the grammars and usages of less prestigious members of society.

Having said all this, it is undeniable that the standard dialect may indeed be a
better dialect for someone wishing to obtain a particular job or achieve a position of
social prestige. In a society where “linguistic profiling” is used to discriminate against
speakers of a minority dialect, it may behoove those speakers to learn the prestige
dialect rather than wait for social change. But linguistically, prestige and standard
dialects do not have superior grammars.

Teaching Grammar

Teaching grammars can be helpful to people who do not speak the standard or
prestige dialect, but find it would be advantageous socially and economically to do so.
They are used in schools in foreign language classes. This kind of grammar gives the
words and their pronunciations, and explicitly states the rules of the language,
especially where they differ from the language of instruction.

It is often difficult for adults to learn a second language without formal instruction,
even when they have lived for an extended period in a country where the language is
spoken. Teaching grammars assume that the student already knows one language and
compares the grammar of the target language with the grammar of the native language.

Universal Grammar

There are rules of particular languages, such as English or Arabic or Zulu, that
form part of the individual grammars of these languages, and then there are rules that
hold in all languages. The universal rules are of particular interest because they give us
a window into the human “faculty of language” which enables us to learn and use any
particular language.

Interest in language universals has a long history. Early scholars encouraged

research into the nature of language in general and promoted the idea of general
grammar as distinct from special grammar. General grammar was to reveal those
features common to all languages.

The more linguists explore the intricacies of human language, the more evidence
accumulates to support Chomsky’s view that there is a Universal Grammar (UG) that is
part of the biologically endowed human language faculty. We can think of UG as the
blueprint that all languages follow that forms part of the child’s innate capacity for
language learning. It specifies the different components of the grammar and their
relations, how the different rules of these components are constructed, how they
interact, and so on. A major aim of linguistic theory is to discover the nature of UG.

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURES OF ENGLISH

The most basic units of meaning are simple words (e.g.: dog, yes and swim) or
the elements of complex words (e.g.: un- -happi- and -ness in unhappiness). These
basic elements are called morphemes, and the study of how they are combined in
words is morphology.

The study of how words are organized into phrases, clauses and sentences is

usually referred to as syntax.

A longer stretch of language is known as discourse, the study of its structure

as discourse analysis.

Outline structure of English

sentences sentences
are analyzed into are used to build
clauses clauses
are analyzed into are used to build
phrases ↓↑ phrases
are analyzed into are used to build
words words
are analyzed into are used to build
morphemes morphemes

The following table shows a three-part model of the structure of English.

Three-part model of English

Morphology Syntax Discourse
morphemes phrases relationships between
sentences in longer
↓ ↓ stretches of language

words clauses

sentences

MORPHOLOGY

This is the study of the structure of words. The name comes from
Greek morphos (=shape or form). The smallest units of meaning may be whole simple
words (e.g. man, run, big) or parts of complex words (e.g. un-, -faith- and -ful in
unfaithful) which are called morphemes.
 Some morphemes, such as faith in un-faith-ful or dream in dream-ing can stand
alone as words which make sense. These are known as free morphemes. You will see
how very many simple words are free morphemes, but can combine with other
morphemes, both free and bound (see below) to form complex words.

Where two simple words are joined together to form a new complete word, this is
called a compound word. Examples include teapot, starlight and careworn. When these
terms are first coined, they are shown in some dictionaries with a hyphen, as  light-
house or fish-finger.

Other morphemes, such as prefixes and suffixes (collectively called affixes),

cannot stand alone - they need to be part of a complex word to make sense. Examples
are dis- in dis-miss, dis-pute or dis-grace, -ing in dream-ing, -ness in happi-ness or sad-
ness and even -s used to form plurals, as in boy-s or horse-s. These morphemes are
said to be bound morphemes.

Inflection and derivation

Bound morphemes are traditionally divided into two further classes. Sometimes a
word is changed in its form to show the internal grammar of a sentence. Examples
would be plural forms of nouns (dog + s → dog-s) or past (imperfect) tenses of regular
verbs (want + ed → want-ed). The study of such changes is inflectional
morphology (because the words in question are inflected - altered by adding a suffix).

Other compound or complex words are made by adding together elements

without reference to the internal grammar of a sentence. For example, the
verb infect suggests a new verb disinfect (=to undo the action of infecting). New words
are often formed by noun + -ize, noun + ism, or verb + able (scandalize, Stalinism,
disposable). The study of such words, "derived" from existing words or morphemes
is derivational morphology. The elements of which the word is made may have a
grammatical relationship within the word (you may find this idea difficult), but their
formation is independent of the syntax of the clause or sentence in which they occur. If
you find this puzzling, two things may help:

 Inflectional morphology is much easier to recognize. A relatively small number of

types of inflection (showing number or tense, say) covers most cases.
 All compound and most complex words show derivational morphology. If a
complex word does not show inflection it will show derivation.

But note: a complex word may show both inflection and derivation! A derived word may

be inflected to show, for example, tense or number: deported or disposables (as in
nappies or diapers).

This table shows how the most common kinds of inflection are found in three
word classes:

Inflection of nouns, verbs and qualifiers

Nouns Verbs Adjectives and adverbs

Addition of terminal s to show Ending shows tense Addition of -er → comparative
plural (one cat; two cats); (wanted) or person (hotter; likelier);
([she] wants).
Addition of 's to show Addition of -est → superlative
possession (Henry's cat). (coldest; soonest).
This table illustrates how derivation can occur:

Derivational morphology in complex words

Prefix Base of Word Suffix Complex Word

Bi cycl(e) ing Bicycling
Dis grace ful Disgraceful
In tolera(te) able Intolerable
Re vision ist Revisionist
Un, co operat(e) ive, ly Uncooperatively
Un likely (y becomes i) hood Unlikelihood

Remember that morphology is the study of the structure of words. The structure
of words can also be studied to show how the meaning of a given morpheme, or its
relation to the rest of the word, varies from one complex word to another. Consider
how sun works in the following words: sunbeam, sunburnt, sundial, sunflower,
sunglasses, sunlight, sunrise, sun-spot (scientific sense), sun-spot (tourist
sense), suntan.

Inflection does not really yield “new” words, but alters the form of existing ones
for specific reasons of grammar. Derivation, on the other hand, does lead to the creation
of new words. David Crystal (Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language; p. 90) lists four
normal processes of word-formation, of which three are examples of derivation:

Four kinds of word-formation

Prefixation Suffixation Compounding Conversion

(derivational) (derivational) (derivational) (not derivational)
Affix placed before Affix placed after Two base forms Word changes class,
base of word, base of word, are added without any change of
e.g. disobey e.g. kindness together, form, e.g. (the) pet (n)
e.g. blackbird becomes (to) pet (vb.)

Words considered as wholes can be categorized according to how they work

within phrases, clauses or sentences. These categories, traditionally called parts of
speech are now more usually known as word classes. Parts of speech are labels for
categories in which words are usually placed. But in a given sentence a word from one
category may behave as if it were in another. A dictionary will only record established or
standard usage.

The traditional parts of speech were of eight kinds, excluding the two articles
(a/an, the). These were nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, and interjections. Modern linguists prefer to list words in classes that are
coherent - all the words in them should behave in the same way. But if this principle
were applied rigidly, we would have hundreds of classes, so irregularities are tolerated!

Closed and open word classes

Some classes of words are called closed because they contain a relatively small

number of items to which no new words can normally be added. These are words
(prepositions and conjunctions) which make connections (connectives or connectors),
pronouns and words (including articles) like the, some, each that co-occur with nouns -
these are called determiners.

Other classes of word are constantly being added to. Each contains a vast
number of terms already. They are open to new words being introduced. The open
classes are nouns, verbs and the words which qualify them, adjectives and adverbs.
These form the bulk of a language's vocabulary or lexis (also lexicon, though this
sometimes refers to a published version). These classes may be called lexical whereas
the closed-class words are structural or functional. These tables illustrate the two kinds
of word class.

Closed word classes

Determiner Pronoun Preposition Conjunction

A, the, any, my, She, them, who, In, across, at, by, And, but, if, or,
those, which that, himself near, within while, unless

Open word classes

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

Abstract: fear, joy Transitive: bite, Descriptive: lazy, tall Manner: reluctantly,
steal keenly, easily, softly
Concrete: chair, Comparative: lazier
mud Intransitive: live, cry Time: soon, often
Superlative: tallest
Common: boy, town Modal: can, will, Place: here, there
may
Proper: Fred, Hull
Auxiliary: be, have,
do

Problems of classification

Some words are difficult to classify. Not all grammatical descriptions will place
them in the same word class. This, these or those are sometimes classified as
demonstrative (or distinctive) adjectives or pronouns. Possessives, like my, his, their,
are sometimes classified as pronouns (showing the word from which they are formed),
sometimes as adjectives, showing their grammatical function of qualifying nouns:
usually they are pronouns when alone (I like that) and adjectives when they precede a
noun (I like this weather). Traditional lists of adverbs contain words like very which
qualify other adverbs or adjectives. This word class is sometimes called a "dustbin"
class, because any word which defies classification will be put in it! Among words which
have sometimes been classified as adverbs are the following: however, just, no, not,
quickly, tomorrow and when.

This incoherence has long been recognized by grammarians who subdivide

adverbs into further categories, such as adverbs of time, place or manner.

In trying to organize words into coherent classes, linguists will consider any or all
of the following: what they mean (semantics),
their form (morphology), provenance (historical origin) and function in a phrase, clause
or sentence (syntax).
 Some words, such as numbers, do not fit in any of the word classes given above.
They can behave as adjectives (one loaf or two?) or pronouns (I want one now!). And
no one description of word classes is regarded as finally authoritative. Some classes
(such as verbs or conjunctions) are fairly coherent. You should be able to discuss the
problems of how or where to classify words which seem not to "fit".

Also note that a dictionary does not (or should not) prescribe, but indicates the
word class or part of speech where a word is usually placed. But in a given sentence, if
the speaker or writer has used it as if it were in a different class, then this is where it
should be placed.

For example, toilet is usually classified as a noun. But UK primary school

teachers often speak of toileting children (I had to toilet John twice today). In describing
such a sentence, you should be guided by the internal grammar of the sentence
(syntax) rather than the dictionary. Here toilet is a transitive verb. If this usage becomes
standard, lexicographers will record it. This kind of word formation is called conversion,
a self-explanatory name.

KINDS AND FUNCTIONS OF WORDS:

WORD CLASSES OR PARTS OF SPEECH

Every statement is a combination of words, and every statement says something

to communicate information. The simplest possible kind of statement - for
example, Dogs bark - has two kinds of words in it. It has a what word, dogs, and a what
happens word, bark. These kinds of words are the most basic parts of any statement. If
a person only says dog, no statement is made, and no information is conveyed. A
sound is made that calls to mind a common, four-footed animal, but nothing regarding it
is learned.

The what words are called nouns. They tell what is being talked about. They are
identifying words, or names. Nouns identify persons, places, or things. They may be
particular persons, places, or things: Michael Jackson, Reykjavik, World Trade
Center. Or they may be general nouns: singer, town, building. Concrete nouns indicate
things that can be seen such as car, teapot, and potato. Abstract nouns denote
concepts such as love, honesty,and beauty.

It is rather odd that English grammar should retain this abstract-

concrete distinction for nouns. It appears to be a survival from the philosopher Plato,
who divided the world into mind and matter. If it has any value it is in the philosophical
field of epistemology (theory of knowledge). It does not really reveal anything for
linguists beyond itself. That is, we can, if we wish, try to place nouns in the sub-
categories of concrete and abstract, but once we have done so, this categorization has
no further value for the study of language. Moreover, modern science confuses the
issue, since it shows that many things we once supposed to belong to mind, are in fact,
embodied in matter. A thrill is not only abstract, since it involves matter at the level of
biochemistry.

The what happens words are called verbs. They are the action words in a

statement. Without them it is impossible to put sentences together. It is the verb that
says something about the noun: dogs bark, birds fly, fish swim. Verbs are the important
words that create information in statements. Although nouns alone make no statement,
verbs can occasionally do so. Help! gives the information that someone is in trouble,
and Go away! tells someone or something emphatically to leave.

Besides nouns and verbs there are other kinds of words that have different
functions in statements. They are pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, articles,
prepositions, and a very few words that can be called function words because they fit
into none of the other categories. All of these kinds of words together are called parts of
speech. They can just as well be called parts of writing because they apply to written as
well as to spoken language.

Nouns and articles

Nouns can be particular or general: the house, a house. The words the and a are

articles, or, in more technical terms, determiners. A house can be any house,
but the house is a quite definite building. When a noun begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o,
u, and, occasionally, y) the indefinite article a becomes an for the sake of easier
pronunciation - an apple, an elephant, an orange. Sometimes an is used before words
that start with h, especially if the h is silent: an honorary degree. If the h is sounded a is
the standard form: an 'otel, a hotel.

Nouns can be singular or plural in number: cat, cats.

 In some cases es is added to make nouns plural: dress, dresses.

 Some nouns change their forms in the plural, without adding an s but by
changing or mutating a vowel: foot, feet; man, men; mouse, mice; goose, geese.
 Some nouns do not change at all in the plural: sheep, fowl.

There are also group nouns, called noun phrases. This means that two or more
nouns, or a noun and an adjective, are put together to form what amounts to, or works
like, one noun: football stadium, rock concert, orange tree. In each case certain nouns
- football, rock, orange - are attached to other nouns, and each modifies or describes
the second noun in some way to convey a different kind of object. A football and a
football stadium are two entirely different things, though they both have to do with the
same game.

Some nouns are one-of-a-kind names: Suez Canal, Elvis Presley, Empire State
Building. Also called proper nouns, they are capitalized to set them off from general
nouns. Sometimes adjectives (words that describe nouns) are also capitalized. This
normally happens when the adjective is made from a proper noun, especially a place or
person: American literature, English countryside, Elizabethan theatre.

Proper nouns are contrasted with common nouns (naming words for general
classes of things which contain many individual examples). In fact many of the nouns
that we consider proper are still names for more than one individual, as with the name
of a model of car (like Ford Escort or VW Beetle, which might have been produced in
the millions). Like the abstract-concrete distinction, the common-proper categories may
originate in Platonic philosophy, which contrasted the many things in the real world with
unique ideal originals of which they are imperfect copies. It is of more practical concern,
since it is meant to inform the written representations of words (whether or not to use an
initial capital). Unlike German (which uses a capital for all nouns) or Norwegian (which
never does), English has a mixed and inconsistent system which changes over time,
and which is confused by the individual tendencies of writers. One problem is that a
descriptive phrase (like the second world war) can become petrified into a title, so that
we write Second World War or World War Two. And Queen Juliana is or was the queen
of the Netherlands, but Queen Elizabeth II is, to many of her subjects, simply the
Queen, or even The Queen. In these cases, the "correct" forms are not universally
standard for all writers of English, but more a matter of publishers' house styles.

Many introductions to English grammar for schoolchildren are to blame for

presenting this common-proper distinction as if it were very straightforward - by referring
only to well-behaved kinds of proper noun, such as personal names or the names of
cities, rivers and planets. In such introductions the distinction is introduced chiefly to
lead onto instruction about the use of capital letters in writing such nouns.
 Nouns are used in different ways: The dog barks. The man bit the dog. In the first
case, dog is the actor, or the one that initiates the action of the verb. In the second, dog
is acted upon. In The dog barks, dog is the subject of the verb. In the other sentence,
dog is the object of the verb.

Sometimes a noun is the indirect object of a verb: He gave the dog a

bone. Bone is the direct object; it is what was given. Because it was given  to the
dog, dog is considered the indirect object of the action.

Nouns can also be objects of prepositions - words like to, in, for, and by - so the
above sentence could read: He gave a bone to the dog. The words to the dog are called
a prepositional phrase.

Some verb forms take nouns as objects: Drinking milk is good for you. In this
sentence, milk is the object of the verbal form drinking. Such a combination of verb and
noun is called a verbal phrase.

Nouns can show possession: The dog's collar is on the table. The collar is

possessed, or owned, by the dog. All possession does not indicate ownership, however.
In The building's roof is black, the roof is on, but not owned by, the building. Adding an
apostrophe and an s to a noun shows possession ('): the cat's tongue, the woman's
purse. If the noun is plural or already has an s, then often only an apostrophe need be
added: the mothers' union (that is, a union of many mothers). The word of may also be
used to show possession: the top of the house, the light of the candle, the Duke of
Wellington.

Pronouns

There are several words that are used to replace nouns. They are
called pronouns. Pro in Greek means "for" or "in place of".

Personal Pronouns

Some pronouns are called personal pronouns because they take the place of specific
names of persons, places, or thing, as in: Has Fred arrived? Yes, he is here. Here he is
the personal pronoun that replaces Fred. As indicated in the table, there are both
subject and object personal pronouns as well as those that show possession.
In His house is the white and green one, his is a personal possessive pronoun.

Personal pronouns: subjects, objects and possessives

Singular Subject Object Possessive

First person I me my, mine
Second person you you your, yours
Third person he, she, it (one) him, her, it (one) his, her, hers, its
(one's)
Plural Subject Object Possessive
First person we us our, ours
Second person you you your, yours
Third person they them their, theirs*
*Some authorities give my, your, his, her, our, your and their as possessive
adjectives or pronominal adjectives, as they qualify nouns.

Some personal pronouns are formed by the addition of -self or -selves as a

suffix: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Some pronouns - this, that, these, those - refer to particular people or

things: This is mine, and that is yours. These are demonstrative pronouns. The
demonstrative words can also be used as adjectives: this house, those cars.

Indefinite Pronouns

Pronouns that refer to people or things in general are called indefinite pronouns.

Like the demonstrative pronouns, they can be used as adjectives: another day, both
animals, many weeks.

Relative and interrogative pronouns

The words who, whose, whom, that, which, and what are called relative

pronouns. (The word that can be a demonstrative or a relative pronoun.) They create
relative clauses in a sentence: The committee, which met last night, discussed your
report. The words which met last night form a relative clause that describes the subject
of the main clause, the committee.

Sometimes a relative pronoun is used as the subject of a question such as  Who

ate the pizza? Here it is classed as an interrogative pronoun. Interrogate means "ask"
(questions).

Verbs

Verbs are the action words in a statement. They tell what is happening - what a noun is
doing or what is being done to it, or the state of being, becoming, thinking or feeling. A
verb with a subject, which will be in a particular tense is a finite verb. Without a subject it
will be the infinitive form (for example, to think, to dream) or a gerund (the present
participle, used as a noun: smoking is bad for you).

When a verb denotes what a noun is doing, the noun is said to be the subject of
the verb: The man speaks. When the verb denotes what is being done to a noun, the
noun is the object of the verb: The man eats jelly. The noun jelly is the direct object of
the verb. Verbs can also take indirect objects: Parents give children toys. In this
sentence, toys is the direct object, (what is given) and children is the indirect object. The
parents do not give children but toys.

Verbs that take objects are called transitive verbs, and those that normally do not
take an object are intransitive verbs (but note that an intransitive verb may be used
transitively in non-standard speech or writing). Some common transitive verbs are: tell,
give, show, eat, buy, take, and see. Some verbs can be both transitive and
intransitive: Tell a story (transitive), andTime will tell (intransitive). Verbs like sleep,
walk, rest, come, and go are nearly always intransitive. The most common verb of all, to
be, is intransitive in all of its forms: am, are, is, was, were, and been.

Tenses (time signals): Verb tenses tell the time when an action takes place. Any
action or condition may be in the past, present, or future: he was, he is, he will be. Most
common verbs simply add an -ed to show the past time, or form the past tense, as it is
normally called. Thus walk becomes walked. Other verbs, sometimes
called irregular (or strong) verbs, do not add -ed. Instead they undergo an internal
change: sing, sang, sung; fly, flew, flown; go, went, gone.

Auxiliary verbs: In the sentence She will sing even though he cannot stay, the
verbs will and cannot are called auxiliary, or helper, verbs. Other auxiliary verbs are
the incomplete or modal verbs: can, could, may, might, shall, should, and would.

The various forms of the verb to be can also be used as auxiliaries: I am going.

He was singing. They have been shopping. The verb have - and its other
forms has and had - are also common auxiliaries to indicate past action.

Participles: The verb form used with auxiliaries is the participle. There is

a present participle, talking, and a past participle, talked. Thus, a person can say either I
talk (present tense) or I am talking (present continuous) to show present action and I
talked (imperfect), I have talked (perfect), or I had talked (pluperfect) to show past
action. When a present participle is used with an auxiliary verb, the purpose is to show
continuing or ongoing action. She is doing the laundry. He was speaking when
someone interrupted him. Note that this uses a present participle with a past tense
auxiliary verb (was) to indicate continuous past action.

Verb flexibility: Verbs and verb forms can be used in a number of ways in

sentences. A verb can be the subject of a statement (To walk is good exercise) or its
object (I like to walk). In each case, the infinitive form to walk is used as a noun.
Participles can be used in the same way: He likes swimming. Flying is great sport. In
the first sentence, swimming is the object of the verb, and in the second, flying is the
subject.

Verb forms can also be used as adjectives, or words that describe nouns.
In a wrecked car, the word wrecked is a past participle used as an adjective.

Occasionally a verb form or verb phrase can be used as an adverb : He

was pleased to meet her. The phrase to meet her modifies the adjective pleased.

Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are descriptive words, sometimes called modifiers because they

restrict meaning. They add detail to statements. The difference between the two is that
adjectives modify only nouns, pronouns, and verb forms used as nouns; adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Adjective function: An adjective may be a single word: blue, tall, funny, warm. As

a single word, it may come before the noun - the blue sky - or after the verb - the sky
is blue. Adjectives may be positive (tall), comparative (taller) or superlative
(tallest). Adjective phrases usually follow the noun they describe: the girl with blond
hair. The phrase with blond hair describes girl. Adjective clauses also usually follow the
noun: The child who finds the most Easter eggs wins. The clause who finds the most
Easter eggs modifies child.

Adverb function:The most common use of an adverb, of course, is to describe

verbs: He ran quickly. Actually, however, adverbs can modify anything but nouns or
verb forms used as nouns. Typically adverbs express:

 time (now, then)
 manner (happily, easily)
 degree (less, more, very)
 direction and place (there, up, down)
 affirmation or negation (certainly, not)
  cause and result (thus, consequently), and
 qualification or doubt (however, probably).

Although many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives (quick, quickly;

happy, happily), adverbs have no characteristic form. They must be identified by the
function they perform in a sentence. In the sentence That is a fast car, fast is an
adjective. But in He ran fast, it is an adverb.

Certain adverbs (how, when, where, why, whenever, and wherever) are

called relative adverbs because they introduce relative clauses in a sentence: The keys
are upstairs where you left them. The clause where you left them modifies the
adverb upstairs.

Other adverbs are called conjunctive adverbs because they join one clause with
another. Some of these adverbs are: therefore, accordingly, besides, furthermore,
instead, meanwhile, and nevertheless.In the sentence He was tired; therefore he stayed
home, the word therefore modifies the clause of which it is a part and connects that
clause to the previous part of the sentence. Note that therefore is not to be used as a
conjunction, hence the semi-colon.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are joining words: they connect words, phrases, or entire clauses.
There are two general kinds of conjunctive words: coordinate and subordinate.

Coordinate conjunctions join elements that are grammatically the same: two or

more words, two equivalent phrases, or two equivalent clauses. The most common
coordinate conjunctions are: and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet.

 Red and white (two equal words joined in a phrase).

 Taking walks and looking at nature (two equal phrases in a relative clause).
 She ran to the corner, but she missed the bus (two equal clauses in a complete
sentence).

A correlative conjunction is a special kind of coordinate conjunction. It connects

equivalent elements, but it works in pairs of words: both, and; either, or; neither,
nor; whether, or; not only, but also.

 He wants both money and power.
 Neither money nor power matters.
 Either she will go, or she will stay.

Subordinate conjunctions. While coordinate conjunctions connect equal

grammatical elements, subordinate conjunctions introduce dependent or conditional
clauses.

 Although she has money, she buys few luxuries.

 Because he was late, he missed the train.
 After the movie is over, we shall have dinner.

Other word uses. Words that operate as conjunctions can often be used in other
ways: as adverbs, prepositions, adjectives, or even pronouns.

 We have met before (before is an adverb).

 Before they leave, let us have dinner (before is a conjunction).
 There are other words besides conjunctions that serve as connectors (or
connectives) in sentences. The relative pronouns who and which are often so used.

 That is the man who was speaking to her.

 The dessert is strawberries, which give him a rash.

Some of the conjunctions work both as adverbs and conjunctions in the same
sentence. This is often true of consequently, however, therefore, and nevertheless.

 He was ill; nevertheless he went to work.

 She disliked work; consequently she lost her job.

Note the semi-colon (;). This is standard here but is non-standard before but or and.
(This appears to be changing, as speakers and writers treat words like nevertheless as
conjunctions.)

It is possible to make clauses with conjunctions into separate sentences,

especially when writing for literary effect.

 He did it. And he was glad.

 Stay away from here. Unless you want trouble.

In the second case the clause is so obviously dependent that it would not stand
alone as a sentence and make sense. It can only be written that way for emphasis or
some other effect.

Prepositions

Prepositions are words or groups of words, that introduce phrases; and these

phrases modify some element in a sentence. What follows a preposition is normally a
noun, pronoun, or noun clause. A word that follows a preposition is its object, and, in the
case of pronouns especially, this affects the form of the word.

 He walked near her (never He walked near she).

 He gave them to her and me (never He gave them to she and I or He gave them
to her and I).

One of the problems in spotting prepositions in a sentence is that many of the

words that are usually prepositions can also be used as adverbs.

 He never saw them before (here before is an adverb).

 They sat before the counter (before is a preposition,and the whole prepositional
phrase serves as an adverb, modifying sat).

Parts of speech: a summary

 Noun: A noun is a name for someone or something. It can be someone or
something in particular, or someone or something in general.
 Pronoun: A pronoun is a substitute for a noun or a noun phrase.
 Verb: A verb is the action word in a statement. Some verbs link the subject to a
noun, pronoun, or adjective.
 Adjective: An adjective is a modifier. Usually it modifies, or makes more exact,
the meaning of a noun or pronoun.
 Adverb: An adverb is a modifier. Usually it modifies a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
 Conjunction: A conjunction is a connector. A coordinate conjunction connects
 words or groups of words that are grammatically the same. A subordinate
conjunction connects a subordinate, or dependent, clause to a main clause.
 Preposition: A preposition is a connector that introduces a prepositional phrase.
It usually connects a noun or noun phrase to the part of the sentence modified
by the whole prepositional phrase, and it shows the relation between the two.

Modern language scientists have devised other categories of word in relation to syntax,
which you should know. A few of these are explained in the table below.

New word classes

 Auxiliary: A word whose function is to assist the main verb in a clause to

express basic grammatical contrasts such as person, number and tense.
The primary auxiliaries are forms of be, have, do. The modal auxiliaries are
such verbs as may, might, should.
 Connective: A word which links language units, such as conjunctions and some
adverbs
 Determiner: A word which co-occurs with a noun to show meanings such as
number, quantity or identity (the, some, each)
 Head: The main element in a phrase; it may be pre- or post-modified
 Intensifier: Traditionally classed as an adverb; a word which adds force or
emphasis to a qualifier (extremely stupid, very cleverly)
 Modifier: Word or phrase which gives more information about the head element
in a phrase (All the beautiful (pre-modification) fish (head) in the ocean (post-
modification)

SYNTAX AND SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES

Parts of speech, or word categories, indicate what words usually do, or may be
expected to do. Some of these categories - such as nouns and pronouns - make sense
when we consider words in isolation. Others - such as conjunctions or prepositions -
only make sense within a longer structure, a phrase, clause or sentence.

Note that these three terms are traditional, and do not easily describe how strings
of language work. All are broad categories. The sentence, especially, is much more
characteristic of written than of spoken English, and of formal rather than informal
usage. Alternatively, we may say that spoken English contains sentence types not
usually found in writing.

The internal grammar of phrases, clauses and sentences refers to the principles
(sometimes mistakenly called “rules”) of structure and organization. Be aware of the
tension between model structures devised for textbooks and guides for learners of the
language, and the syntax of real sentences (those you have found in speech or writing),
which you are subjecting to analysis.

A phrase is a useful all-purpose name for any short sequence of words (or even
a single word, considered as an element in the structure of a clause or sentence),
especially a grouping which could be replaced by a single word. A phrase which works
like, or equates to, a noun is a noun phrase, one which qualifies a verb is an adverb
phrase and so on.

A clause may be short or long, but must contain at least one main, finite verb. A
short clause may in fact be identical with a verb phrase: the two terms reflect
differences of emphasis or analysis in regard to the language string in question. If you
are analysing a sentence, you will look first for clauses; if you wish to see how words
have been combined in simple sequences, you will look for phrases. Phrases are
especially important for analysing spoken data, and some kinds of written text (such as
advertisements or information leaflets) where (written) sentence forms are not
considered essential.

PHRASES

Noun phrases

The noun phrase (NP) is the main construction which can be the object,

subject or complement of a clause. It must contain a noun or noun-like word (such as a
pronoun) which is the main element, and which is called the head. It may contain other
elements, either before or after the head. These could include predeterminers,
determiners, postdeterminers, premodifiers and postmodifiers. The examples in the
table below show how noun phrases can grow in length, while their structure remains
fairly clear.

Noun Phrases
Verb
Noun phrase structure
phrase
(not part
Predeterminer Determiner Postdeterminer Premodifier Head Postmodifier of noun
phrase)
are for
Buns
sale.
are for
The buns
sale.
are for
All the currant buns
sale.
are for
Not quite all the currant buns
sale.
hot tasty are for
Not quite all the buns
currant sale.
hot tasty are for
Not quite all the buns on the table
currant sale.
hot tasty on show on are for
Not quite all the many buns
currant the table sale.
fine hot tasty which I are for
Not quite all the very many buns
currant cooked sale.

Adjective Phrases

These are usually formed from an intensifier, followed by the head (an adjective,

shown in bold below). Examples include very happy, not too awkward, and cold enough.
They may also be formed from an adjective and a verb construction, such as easy to
please, loath to do it.
Adverb Phrases

These are intensifying expressions formed from an intensifier (optional), followed

by the head (an adverb, shown in bold below), followed by a postmodifier (optional).
Examples would be: terribly slowly, very happily indeed, exceptionally carefully,
completely utterly dangerously, quite often and very soon.

Prepositional Phrases (Adverbials/Adjectivals)

These are formed from the head (a preposition, shown in bold in the examples),
followed by a noun phrase. Examples of prepositional phrases are in the teapot, on the
bog, and round the bend.

 They may be called adverbials since their usual function is to qualify a verb in the

same way as an adverb does. You can test this by replacing a given
prepositional phrase with an adverb - for example: Fred swam in the
river and Fred swam swiftly. Both of these are grammatically standard forms.
 They may also function as adjectives: the pirate with the wooden leg.

Pronoun Phrases

These are restricted to a small number of constructions, and are sometimes

regarded as a minor type of noun phrase. They are formed from a head (a pronoun,
shown in bold below) with a pre- or postmodifier. Examples would
be: Silly me! You there! she herself, we all, nearly everyone, and such relative clause
types as those who knew Fred.

Verb Phrases

These are quite simple syntactically, although the verb in them may contain
important grammatical information, such as tense, number, active or passive voice and
so on. (All of these are explained above in the section on word categories). One or more
auxiliaries may precede the head (a verb participle, shown in bold below). Examples
would be: has died, may have gone, might have been listening. You may be puzzled by
the simplicity of these models. Don't be. In order to explain the more complex function of
verbs in the predicates of sentences (what they say about their subject), we use the
structural model of the clause.

SENTENCES AND CLAUSES

In the syntax of English and other modern European languages, such as Dutch,
French, German or Italian, the two most important structures are almost
certainly clauses and sentences. Please note that:

 the sentence as we know it, is not found in all languages

 the sentence is not a necessary structure in natural language
 many written texts and most spoken data are not organized into regular sentence
forms

Before you look at descriptions of either structure, you may wonder why they
appear together in the heading above. This is because neither makes sense without the
other. Writers of language textbooks may put either of them ahead of the other,
depending upon whether their structural model builds (or synthesises) smaller
structures into larger ones (“bottom up”) or analyses larger structures into smaller ones
(“top down”). This is explained at the start of this guide, and briefly again below, under
the heading Building or analysing? This guide places clauses before sentences, in
keeping with its "bottom up" or synthetic approach. You should try to explain the subject
with both synthetic and analytic models.

Clauses

We can understand a clause in several ways. Simply it can be seen as a verb
and the words or phrases which cluster round it. Professor Crystal (The Cambridge
Encyclopedia of the English Language, p. 449) describes it as "a structural unit smaller
than a sentence but larger than phrases or words". The problem here is that in some
cases a clause may appear identical with a sentence or phrase, but the term we use
tells us about a different structural feature. A more difficult explanation to follow is that a
clause is a syntactic unit consisting of a verb, together with its associated subject,
objects or complements and adverbials. Note that the only obligatory ("must have")
elements are the subject and the verb (usually, but not always, in this order). So before
you can go further, you need to know about these different clause elements (parts of the
clause).

Clauses and Clauses

You may have met the term clause in other contexts - it is used to identify short
passages within longer ones (such as paragraphs) in such texts as legal or
parliamentary documents. The writers of these will often construct artificial sentences
which are broken into a series of clauses, so that these can be named. This allows us to
write such things as "Paragraph x , clause y of the Sale of Goods Act, 1979 protects
consumers." Here clause identifies the unit of syntax (and its meaning or semantic
content) but may not in every case exactly match the models explained here or in
grammatical reference works.

Clause Elements

These are well worth learning about, as you will certainly want to use them to
explain the syntax of language data you are studying in exams or investigations. If you
are not able to describe or identify clause types, it is usually acceptable and always
helpful to consider how these elements work together. You may use them to explain
how sentences work, also. They are:

 subject (S), object (O), verb (V), complement (C), adverbial (A)

Subject

 The subject is a noun or noun phrase, pronoun or subordinate clause.

o The dog was sick. Fred felt funny. (n)
o Mad dogs and Englishmen go out in the midday sun. (NP)
o I am happy. They are jealous. (pn.)
o What she said is untrue. (sub.clause)
 In this kind of analysis a series of noun phrases is a single clause element.
 Pronouns used as subject are in the subject case (I, she, they not me, her, them)
 The subject controls singular-plural verb agreement (You go; she goes) and
agreement of reflexive pronoun objects (I injured myself; they
amused themselves)
 A subject is usually present in a clause, but it may be omitted in non-standard
(especially spoken) structures (Drinks like a fish. Gets here when?) or
imperatives (Listen to this).

Object

 Objects usually follow the verb. They may be direct or indirect.

 o Direct object: Fred bit his thumb. The chimpanzees groomed each other.
o Indirect object: Jane gave the gorilla a kiss. Jane gave a kiss to the
gorilla. (Note that here there is also a direct object = a kiss)
 Just as with subjects, they may be nouns, noun phrases, pronouns or
subordinate clauses.
 Just as subjects are, pronouns are in the appropriate (object) case (me, her,
them).
 As above, reflexive pronoun objects agree with their subjects (They
amused themselves).
 But unlike subject, the object has no effect on agreement of verb.

Verb

 This is the central and obligatory element. A clause must contain at least one

verb phrase, which may be a single verb: Jesus wept. They are drowning. The
cow jumped over the moon.
 The choice of verb will largely determine what other elements are in the clause.
 The verb usually has a subject. A transitive verb is one which takes a direct
object. (Strictly this is a tautology since transitive = "taking a direct object")

Complement

 Complement (verb) means "go with". (Do not confuse with compliment). In clause

syntax, the complement is anything which adds to the meaning of the subject
(subject complement) or object (object complement).
 Subject complement usually follows the verb. The most common verb for a
subject complement is the verb to be, but some other verb may be substituted
where the meaning of be is expressed. These are called copular (= linking) verbs
or simply copulas. In the examples complements are in bold, copular verbs
underlined: She is a doctor. That smells heavenly. The students are
feeling dazed and confused.
 Object complement usually follows the direct object: Football makes me very
happy. The voters elected Clinton president of the USA.

Adverbials

 These clause elements add to or complete the meaning of the verb element.
They may be single adverbs. But they also include nouns, noun or verb
phrases and subordinate clauses: They ran quickly. He went home twice nightly.
We walked on the playground. My girlfriend phoned me this morning. I was
happy when I saw her again.
 Adverbials may appear in several positions in the clause, but are most common
at the end: Often I dream. I often dream. I dream often.
 Adverbials may perform different functions:
o Adding information: I walked quietly.
o Linking clauses: The bus was full. However, Fred found a seat.
o Adding a comment on what is expressed: Quite frankly we disapprove of
violence.
 Some verbs (like put) must have an adverbial to complete their meaning: Please
put the gun down. The path runs around the field.

Vocatives

 These are optional elements used to show the person to whom a sentence is
addressed. They may occur in various positions in the clause. They include
names, titles, evaluative labels, the pronoun you and certain kinds of
clause: John, it's me. It's me, darling. Hello, Susan, how are you? You daft git,
 what do you mean? Honey, I shrank the kids. Come out, whoever you are. Come
in, ladies, and sit down. Madam Speaker, I will give way.

Clause Types

 Clause elements combine to form clauses. The number of patterns is small.

According to David Crystal (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language, p. 221) there are only seven basic types.
o S + V: I / yawned
o S + V + O: Fred / opened / the door
o S + V + C: The dinner / is / ready
o S + V + A: Dick Whittington / went / to London
o S + V + O + O: Romeo / gave / Juliet / a kiss
o S + V + O + C: Henry / got / his feet / very wet
o S + V + O + A: Sam / put / the bottles / in the cellar

 We can vary these patterns using directives (such as advising, instructing or

commanding): Turn left at the junction. Help yourself to a drink. Go to hell! You
be quiet.
 We can also vary the patterns through pro-forms (words which replace long
constructions) and ellipsis (omitting an understood element).
o Pro-forms: I've got a lovely cold drink and you've got one as
well. (Here one is the pro-form, understood to mean a lovely cold drink.)
o Ellipsis: I'd like to drink some tea, but I won't. (Here drink some tea is
understood to follow but I won't.)

Building or Analyzing?

These are contrasting ways of organizing the same theoretical model. We may
either analyse long structures (and find the smaller elements in them) or think of how
smaller elements are combined to form longer structures. The second approach has
been seen as akin to what really happens in speech and writing (phrase structure
grammar). Noam Chomsky argues that real language users start with longer structures
and alter these by means of transformations (transformational grammar). For example,
a model or paradigm with an active verb is changed by a transformational rule into a
structure with a passive verb.

To understand the contrast in these approaches, see the table at the start of this guide
to structure. The two approaches are shown in simple form below:

 "Bottom up"/synthetic model: morpheme  word  phrase clause  sentence

 "Top down"/analytic model: sentence  clause  phrase  word  morpheme

Clause Functions and Sentence Structures

Coordinate clauses

The simplest sentences may contain a single clause. (Simple is a standard

description of one kind of sentence.) Where a sentence contains more than one clause,
these may be considered of equal grammatical importance. If this is so, these
are coordinate clauses. They are joined by a coordinating conjunction, such
as and or but. (Some grammarians call the first clause of the sentence the main clause,
and the others coordinate clauses). Here are some examples. Apart from the
conjunctions (or, so and and, everything else is a main/coordinate clause):

 You can travel by tube, you can drive or you can take the train.
  The weather was hot, so I went on my bike.
 Lucy opened her window, and in came Count Dracula.

Subordinate clauses

Sometimes the clauses are placed in a hierarchy: the more important ones are main
clauses, while the less important are subordinate clauses. A main or coordinate clause
could stand on its own as a sentence, but a subordinate clause works only within a
sentence. A subordinate clause can do the job of other clause elements. It can work
as subject, object, complement and adverbial, as in these examples:

 Subordinate subject clause: What you say is stupid.

Clause as subject = What you say; main clause = X is stupid, verb = is

 Subordinate object clause: I did not know that you were here.

Clause as object = that you were here; main clause = I did not know X; verb = did
not know

 Subordinate complement clause: Your first job is learning this grammar.

Clause as complement = learning this grammar; main clause = Your first job is X;
verb = is

 Subordinate adverbial clause: Come round when you're ready.

Clause as adverbial = when you're ready; main clause = Come round (X); verb
= Come

Clauses that function as subject, object or complement replace noun phrases, so

they are called nominal clauses. Those that function
as adverbs/adjectives are adverbial/adjectival clauses.

Some other kinds of nominal clauses are shown below. For clarity, they are all
shown in object position. This is not the only place where they may occur, but is the
most common.

 That clause: I think (that) you know each other. (That may be omitted if

understood.)
 Wh- clause: I know what you did last summer. (Clause introduced by who, when,
what, why, whether.)
 -ing clause: I don't recall seeing her there. (Clause introduced by present
participle.)
 inf. clause: I wish to confess to my crimes. (Clause introduced by to + infinitive.)

Adverbial clauses

These are introduced by a subordinating conjunction, which explains the

adverbial meaning of the clause. These
include when/before/after/while (time); because/since (reason); if/unless/lest (condition),
as in these examples:

 When the bell sounds, you may leave the room.

 We cannot send you the goods, because we are out of stock.
 Unless you are good, Father Christmas will bring you nothing.
 Two minor types of adverbial clause are inf. and -ing clauses.

 Inf. clause: I went to the shop to buy some bread. (Clause introduced by to +

infinitive.)
 -ing clause: Jane broke her arm while fighting. (Clause introduced by present
participle.)

Adjectival clauses

A familiar type is the relative clause, introduced by a relative pronoun (who,

whom, whose, that, which), as in these examples:

 Here is the woman (whom) I married.

 This is the book (which) I am reading.
 The drink (that) I most like is orange juice.

The relative pronouns are in brackets, as they may be omitted if understood.

Two minor types of adjectival clause are -ing and -ed clauses.

 -ing clause: The train now standing at platform four is the 5.30 to Leeds.

 -ed clause: She is the celebrity pursued by the press.

Since past participles do not all end in -ed we may find other verb forms in such
clauses: The tea drunk by the students or the exam taken by the pupils.

Clause elements may be single words of the appropriate category, they may
be phrases or even some kinds of subordinate clause. Explaining even simple
structures is difficult. Verbal explanations are less easy to make than diagrams. These
work best when there is a hierarchical level, as sentences are analysed into clauses,
which are further analysed into (more clauses and) phrases, which are analysed
into words, which are analysed into morphemes.

In an exam, you are very unlikely to be required to analyse long sequences.

Use clause analysis (or phrase analysis) selectively, to establish some point about
language acquisition (learning to make or understand structures), about language and
society (how structures embody social attitudes to language), language change (how
structures or paradigms change over time) or stylistics (how structures embody style).

THE SENTENCE

Sentence Types

In many respects, sentences can be analysed in the same terms as clauses, that

is separating the elements into the categories of subject, object, verb,
complement and adverbial.

However, sentences are also described in terms of:

 how clauses are arranged

 functions of the sentence
 traditional patterns which are used for particular effects in speech and writing

Clause structures in sentences

The most basic sentence form contains a single clause. This is known as
a simple sentence:
  Mary had a little lamb.
 Chocolate is delicious.
 Down fell the rain.

A compound sentence joins two coordinate clauses together:

 Mary had a little lamb and took it to school.

 I drank some tea and felt better.
 Here is a wug and here are two wugs.

A multiple sentence links clauses of essentially similar type, with coordinating

conjunctions.

 I came home, sat down, put the kettle on, lit the fire and sat down with a book.

A complex sentence uses subordination to link clauses. It is not necessarily very

"complex" in the everyday sense (that is, difficult to analyse), but it may be:

 I hope that she will come.

 Lest you forget, here is my address.
 Having played football, I sat in the bath, while the kettle boiled, thinking of how to
spend the evening, which loomed before me promisingly.

Functions of the Sentence

This is a simple kind of classification. Sentences are traditionally categorized into

four types: statement, command, question or exclamation. These are readily illustrated
by examples (note alternative names).

 Statement or declarative: This is my porridge.
 Command, wish, imperative or directive: Go and never darken my doors again.
 Question or interrogative: Who's been eating my porridge?
 Exclamation: How happy I feel!

Other Sentence Types

David Crystal (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, p. 218)

notes some other categories. Among these are:

1. Tag questions

Here a statement is turned into a question, with an interrogative tag at the end. Tags are
typical of speech where the speaker changes the function of the sentence in mid-
utterance:

 Jolly nice day today, isn't it?

2. Exclamatory questions

Here the structure is that of a question, but the meaning (indicated in speech by
intonation) equates to an exclamation:

 Didn't she do well? Have I got news for you?

3. Rhetorical questions
Again the structure is that of a question, but the speaker (or writer) expects no answer.
They are used as emphatic statements:

 How on earth should I know? Is the Pope a Catholic? Do bears crap in the
woods?

4. Directives

These are akin to imperatives, but Crystal expands the category to include
related functions of instruction, direction and so on. He lists: commanding, inviting,
warning, pleading, suggesting, advising, permitting, requesting, meditating, expressing
wish or imprecation. Crystal notes that many use the verbs let and do in non-standard
ways:

 Let me see. Let's go. Let us pray.

 Do come in. Do be quiet. Don't do that again.

5. Echoes

These sentences of a special kind, which reflect the structure of a preceding

sentence from a different speaker in a language interaction (usually conversation):

 Echo of statement: A: It took me five hours to get here. B: Five hours to get here?
 Echo of question: A: Have you seen my wife? B: Have I seen your lice?
 Echo of directive: A: Sit down there. B: Down there?
 Echo of exclamation: A: What a plonker! B: What a complete plonker!

Special or Minor Sentence Types

Professor Crystal (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, p.

216) records some unusual types of sentence, which cannot be analysed in a regular
way. They are found in particular kinds of text and discourse - some are common in real
speech or fictional dialogue, while others are found in such things as headlines or
slogans, where a message is presented as a block of text. They do not follow all the
rules of normal grammar, such as verb agreement. Among the types noted by Crystal
are:

 Formulae for set social situations: Cheers, Hello, Ciao, See you, How do you do?
Ta!
 Emotional or functional noises (traditionally interjections): Hey! Ugh! Agh! Ow!
Tut! Shh! (Note how such forms are subject to change over time. Consider Tush,
eh, hein?)
 Proverbs or aphorisms: Easy come, easy go. Least said, soonest mended.
 Short forms as used in messages, instructions or commentaries: Wish you were
here. Shearer to Beckham. Simmer gently. Hope you are well.
 Elliptical words or phrases with a structural meaning equivalent to a complete
exclamation, question or command: Brilliant! Lovely day! Coming? Drink? All
aboard! Drink up!
 MODULE 3
THE SENTENCE—SUBJECT AND PREDICATE, KINDS OF SENTENCES

DIAGNOSTIC PREVIEW

A. IDENTIFYING SENTENCES
Identify each of the following word groups as a sentence or as a sentence fragment. If a word
group is a sentence, write it in the correct form, using a capital letter at the beginning and
adding the appropriate punctuation mark at the end.
Example: 1. having forgotten their homework
Your answer: 1. sentence fragment
2. how strong the wind is
Your answer: 2. sentence—How strong the wind is!
1. after we visit the library and gather information for the research paper __________________________
2. are you ready for the big game next week __________________________
3. listen closely to our guest speaker __________________________
4. have read the first draft of my paper __________________________
5. an excellent short story, “May Day Eve,” is in that book __________________________
6. that we helped Gawad Kalinga to build __________________________
7. Dr. Diaz, our math teacher this year __________________________
8. be prepared to post your vlog tomorrow __________________________
9. fishing, snorkeling, and swimming in the river __________________________
10. what a good idea you have, Amy __________________________

B. IDENTIFYING SIMPLE SUBJECTS AND SIMPLE PREDICATES

Write the simple subject and simple predicate in each of the following sentences.
Example: 1. A computer can be a wonderful tool for people with disabilities.
Your answer 1. Computer—simple subject; can be—simple predicate
1. Specially designed machines have been developed in the past several years.
________________________________________________________________
2. Have you ever seen a talking computer?
________________________________________________________________
3. It is used mainly by people with visual impairment.
________________________________________________________________
4. Most computers display writing on a screen.
________________________________________________________________
5. However, these special models can give information by voice.
________________________________________________________________
6. Closed-captioned television is another interesting and fairly recent invention.
________________________________________________________________
7. Subtitles appear on the television screens of many hearing-impaired viewers.
________________________________________________________________
8. These viewers can read the subtitles and enjoy their favorite television show.
________________________________________________________________
9. With a teletypewriter (TTY), people can type messages over phone lines.
________________________________________________________________
10. Many new inventions and devices make life easier.
________________________________________________________________

C. PUNCTUATING AND CLASSIFYING SENTENCES

Copy the last word of each of the following sentences, and then punctuate each sentence with
the correct end mark. Classify each sentence as declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.
Example: 1. Flowers and insects depend on one another for life
Your answer 1. life.—declarative
1. Have you ever watched a honeybee or a bumblebee in a garden __________________________________
2. The bee flies busily from one another, drinking nectar __________________________________
3. Notice the yellow pollen that collects on the legs and body of the bee __________________________________
4. The bee carries pollen from the flower to flower, helping the plants to make seeds ________________________
5. What a remarkable insect the bee is __________________________________

THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a word or word group that contains a subject and a verb and that
expresses a complete thought.

A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, a question mark,
or an exclamation point.

Examples: She won a prize for her book.

Why did you stop running?
Wait! [The understood subject is you.]

SENTENCE OR SENTENCE FRAGMENT?

A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but does not
contain both a subject and a verb or does not express a complete thought.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT Sailing around the world. [The word group lacks a subject.]
SENTENCE They are sailing around the world.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT The hike through the Chocolate Hills. [The word group lacks a
verb.]
SENTENCE The hike through the Chocolate Hills was long and hard.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT After they pitched the tent. [The word group contains a subject
and a verb, but does not express a complete thought.]
SENTENCE After they pitched the tent, they rested.

EXERCISE 1 IDENTIFYING SENTENCES

Identify each of the following word groups as a sentence or a sentence
fragment. If a word is a sentence, write it in the correct form, using a
capital letter at the beginning and adding the appropriate punctuation mark
at the end.
Examples 1. during her vacation last summer
Your answer 1. sentence fragment
2. my friend Michelle visited Passi City
Your answer 2. sentence –My friend Michelle visited Passi City.

1. do you know what happened during Michelle’s

road trip
2. down the rapids on the San Antonio River
3. at first her boat drifted calmly through the
Catan-agan River ____________________________
4. then the river dropped suddenly ____________________________
5. and became foaming rapids full of dangerous ____________________________
boulders ____________________________
6. many of which can break a boat ____________________________
7. Lea Marie’s boat was small ____________________________
8. with one guide and four passenger ____________________________
9. some passengers prefer large inflatable boats ____________________________
with outboard motors ____________________________
10. carrying eighteen people ____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
 SUBJECT & PREDICATE
Sentences consist of two basic parts: subjects and predicates.

THE SUBJECT
The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about.

Examples Monica is a student writer and an artist.

The girls on the team were all good students.
He shared his lunch with the boy on the other team.
Swimming is good exercise

To find the subject, ask who or what is doing something or whom or what is being
talked about. The subject may come at the beginning, middle, or at the end of a
sentence.

Examples The pitcher struck Justin out. [Who struck Justin out? The pitcher did].
After practicing for hours, Joshua bowled two strikes. [Who bowled two strikes? Timmy
did.]
How kind you are! [Who is kind? You are.]
When will the afternoon train arrive? [What will arrive? The afternoon train will.]
Hiding in the tall grass was a baby rabbit. [What was hiding? A baby rabbit was.]

EXERCISE 2 WRITING SUBJECTS & PUNCTUATING SENTENCES

Add subjects to fill in the blanks in the following sentences. Use a

different subject in the sentence. Begin each sentence with a capital
letter, and end it with a punctuation mark.
Example 1. ______ is very heavy
Your answer 1. This is very heavy.

1. _____________ is a difficult game to play

2. _____________ works in the post office
3. Luckily for me, ___________________ was easy to read
4. Tied to the end of the rope was __________________
5. Did _______________ help you
6. _____________ eventually became President of the Philippines
7. Have _________________ always wanted to visit Boracay
8. Before the game, ______________ will meet in the gym
9. In a minute _____________ will feed you, Whitey
10. Has _________ called you yet

Tips & Tricks: If you leave out the simple subject, a sentence does not make sense.

SIMPLE SUBJECT AND COMPLETE SUBJECT

The simple subject is the main word or word group that tells whom or what the
sentence is about.
The complete subject consists of all the words that tell whom or what a sentence is
about.

Examples The four new students arrived early.

Complete Subject The four new students
Simple Subject students

Is the winner of the sack race present?

Complete Subject the winner of the sack race
Simple Subject winner

A round walnut table with five legs stood in the middle of the dining room.
Complete Subject A round walnut table with five legs
Simple Subject table

A simple subject may consist of one word or several words.

Examples Jets often break the sound barrier. [one word]

Does Leah own a grocery store? [two words]
On the library shelf was The Island of the Blue Dolphins. [six words]

EXERCISE 3 IDENTIFYING SUBJECTS

Write the subject of each of the following sentences.

Example 1. A book by N. Scott Momaday is on the table.

Your answer 1. book

1. Born in 1934 in Oklahoma, Momaday lived on Navajo and Apache

reservations in the Southwest. ______________
2. Momaday’s father was a Kiowa. ______________
3. As a young man, Momaday attended the University of New Mexico
and Stanford University. ______________
4. In The Way to the Rainy Mountain, he tells about the myths and
history of the Kiowa people.
5. The book includes poems, an essay, and stories about the Kiowa
people.
6. The book includes poems, an essay, and stories about the Kiowa
people.
7. After Momaday’s book came works by other modern day American
Indian writers.
8. The Way to Rain Mountain was published in 1969.
9. Was he inspired to write by his travel?
10. Readers of this Osage writer enjoy his beautiful descriptions of
nature.

EXERCISE 4 IDENTIFYING COMPLETE SUBJECTS AND

SIMPLE SUBJECTS
 Write the complete subject in each of the following sentences. Then,
underline the simple subject.
Examples 1. Stories about time travel make exciting reading.
1. Stories about time travel
2. Samuel Delany writes great science fiction.
2. Samuel Delany
1. Rad Bradbury is also a writer of science fiction.
2. The Golden Apples of the Sun is a collection of Bradbury’s short
stories.
3. Is your favorite story in that book “A Sound of Thunder”?
4. The main character in the story is called Mr. Eckels.
5. On the safari, trouble develops.

THE PREDICATE
The predicate of a sentence tells something about the subject.

Examples The phone rang.

Old Faithful is a giant geyser in Yellowstone National Park.

Like the subject, the predicate may be found anywhere in a

sentence.

Examples Outside the tent was a baby bear.

Late in the night we heard a noise. [The predicate in this

sentence is divided by the subject , we.]

Has the dough risen enough? [The predicate is divided by the

subject, the dough.]

Stop right there! [The subject in this sentence is understood to

be you.]

EXERCISE 5 IDENTIFYING PREDICATES

Underline the predicate in each of the following sentences.

1. Also among my baseball treasures is a book about Clemente’s life
and career.
2. During his amazing career, he won four National League batting
titles.
3. Roberto Clemente died in a plane crash off the coast of his
homeland Puerto Rico.
4. After his death, Clemente was elected to the National Baseball Hall
of Fame.
5. In New York, a park has been named for this beloved ballplayer.

EXERCISE 6 WRITING PREDICATES

 Make a sentence out of each of the following word groups by adding a
predicate to fill the blank or blanks.
Example: A flock of geese flew high overhead.
1. My favorite food _________________________________________.
2. ______________________our car ________________________?
3. Rock climbing __________________________________________.
4. Several computers ______________________________________.
5. ____________________________we ______________________ ?

SIMPLE PREDICATE AND COMPLETE PREDICATE

The simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or word group that tells
something about the subject.

The complete predicate consists of a verb and all the words that describe
the verb and complete its meaning.

Examples The pilot broke the sound barrier.

Complete predicate broke the sound barrier
Simple predicate (verb) broke
We should have visited the diamond field in Arkansas.
Complete predicate should have visited
the diamond field in Arkansas
Simple predicate (verb) should have visited
The telephone on the table rang.
Complete predicate rang
Simple predicate (verb) rang

EXERCISE 7 IDENTIFYING COMPLETE

PREDICATES AND VERBS
Identify the complete predicate of each of the following sentences by
underlining them and encircle the simple predicate (verb).
1. However, most historians doubt the Betsy Ross story.
2. The name of the designer has remained a mystery.
3. Unfortunately, the flags did not arrive until the end of the
Revolutionary War.
4. The Continental Congress approved a design for the flag.
5. Many scholars are unsure about the history of the Stars and Stripes.

THE VERB PHRASE

Some simple predicates, or verbs, consist of more than one word. Such
verbs are called verb phrases (verbs that include one or more helping verbs).

Example Kathy is riding the Ferris wheel.

The carnival has been in town for two weeks.
Should Imelda have gotten here sooner?
She has not written to me recently.
I will never forget her.
 EXERCISE 8 IDENTIFYING VERBS AND VERB
PHRASES
Underline the verb or verb phrase in each of the following sentences.
1. Hawaii is called the Aloha State.
2. The Hawaiian islands is also known for their lush, exotic scenery.
3. Save me a place on next flight!
4. Have you ever seen a traditional Hawaiian dance, one with drums
and chants?
5. It was settled by Polynesians 2000 years ago.

COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND COMPOUND VERBS

A compound subject consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a
conjunction and that have the same verb.

Examples Paris and London remain favorite tourist attractions.

Nelson Mandela or Archbishop Desmond Tutu will
speak
at the conference.
Among my hobbies are reading, snorkeling, and
painting.

EXERCISE 9 IDENTIFYING COMPOUND SUBJECTS

Underline the compound subject in each of the following sentences.
1. The national parks and monuments of the United States include
many of the world’s most spectacular land forms.
2. Underground, caves and immense caverns are created by rushing
streams and waterfalls.
3. In river systems around the world, canyons and gorges are cut into
the earth by erosion.
4. Do steep areas with heavy rainfall or dry regions with few trees
suffer more from erosion?
5. Likewise, Skyline Arch and Landscape Arch in Utah are two natural
arches formed by erosion.

COMPOUND VERBS
A compound verb consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a
conjunction and that have the same subject.

The conjunctions most commonly used to connect the words of a compound

verb are and, or, and but.

Examples The rain has fallen for days and is still falling.
The team played well but lost the game anyway.
Will Rolando mop the floor or wash the dishes?

A sentence may contain both a compound subject and compound verb.

 Example A few vegetables and many flowers sprouted and grew
in
the rich soil.

EXERCISE 10 IDENTIFYING COMPOUND VERBS

Underline each compound verb or verb phrase in the following
sentences.
1. Just like children today, children in ancient Egypt played games and
enjoyed toys.
2. Senet was another ancient Egyptian board game and was played by
children and adults alike.
3. Players moved their playing pieces towards the end of three rows of
squares but sometimes were stopped by their opponents.
4. For the Egyptian board game Serpent, players found or carved a
serpent-shaped stone.
5. Senet looked like an easy game but was actually difficult.

KINDS OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period.

Example Amy Tan was born in Oakland, California.

I couldn’t hear what Jason said.

An imperative sentence gives command or makes a request. Most

imperative sentences end with a period. A strong command ends with an
exclamation point.

Example Be quiet during the play. [command]

Please give me another piece of melon. [request]
Stop! [strong command]

The subject of a command or request is always you, even if you doesn’t

appear in the sentence. In such cases, you is called the understood subject.

Examples (You) Be quiet during the play.

(You) Please give me another piece of melon.
(You) Stop!

The word you is the understood subject even when the person spoken to is
addressed by name.

Example Miguel, (you) please answer the phone.

An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark.

Examples When did you return from your camping trip?

Did the surfboard cost much?
An exclamatory sentence shows excitement or expresses strong feelings
and ends with an exclamation point.
Examples Gabriella won the match!
How terrifying that movie was!

EXERCISE 11 CLASSIFYING AND PUNCTUATING

SENTENCES
Classify each of the following sentences as declarative, imperative,
interrogative and exclamatory. Then, put the correct end punctuation.
____________ 1. In ancient times, the Julian calendar was used_
____________ 2. Why was it called Julian _
____________ 3. I thought so _
____________ 4. Tell me the result _
____________ 5. That’s the strangest thing I’ve ever heard
____________ 6. It was named after the Roman leader Julius Caesar _
____________ 7. Were those days lost forever _
____________ 8. Bring more sandbags over here now _
____________ 9. Is the Rig-veda the oldest of the Hindu scriptures _
____________ 10. How huge this library is _

PARTS OF SPEECH
THE NOUN
A noun is a word or word group that is sued to name a person, a place, a thing, or
an idea.

Persons Jose Rizal, teacher, chef, Dr. Dela Cruz

Places Luneta Park, city, Philippines, kitchen
Things lamp, granite, Nobel Prize, San Juanico Bridge
Ideas happiness, self-control, liberty, bravery

Some nouns are made up of more than one word. A compound noun is a
single noun made up of two or more words used together. The compound
noun may be written as one word, as hyphenated word, or as two or more
words.

One Word grandmother, basketball

Hyphenated mother-in-law, light-year
Word
Two Words grand piano, jumping pack

PROPER NOUNS AND COMMON NOUNS

A proper noun names a particular person, place, thing, or idea and begins
with a capital letter. A common noun names any one of a group of persons,
places, things, or ideas and is generally not capitalized.
 Common Nouns Proper Nouns
girl Sarah Geronimo
writer Andres Bonifacio
country United States of America
monument Rizal Park
compact disc A Long Way Home
book Pride and Prejudice
religion Buddhism
language Hiligaynon
city Iloilo City

CONCRETE NOUNS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

A concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that can be perceived by
one or more senses. An abstract noun names an idea, a feeling, a quality or a
characteristic.

Concrete photograph, music, pears, filmmaker, sandpaper,

Nouns rose, Brooklyn Bridge
Abstract Nouns love, fun, freedom, self-esteem, beauty, honor,
wisdom, Buddhism

EXERCISE 12 REVISING SENTENCES BY USING PROPER

NOUNS
Revise the following sentences by providing a proper noun for each common
noun underlined. Write your answer on the spaces provided.
Example An ambassador visited the local school and spoke about his
country.
Answer Ambassador Gounet; Iloilo High School; Philippines
1. That painting is in a famous museum.
_____________________________________________________________
2. The police officer cheerfully directed us to the building on that street.
_____________________________________________________________
3. The librarian asked my classmate to return the books as soon as possible.
_____________________________________________________________
4. The girl read a poem for the teacher.
_____________________________________________________________
5. That newspaper is published daily; this magazine is published weekly.
_____________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 13 WRITING SENTENCES WITH CONCRETE AND

ABSTRACT NOUNS
Identify each noun in the following list as concrete or abstract. Then, use each
noun in an original sentence.
Example 1. truth People should always tell the truth.
1. soy sauce ______________________________________________
2. brotherhood ______________________________________________
3. laughter ______________________________________________
4. ice ______________________________________________
5. excitement ______________________________________________
6. kindness ______________________________________________
7. motor ______________________________________________
8. healt ______________________________________________
9. pillow ______________________________________________
10. honor ______________________________________________

THE PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of one or more nouns and
pronouns.

Example Ask Dan if Dan has done Dan’s homework.

Ask Dan if he has done his homework.

The word or word group that a pronoun stands for (or refers to) is called its
antecedent.

Example Fredrick, have you turned in your report?

(Antecedent) (pronoun) (pronoun)
Walking the dog is fun, and it is good exercise.
(Antecedent) (pronoun)
Sometimes the antecedent is not stated.

Examples Who asked that question?

I did not understand what you said.
Someone will have to clean up the mess.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
A personal pronoun refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken
to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person).

Personal Pronouns
Singular
First Person I, me, my, mine
Second Person you, your, yours
Third Person he, him, his, she,
her, hers, it, its
Plural
we, us, our, ours
you, your, yours
they, them, their,
theirs

REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS

A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject and is necessary to the meaning of
the sentence. An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or another pronoun
and is necessary to the meaning of the sentence.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

First Person myself, ourselves
Second Person yourself, yourselves
Third Person himself, herself, itself, themselves

Reflexive Tara enjoyed herself at the party.

The team prided themselves on their victory.
Intensive I myself cooked that delicious dinner.
Did you redecorate the room yourself?

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.

Demonstrative Pronouns
this that these those

Examples This is the book I bought for my sister.

Are those the kinds of plants that bloom at night?

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
An interrogative pronoun introduces a question.

Interrogative Pronouns
what which who whom whose

Examples What is the best brand of yogurt?

Who wrote Barrio Boy?

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An indefinite pronoun refers to a person, a place, a thing, or a idea that may
or may not be specifically named.

Indefinite Pronouns
all each many nobody other
any either more none several
anyone everythin most no one some
both g much one somebody
few

Examples Both of the girls forgot their lines.

I would like some of that chow mein.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause.

Relative Pronouns
that which who whom whose

Examples Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of

Independence, was United State’s third president.

Exercise is something that many people enjoy.

EXERCISE 14 IDENTIFYING PRONOUNS

Identify each pronoun in the following sentences. Then, tell what type
 of pronoun each one is. Write your answer on the space provided after
each item.
Example 1. The drama coach said he would postpone the
rehearsal.
he—personal
1. “I want you to study,” Ms. Cruz said to the class.
____________________________________________________
2. The firefighter carefully adjusted her oxygen mask.
____________________________________________________
3. The children made lunch themselves.
____________________________________________________
4. Jenny and Rosa decided they would get popcorn, but Amy didn’t
want any.
____________________________________________________
5. Who will be the next president of the school board?
____________________________________________________
6. Mr. Anas, this is Mrs. Cruz, a neighbor of yours.
____________________________________________________
7. Ralph Bunche, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, was a
diplomat for his country in the United Nations.
____________________________________________________
8. Of all the United States Olympic victories, perhaps none were more
satisfying than Jesse Owen’s 1936 triumphs in the 200-meter dash and
board jump.
____________________________________________________
9. Oh, yes, the puppy taught itself how to open the gate.
____________________________________________________
10. Only one of seventy-five fine boys and girls will win the grand prize.
____________________________________________________

ADJECIVES
An adjective is a word that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun.

To modify a word means to describe the word or to make its meaning more
definite. An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun by telling what kind, which
one, how much, or how many.

What Kind? Which One or How Much or How

Ones? Many?
Korean children seventh grade several days
busy dentist these countries five pesos
braided hair any book no marbles

Sometimes an adjective comes after the word it modifies.

Examples A woman, kind and helpful, gave us directions.

The box is empty.

ARTICLES
The most commonly used adjectives are a, an, and the. These adjectives are
called articles. A and an are called indefinite articles because they refer to
any member of a general group. A is used before a word beginning with a
vowel sound.

Examples A frog croaked.

An orange is a good source of vitamin C.
My cousin Jimmy wears a uniform to school.
This is an honor.

The is called definite article because it refers to someone or something in

particular.

Examples The frog croacked.

Where is the orange?

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
This, that, these and those can be used both as adjectives and as pronouns.
When they modify a noun or pronoun, they are called demonstrative
adjectives. When they are used alone, they are called demonstrative
pronouns.

Demonstrative adjectives This drawing is mine, and that drawing is his.

These soccer balls are much more expensive than
those soccer balls are.

Demonstrative pronouns This is mine and that is his.

These are much more expensive than those are.

PROPER ADJECTIVES
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.

Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives

Thanksgiving Thanksgiving dinner
Catholicism Catholic priest
Middle East Middle Eastern country
Africa African continent

EXERCISE 15 IDENTIFYING ADJECTIVES

Identify adjectives in the following sentences, and give the noun and
pronoun each modifies. Do not include the articles a, an, and the.

Example Why don’t you take the local bus home from school on
cold days? Ans. local—bus; cold—days
1. On winter afternoons, I sometimes walk home after band practice
rather than ride on a crowded, noisy bus.
________________________________________________________
2. I hardly even notice the heavy traffic that streams past me on the
street.
 ________________________________________________________
3. The wet sidewalk glistens in the bright lights from the windows of the
stores.
________________________________________________________
4. The stoplights throw green, yellow, and red splashes on the
pavement.
________________________________________________________
5. There I am often greeted by my older brother, Kenny, and my sister,
Natalie.
________________________________________________________

EXERCISE 16 WRITING PROPER ADJECTIVES

Change the following proper nouns into proper adjectives.
Example Spain—Spanish
1. Rome ______________ 2. Victoria ______________
3. Memorial Day ______________ 4. Korea _____________
5. Congress ______________ 6. New Year’s Day _____________
7. Inca ______________ 8. Shakespeare _____________
9. Judaism ______________ 10. Celt ______________

THE VERB
A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being.

ACTION VERBS
An action verb is a verb that expresses either physical or mental activity.

Examples The owls hooted all night. [physical action]

Gloria plays volleyball. [physical action]
She thought about the problem. [mental action]
I believe in you. [mental action]

Action verbs may be transitive or intransitive.

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action directed toward a person,

a place, a thing, or an idea.

With transitive verbs, the action passes from the doer—the subject—to the
receiver of the action. Words that receive the action of a transitive verb are
called objects.

Examples Derrick greeted the visitors. [The action of the verb greeted is
directed toward the object visitors.]
When will Felicia paint her room? [The action of the verb will
paint is directed toward the object room.]

An intransitive verb expresses action (or tells something about the subject)
without the action passing to a receiver, or object.

Examples The train stopped.

 Last night we ate on the patio.

A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another.

Examples The children play checkers. [transitive]

The children play quietly. [intransitive]
Mr. Lopez is baking bread. [transitive]
Mr. Lopez is baking this afternoon. [intransitive]
Have Roland and Tracy left their coats? [transitive]
Have Roland and Tracy left yet? [intransitive]

LINKING VERBS
A linking verb is a verb that expresses a state of being. A linking verb
connects, or links, the subject to a word or word group that identifies or
describes the subject.

Examples Danzel is an actor. [The verb is connects actor and the

subject Danzel.]
The children remained quiet. [The verb remained links
quiet with the subject children.

Linking verbs never have objects. Therefore, linking verbs are always
intransitive.

Some Forms of Verb Be

am were will be can be
is has been shall be should be
are have been may be would be
was had been might be been
Other Linking Verbs
appear grow seem stay
become look smell taste
feel remain sound turn

Be is not always a linking verb. Be can express a state of being without

having a complement (a word or word group that identifies or describes the
subject. In the following sentences, forms of be are followed by words or word
groups that tell where.

Examples We will be there.

The apples are in the bowl.

Some words may be either action or linking verbs, depending on how they are
used.

Action Amy looked through the telescope.

Linking Amy looked pale. [The verb looked links pale with the
subject Amy.]
Action Stay in your seats until the bell rings.
 Linking Stay calm. [The verb stay links calm with the understood
subject you.]

HELPING VERBS AND MAIN VERBS

A helping verb (auxiliary verb) helps the main verb express action or state
of being.
Example can speak has been named
were sent should have been caught
A verb phrase contains one main verb and one or more helping verbs.

Examples Many people in Africa can speak more than one

language.
The packages were sent to 401 Maple Street.
Kansas has been named the Sunflower State.
The balls should have been caught by the nearest
player.

Commonly Used Helping Verbs

Forms of Be am been was
are being were
be is
Forms of Do do does did
Forms of Have have has had
Other Helping can might would
Verbs could must shall
may will should

Some verbs can be used as either helping verbs or main verbs.

Helping Do you like green beans?

Main Verb Did you do this math problem?
Helping She is arriving at noon.
Main Verb Her luggage is over there.
Helping Have they arrive yet?
Main Verb They have a dog.
Helping Where has he gone?
Main Verb He has his homework in his backpack.

Sometimes a verb phrase is interrupted by another part of speech. Often the

interrupter is an adverb. In a question, however, the subject often interrupts
the verb phrase.

Examples Our school has always held a victory celebration when

our team wins.
Did you hear Jimmy’s speech?
Should Anita bring her model airplane to class?
Ken does not [or doesn’t] have a new desk.
EXERCISE 17 IDENTIFYING VERB PHRASES AND HELPING
VERBS
Identify the verb phrases in the following sentences by underlining them and
encircle the helping verbs.
1. Have you ever visited Redwood National Park?
2. The giant trees there can be an awesome sight.
3. For centuries, these trees have been an important part of the environment.
4. With proper planning years ago, more of the forest might already have
been saved.
5. Unfortunately, the forest is still shrinking rapidly.

EXERCISE 18 IDENTIFYING ACTION AD LINKING VERBS

Underline the verbs in the following sentences and label each as action or
helping verb. Write your answer on the space provided.
1. The Puerto Rican Traveling Theater performs plays about Hispanic life in
the United States. __________________________
2. Over the past twenty years, this group has grown into a famous theater
group. ______________________
3. Sometimes, a production has two casts—one that speaks in English and
one that speaks in Spanish. _____________________
4. Some became well-known at the Puerto Rican theater and then moved on
to Hollywood. ______________________
5. Some shows are musicals, full of song and dance, while other plays seem
more serious. _________________________________________

EXERCISE 19 IDENTIFYING TRANSITIVE AND

INTRANSITIVE
VERBS
Identify the italicized verb in each of the following sentences as either
transitive or intransitive.

_____________ 1. If you do different kinds of exercises, you are

exercising in the correct way.
_____________ 2. When you exercise to improve endurance, flexibility,
and strength, your body develops.
_____________ 3. Aerobic exercise builds endurance and strengthens the
heart and lungs.
_____________ 4. When you walk quickly, you exercise aerobically.
_____________ 5. The exercises contract your muscles.

THE ADVERB
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Just as an adjective makes the meaning of a noun or a pronoun more definite,

an adverb makes the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb more
definite. Adverbs answer the following questions: where?, when?, how?, how
often?, or how long?, and to what extent?, or how much?

Examples The sprinter ran swiftly. [how?]

I read the funny pages early on Sunday morning. [when?]
Joe was comforting a very small child. [what extent?]
The fire blazed too wildly for anyone to enter. [how?]
Dad will sometimes quote from Maya Angelou’s speech.
[how often?]
Put the apples there, and we will eat them later. [where?
and when?]

Words often used as Adverbs

Where? away, here, inside, there, up
When? later, now, soon, then, tomorrow
How? clearly, easily, quietly, slowly
How often? or always, usually, continuously, never, forever, briefly
How long?
To what extent? almost, so, too, more, least, extremely, quite, very,
or How much? not

The word not is nearly always used as an adverb modifying a verb. When not
is part of a contraction, as in hadn’t, aren’t, and didn’t, the –n’t is still an
adverb and is not part of the verb.

Many adverbs end in –ly. These adverbs are generally formed by adding –ly
to adjectives.

Examples clear + -ly = clearly

quiet + -ly = quietly
convincing + -ly = convincingly

EXERCISE 20 IDENTIFYING ADVERBS

Underline the adverbs and encircle the words they modify in the following
sentences.
1. Oklahoma is not the Cherokee’s original home.
2. In this story, a nameless character goes outdoors on a terribly cold day in
Yukon.
3. Along the way, the man accidentally falls into the stream.
4. Many white settlers of the region were extremely eager to find gold.
5. How did you spend your vacation?

THE PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship of a noun and pronoun to
another word.

Commonly used Prepositions

aboard before for off toward
about beyond from on under
above below in out underneath
across beneath in front of out of unlike
after beside inside over until
against between instead past up
along beyond into since up to
among by like through upon
around down near throughout with
as during next to till within
at except of to without

EXERCISE 21 WRITING PREPOSITIONS

Write two prepositions for each blank in the following sentences which will
make the each sentence comprehensible.
1. We practiced karate _______________________ dinner.
2. She jumped up and ran _______________________ the park.
3. A boat with red sails sailed _______________________ the river.
5. Brightly colored confetti streamed _______________________ the piñata
when it burst open.

THE CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that joins words or word groups.

Coordinating conjunctions join words or word groups that are used in the
same way.

Coordinating Conjunctions
and but for nor or so yet

Examples Jill or Ana

strict but fair
over the river and through the woods
Alice walker wrote the book, yet she did not write the
movie script.

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that join words or word

groups that are used in the same way.

Correlative Conjunctions
both……and
either…...or
neither……nor
not only……but also
whether…….or

Examples Both Bill Russell and Larry Baird played for the team.
She looked neither to the left nor to the right.
Not only did Wilma Rudolph overcome her illness, but
she also became an Olympic athlete.
Subordinating conjunctions is the third kind of conjunction that introduces
an adverb clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions
after because though
although before unless
as how until
as if if when
as long as in order that whenever
as much as since where
as soon as so that wherever
as though than while

Examples Meet me in the park after the bell chimes.

Before I washed the dishes, I let them soak in the sudsy
water.

EXERCISE 22 WRITING CONJUNCTIONS

Provide the appropriate conjunction for each blank in the following sentences.
1. We will visit __________ the Johnson Space Center _________ Astroworld
in Houston, Texas.
2. Alaska _______ Hawaii were the last two states admitted to the union.
3. Those two students are twin sisters _________, they do not dress alike.
4. They were ________ hungry _________ thirsty.
5. ______ turn that radio down, ___________ take it into your room while I’m
studying.
6. These nails aren’t long enough, _______ I’m going to buy some others.
7. The soldiers nicknamed her Molly Pitcher __________ she carried the
water in the pitchers.
8. His bike is old, ________ it takes him anywhere he needs to go.
9. At first, she carried water to the soldiers _______ they would not be
overcome by the intense heat.
10. Their weather forecaster isn’t sure ___________ it will rain _____ not.

THE INTERJECTION
A interjection is a word that expresses emotion. Commonly used
interjections are aha, hey, hurray, my, oh, oops, ouch, rats, well, wow, yikes,
and yippee.

An interjection has no grammatical relationship to the rest of the sentence.

Usually an interjection is followed by an exclamation point.

Examples Ouch! That hurts!

Goodness! What a haircut!
Aha! I know the answer.

Sometimes an interjection is set off by a comma.

Examples Oh, I wish it were Friday.
Well, what have you been doing?
EXERCISE 23 WRITING CONJUNCTIONS
Choose and write an appropriate interjection for each blank in the following
sentences. Use a variety of interjections.
1. ____________! The heel just fell off my shoe.
2. There’s, _________, about seven pesos in the piggy bank.
3. ____________! Finally we’re finished raking those leaves.
4. ____________! You squirrels, stop eating the bird’s food.
5. Weren’t the special effects in the movie amazing? _______!

COMPLEMENTS
DIRECT OBJECTS
A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that tells who, or what
receives the action of the verb.

A direct object answers the question Whom? Or What? after a transitive verb.

Examples I met Dr. Cruz. [I met whom?]

Did Billy hit a home run? [Bill did hit what?]
Please buy fruit, bread, and milk. [Please buy what?]
My uncle repairs engines and sells them. [My uncle
repairs
what?] [He sells what?]

INDIRECT OBJECTS
An indirect object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that sometimes appears
in sentences containing direct objects.

Indirect objects tell to whom or to what, or for whom or for what, the action of
the verb is done. If a sentence has an indirect object, it always has a direct
object also.

Examples The waiter gave her the bill. [To whom did the waiter give
the bill?]

Pam left the waiter a tip. [For whom did she leave a tip?]

Did she tip him five hundred pesos? [For whom did she
tip
five hundred pesos?]
Like a direct object, an indirect object can be compound of two or more
objects.

Example Felicia threw David, Jane, and Paula slow curveballs.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS
A subject complement is a word or word group in the predicate that
identifies or describes the subject.

Examples Julio has been president of his class since October.

[president identifies the subject Julio]
Was the masked stranger you? [you identifies the subject
stranger]
The racetrack looks slippery. [slippery describes the
subject racetrack]

A subject complement is connected to the subject by a linking verb.

There are two kinds of subject complements—predicate nominatives and

predicate adjectives.

Predicate Nominatives
A predicate nominative is a word or word group in the predicate that
identifies the subject.

A predicate nominative may be a noun, a pronoun, or a word group that

functions as noun. A predicate nominative is connected to its subject by a
linking verb.

Examples A dictionary is a valuable tool. [tool identifies the subject

dictionary]
This piece of flint could be an old arrowhead. [arrowhead
identifies the subject piece]
The winner of the race was she. [ she identifies the
subject winner]
Is that what you ordered? [what you ordered identifies
the subject that]

Like other sentence complements, a predicate nominative may be compound.

Example The yearbook editors will be Maggie, Imelda, and Clay.

Predicate Adjectives
A predicate adjective is an adjective that is in the predicate and that
describes the subject.

A predicate adjective is connected to the subject by a linking verb.

Examples Cold milk tastes good on a hot day. [good describes the
 subject milk]
The pita bread was light and delicious. [light and
delicious
describes the subject bread]
How kind you are! [kind describes the subject you]

EXERCISE 24 IDENTIFYING PREDICATE NOMINATIVES

Underline the subject and encircle the predicate nominative in each of
the following sentences.
1. Kilimanjaro is the tallest mountain in Africa.
2. The Kingdom of Siam became the modern-day Thailand.
3. Dandelions can be a problem for gardeners.
5. Reuben has become a fine pianist.

EXERCISE 25 IDENTIFYING PREDICATE ADJECTIVES

Underline the subject and encircle the predicate adjective in each of
the following sentences.
1. Everyone felt good about the decision.
2. Jan stays cheerful most of the time.
3. The milk in the container smells sour.
4. Why does the water in that pond look green?
5. Don’t the black beans mixed with rice and onions taste delicious?

VERBALS
THE PARTICIPLE
A participle is a verb form that can be used as an adjective.

Two kinds of participles are present participles and past participles.

PRESENT PARTICIPLES ends in –ing

Example Mr. Sanchez rescued three people from the burning

building. [burning is a present participle that modifies the
noun building]

PAST PARTICIPLES usually end in –d or –ed. Some past participles are

formed irregularly.

Examples Well trained, the soldier successfully carried out their

mission. [trained is a past participle that modifies the
noun soldier]

We skated on the frozen pond. [frozen is an irregular

past participle that modifies the noun pond]

THE INFINITIVE
An infinitive is a verb form that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverb. Most infinitives begin with to.

AS NOUN

Example To succeed is my goal. [to succeed is the subject of the

sentence]
My ambition is to teach Spanish. [to teach is a predicate
nominative]
She tried to win. [to win is the direct object of the verb
tried]

AS AN ADJECTIVE

Example The place to meet tomorrow is the library. [to meet

modifies the noun place]
She is the one to call. [to call modifies the pronoun one]

AS AN ADVERB

Example Tamara claims she was born to surf. [to surf modifies the
verb was born]
This math problem will be hard to solve without a
calculator. [to solve modifies the adjective hard]

THE GERUND
A gerund is a form of a verb that acts as a noun.

Gerunds always end in –ing and functions as nouns—subject, indirect object,

direct object, predicate nominative, object of the preposition or appositive.

AS SUBJECT

Example Writing by the Aztecs was often recorded on paper made

of cactus. [writing is the subject of the sentence]

AS DIRECT OBJECT

Example On their vacation, the Palmas discovered hiking. [hiking

is the direct object of the verb discovered]

AS INDIRECT OBJECT

Example His performance gives acting a bad reputation. [acting is

an indirect object to the direct object bad reputation and
the verb gives]

AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

Example One relaxing exercise is swimming. [swimming identifies

 the subject exercise]

AS OBJECT OF THE PREPOSITION

Example The Aztecs obtained much of their food by fishing.

[fishing is the object of the preposition by]

AS APPOSITIVE

Example I have a new hobby, cooking. [cooking identifies and

specifies the predicate nominative hobby]

EXERCISE 26 IDENTIFYING PARTICIPLES

Underline the participles and encircle the noun it modifies in the
following sentences.
1. Annoyed, I went inside to watch the TV.
2. Woven baskets were important to the earliest Anazi people, who
were excellent basket weavers.
3. Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona are the bordering states
that make up the Four Corners.
4. Among the remaining ruins in Chaco Canyon are the houses, public
buildings, and plazas of the Anasazi.
5. Irritated, he directed me to an encyclopedia.

EXERCISE 27 IDENTIFYING INFINITIVES

Underline the infinitives and tell whether they are used as a noun,
adjective or adverb in each of the following sentences.
1. My first stop would be to visit the Statue of Liberty. ______________
2. The statue holds a torch to symbolize freedom. ________________
3. Native Americans had a variety of ways to travel. _______________
4. To walk on top of the snow is the purpose of snowshoes. _________
5. It was made especially to fit on her shoulders and head. _________

EXERCISE 28 IDENTIFYING GERUNDS

Underline the gerunds and tell the function of the gerunds in each of
the following sentences.
1. For some tribes, prospering was easy on the west coast. _________
2. Fishing and hunting for berries there took little time. _____________
3. This meant time spent working was reduced. _______________
4. There was more free time for entertaining. ________________
5. Dancing was less important than the wealth of a person or tribe. ___

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
RULE 1: WHEN A WORD REFERS TO ONE PERSON, PLACE, THING, OR
IDEA, IT IS SINGULAR IN NUMBER. WHEN A WORD REFERS TO MORE
THAN ONE, IT IS PLURAL.
RULE 2: A VERB SHOULD AGREE IN NUMBER WITH ITS SUBJECT.
Two words agree when they have the same number. The number of a verb
should agree with the number of its subject.

a. Singular subjects take singular verbs.

Examples The lightning fills the sky. [singular verb fills agrees with
the singular subject lightning]
Jan begins her vacation today. [singular verb begins
agrees with the singular subject Jan]

b. Plural subject takes plural verbs

Examples Cheetahs run fast. [plural verb run agrees with the plural
subject cheetahs]
New families move into our neighborhood often. [plural
verb move agrees with the subject families]

RULE 3: THE NUMBER OF SUBJECT IS NOT CHANGED BY A PHRASE

FOLLOWING THE SUBJECT.

Example The hero of those folk tales is Coyote. [is agrees with the
subject hero, not with tales]

The successful candidate, along with two of her aides,

has entered the auditorium. [has agrees with the subject
candidate, not with aides]

Scientists from all over the world have gathered in

Geneva. [have agrees with the subject scientists, not with
the world]

If the subject is the indefinite pronoun all, any, more, most, none, or some,
its number may be determined by the object of the prepositional phrase that
follows it.

Example Most of the essays were graded. [most refers to the

plural word essays, so the verb is plural were]

Most of this essay is illegible. [most refers to the singular

word essay, so the verb is singular is]

RULE 4:THE FOLLOWING INDIFINITE PRONOUNS ARE SINGULAR:

ANYBODY, ANYONE, ANYTHING, EACH, EITHER, EVERYBODY,
EVERYONE, EVERYTHING, NEITHER, NOBODY, NO ONE, NOTHING,
ONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE, AND SOMETHING.

Examples Each of the newcomers was welcomed to the city.

Neither of these papayas is ripe.
Does anybody on the bus speak Tagalog?
RULE 5: THE FOLLOWING INDIFINITE PRONOUNS ARE PLURAL: BOTH,
FEW, MANY, SEVERAL.

Examples Few of our neighbors have squirrels.

Many of them keep dogs as pets.

RULE 6. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ALL, ANY, MORE, MOST, NONE,

AND SOME MAY BE EITHER SINGULAR OR PLUARL, DEPENDING ON
THEIR MEANING IN A SENTENCE.

The number of the pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some is often
determined by the number of the object in a prepositional phrase following the
subject. These pronouns are singular when they refer to the singular word and
are plural when they refer to a plural word.

Examples All of the fruit is ripe. [all is singular because it refers to

the singular word fruit; the verb is is singular to agree with
the subject all]

All of the pears are ripe. [plural]

Some of the harvest has been sold. [singular]

Some of the apples have been sold. [plural]

The pronouns listed in this rule aren’t always followed by prepositional phrase.
In such case, you look at the context—sentences before and after the
pronoun—to see if the pronoun refers to a singular or singular word.

Example All are here.

Some has spilled.

RULE 7: SUBJECTS JOINED BY AND USUALLY TAKE A PLURAL VERB

Examples Our dog and cat get baths in the summer.

Mr. Duffy and his daughter have gone fishing.

A compound subject that names only one person or thing takes a singular
verb.

Examples A famous singer and dancer is going to speak at our

drama club meeting. [one person is meant]

Macaroni and cheese is my favorite supper. [one dish is

meant]

RULE 8: SINGULAR SUBJECT JOINED BY OR OR NOR TAKE A

SINGULAR VERB.
 Examples The chief geologist or her assistant is due to arrive
tonight. [either one is due not both]

Neither a rabbit nor a mole does that kind of damage.

[neither one does the damage]

Plural subjects joined by or or nor take a plural verb.

Examples Either mice or squirrels are living in our attic.

Neither the senators nor the representatives want the
bill to be vetoed by the president.

RULE 9: WHEN A SINGULAR SUBJECT AND A PLURAL SUBJECT ARE

JOINED BY OR OR NOR, THE VERB AGREES WITH THE SUBJECT
NEARER THE VERB.

Examples A book or flowers usually make an appropriate gift. [the

verb agrees with the nearer subject, flowers]

Flowers or a book usually makes an appropriate gift.

[the verb agrees with the nearer subject, book]

RULE 10: A COLLECTIVE NOUN MAY BE EITHER SINGULAR OR

PLURAL, DEPENDING ON ITS MEANING IN A SENTENCE.

A collective noun is a singular in form but names a group of persons, animals,

or things. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the
group as a unit. A collective noun takes a plural verb when the noun refers to
the individual parts or members of the group.

Examples The class has decided to have a science fair in

November.
[the class as a unit has decided]

The class were divided in their opinions of the play. [the

members of the class were divided in their opinions]

My family plans to attend Beth’s graduation. [the family

as a unit plans to attend]

My family are coming from all over the state for the
reunion. [the members of the family are coming]

RULE 11: WHEN THE SUBJECT FOLLOWS THE VERB, FIND THE
SUBJECT AND MAKE SURE THA THE VERB AGREES WITH IT.

The subject usually follows the verb in questions and in sentences beginning
with here or there.

Examples Where was the cat?

 Where were the cats?

Does Jim know the Chens?

Do the Chens know Jim?

Here is my umbrella.
Here are our umbrellas.

There is a scary movie on TV.

There are scary movies on TV.

RULE 12: SOME NOUNS THAT ARE PLURAL IN FORM TAKE SINGULAR
VERBS.

Examples Electronics is a branch of physics.

Civics is being taught by Ms. Gutierrez.
Measles is the most unpleasant disease I’ve ever had.
The news was not encouraging.

RULE 13: AN EXPRESSION OF AN AMOUNT (A MEASUREMENT, A

PERCENTAGE, OR A FRACTION, FOR EXAMPLE) MAY BE SINGULAR
OR PLURAL, DEPENDING ON HOW IT IS USED.

A word or phrase stating an amount is singular when the amount is thought of

as a unit.

Examples Fifteen dollars is enough for that CD.

Sixteen ounces equals one pound.
Is two weeks long enough for a hiking trip?

Sometimes, however, the amount is thought of as individual pieces or parts. If

so, a plural verb is used.

Examples Ten of the dollars were borrowed.

Two of the hours were spent at the theater.

A fraction or a percentage is singular when it refers to a singular word and

plural when it refers to a plural word.

Examples One fourth of the salad is gone.

Forty percent of the students are new.

Expressions of measurement (such as length, weight, and area) are usually

singular.

Examples Ten feet is the height of a regulation basketball hoop.

Seventy-five pounds is the maximum baggage weight for
this airline.
RULE 14: EVEN WHEN PLURAL IN FORM, THE TITLE OF A CREATIVE
WORK (SUCH AS BOOK, SONG, FILM OR PAINTING), THE NAME OF AN
ORGANIZATION, OR THE NAME OF A COUNTRY OR CITY GENERALLY
TAKES A SINGULAR VERB.

Examples World of Tales is a collection of folk tales retold by Idries

Shah. [one book]

Tonya’s painting Sunflowers was inspired by the

natural beauty of rural Iowa. [one painting]

Friends of the Earth was founded in 1969. [one

organization]

The Philippines is an island country in the southwest

Pacific Ocean. [one country]

RULE 15: DON’T AND DOESN’T SHOULD AGREE IN NUMBER WITH

THEIR SUBJECTS.

The word don’t is a contraction of do not. Use don’t with plural subjects and
with the pronouns I and you.
Examples The children don’t seem nervous.
I don’t understand.
Don’t you remember?

The word doesn’t is a contraction of does not. Use doesn’t with singular
subjects except the pronouns I and you.

Examples Kim doesn’t ride the bus.

He doesn’t play tennis.
It doesn’t snow here.

EXERCISE 29 DETERMINING SUBJECT AND VERB

AGREEMENT
Underline the correct verb that complements the subject in each of the
following sentences. Encircle the subject that the verb agrees to.
1. A planetarium (is, are) located on the second floor.
2. Projectors (casts, cast) realistic images of stars on the ceiling.
3. A tidal wave, despite of its name, (is, are) not caused by the tides.
4. Walls of earth and stone along the shore (is, are) often too weak to
protect the coastal villages.
5. Neither of the movies (were, was) especially funny.
6. Someone among the store owners (donates, donate) the big trophy
each year.
7. One of the new Spanish teachers (supervises, supervise) the
language lab.
8. Few of us really (understand, understands) the four cycles of sleep.
9. Many of our dreams at night (is, are) about that day’s events.
10. Not surprisingly, people (call, calls) them flying saucers.
 11. Most reported sightings (has, have) turned out to be fakes, but
others remain unexplained.
12. Mrs. Chang and her daughter (rents, rent) an apartment.
13. Tornadoes and hurricanes (is, are) dangerous storms.
14. Index cards or a small tablet (is, are) handy for taking notes.
15. Neither pens nor pencils (is, are) needed to mark the ballots.
16. There (is, are) at least two solutions to this complicated Chinese
puzzle.
17. (Here’s, Here are) the social studies notes I took.
18. Here (comes, come) the six members of the decorations committee
for the dance.
19. The Friends (is, are) a book about a girl from the West Indies and a
girl from Harlem.
20. Mumps (is, are) a highly infectious disease.
21. Two cups of broth (seems, seem) right for the recipe.
22. Three hours of practice (is, are) not unusual for the band.
23. Fifteen feet (was, were) the length of the winning long jump.
24. The tomatoes (don’t, doesn’t) look ripe.
25. Twenty-five cents (is, are) not enough to buy the Sunday
newspaper.

USING VERBS CORRECTLY

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
The four basic forms of a verb are called principal parts of the verb.

1. The principal parts of a verb are the base form, the present participle,
the past, and the past participle.

When they are used to form tenses, the present participle forms require
helping verbs (forms of be and have)

Base Form Present Past Past

Participle Participle
talk [is] talking talked [have] talked
draw [is] drawing drew [have] drawn

Because talk forms its past and past participle by adding –ed, it is called a
regular verb. Draw forms its past and past participle differently, so it is called
an irregular verb. The principal parts if the verb are used to express time.

PRESENT TIME He draws excellent pictures.

Susan is drawing one now.

PAST TIME Last week they drew two maps.

She has often drawn cartoons.

FUTURE TIME Perhaps she will draw one for you.

 By Thursday, we will have drawn two more.

2. A regular verb forms its past and past participle by adding –d or –ed
to the base form.

Base Form Present Past Past

Participle Participle
clean [is] cleaning cleaned [have] cleaned
hope [is] hoping hoped [have] hoped
inspect [is] inspected [have] inspected
slip inspecting slipped [have] slipped
[is] slipping

3. An irregular verb forms its past and past participle in some way other
than by adding –d or –ed to the base form.

Irregular verbs form their past and past participle in various ways.

Base Form Past Past Participle

By changing sing sang [have] sung
vowels become became [have] become
drink drank [have] drunk
By changing make made [have] made
consonants build built [have] built
lend lent [have] lent
By changing do did [have] done
vowels and go went [have] gone
consonants buy bought [have] bought
By making no hurt hurt [have] hurt
changes put put [have] put
let let [have] let
Common Irregular Verbs
Base Form Present Participle Past Past Participle
begin [is] beginning began [have] begun
bite [is] biting bit [have] bitten or bit
blow [is] blowing blew [have] blown
break [is] breaking broke [have] broken
bring [is] bringing brought [have] brought
build [is] building built [have] built
burst [is] bursting burst [have] burst
buy [is] buying bought [have] bought
catch [is] catching caught [have] caught
choose [is] choosing chose [have] chosen
come [is] coming came [have] come
cost [is] costing cost [have] cost
cut [is] cutting cut [have] cut
do [is] doing did [have] done
draw [is] drawing drew [have] drawn
drink [is] drinking drank [have] drunk
drive [is] driving drove [have] driven
eat [is] eating ate [have] eaten
fall [is] falling fell [have] fallen
feel [is] feeling felt [have] felt
fight [is] fighting fought [have] fought
find [is] finding found [have] found
fly [is] flying flew [have] flown
forgive [is] forgiving forgave [have] forgiven
freeze [is] freezing froze [have] frozen
get [is] getting got [have] got or
give [is] giving gave gotten
go [is] going went [have] given
grow [is] growing grew [have] gone
have [is] having had [have] grown
hear [is] hearing heard [have] had
hide [is] hiding hid [have] heard
hit [is] hitting hit [have] hid or hidden
hold [is] holding held [have] hit
know [is] knowing knew [have] held
lead [is] leading led [have] known
leave [is] leaving left [have] led
lend [is] lending lent [have] left
let [is] letting let [have] lent
light [is] lighting lighted or lit [have] let
lose [is] losing lost [have] lighted or lit
make [is] making made [have] lost
meet [is] meeting met [have] made
pay [is] paying paid [have] met
put [is] putting put [have] paid
read [is] reading read [have] put
ride [is] riding rode [have] read
ring [is] ringing rang [have] ridden
run [is] running ran [have] rung
say [is] saying said [have] run
see [is] seeing saw [have] said
seek [is] seeking sought [have] seen
sell [is] selling sold [have] sought
send [is] sending sent [have] sold
shrink [is] shrinking shrank or shrunk [have] sent
sing [is] singing sang [have] shrunk
sink [is] sinking sank or sunk [have] sung
speak [is] speaking spoke [have] sunk
spend [is] spending spent [have] spoken
stand [is] standing stood [have] spent
steal [is] stealing stole [have] stood
swim [is] swimming swam [have] stolen
swing [is]swinging swung [have] swum
take [is] taking took [have] swung
teach [is] teaching taught [have] taken
tear [is] tearing tore [have] taught
tell [is] telling told [have] torn
think [is] thinking thought [have] told
throw [is] throwing threw [have] thought
wear [is] wearing wore [have] thrown
win [is] winning won [have] worn
write [is] writing wrote [have] won
sit [is] sitting sat [have] written
set [is] setting set [have] sat
lie [is] lying lay [have] set
lay [is] laying laid [have] lain
rise [is] rising rose [have] laid
[have] risen

4. The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or of the state of
being that is expressed by the verb.

Examples Yesterday, Denise served lox and bagels for breakfast

Randy has played bass guitar for the band, but now he
plays drums.

Once they have painted the signs, Jill and Cody will
finish the decorations for the dance.

With the principal parts of the verbs and helping verbs, you can form all of the
tenses. One way to become familiar with the variety of verb forms is through
conjugation.

A conjugation is a complete list of the singular and plural forms of a verb in a

particular tense. For each tense, singular and plural forms correspond to the
first-, second-, and third-person forms of personal pronouns.

CONJUGATION OF THE BASIC FORM OF SEE

Person Singular Plural
SIMPLE PRESENT
First Person I see we see
Second Person you see you see
Third Person he, she, it sees they see
SIMPLE PAST
First Person I saw we saw
Second Person you saw you saw
Third Person he, she, it saw they saw
SIMPLE FUTURE
First Person I will see we will see
Second Person you will see you will see
Third Person he, she, it will see they will see
PRESENT PERFECT
First Person I have seen we have seen
Second Person you have seen you have seen
Third Person he, she, it has seen they have seen
PAST PERFECT
First Person I had seen we had seen
Second Person you had seen you had seen
Third Person he, she, it had seen they had seen
FUTURE PERFECT
First Person I will have seen we will have seen
Second Person you will have seen you will have seen
Third Person he, she, it will have seen they will have seen
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
First Person I am seeing we are seeing
Second Person you are seeing you are seeing
Third Person he, she, it is seeing they are seeing
PAST PROGRESSIVE
First Person I was seeing we were seeing
Second Person you were seeing you were seeing
Third Person he, she, it was seeing they were seeing
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
First Person I will be seeing we will be seeing
Second Person you will be seeing you will be seeing
Third Person he, she, it will be seeing they will be seeing
PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
First Person I have been seeing we have been seeing
Second Person you have been seeing you have been seeing
Third Person he, she, it has been they have been seeing
seeing
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
First Person I had been seeing we had been seeing
Second Person you had been seeing you had been seeing
Third Person he, she, it had been they had been seeing
seeing
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
First Person I will have been seeing we will have been seeing
Second Person you will have been seeing you will have been seeing
Third Person he, she, it will have been they will have been
seeing seeing

EXERCISE 30 WRITING THE FORMS OF REGULAR

VERBS
Write the correct present participle, past and past participle form of the
given verbs to complete the meaning of the sentences.

1. These Spanish folk dancers must have ________________ for a

long time. (practice)
2. Notice that they are _________________ in their colorful native
costumes. (perform)
3. Have you ever ______________that you knew how to do any folk
dances? (wish)
4. Virginia reels ________________ to be popular dances in the United
States. (use)
5. The Jewish wedding dance ______________ the room with both
music and movement. (fill)

EXERCISE 31 WRITING THE PAST AND PAST

PARTICIPLE FORMS OF IRREGULAR
VERBS
Write the correct past and past participle form of the given verbs.

1. Yesterday the wind ______________ the leaves into our yard.

(blow)
2. I ____________ the wrong book to class. (bring)
3. The guests ______________ four quarts of fruit punch. (drink)
4. I _____________ you in line at the movies. (see)
5. The apples we dried in the sun have _____________. (shrink)

EXERCISE 33 CONJUGATING BASIC FORMS OF VERBS

Conjugate the basic forms of the five verbs below as shown in the
example.
Example spend (conjugated with we)
Answer Present: we spend Present perfect: we have spent
Past: we spent Past Perfect: we had spent
Future: we will spend Future Perfect: we will have spent

1. move (conjugated with I)

Present: Present perfect:
Past: Past Perfect:
Future: Future Perfect:
2. see (conjugated with you)
Present: Present perfect:
Past: Past Perfect:
Future: Future Perfect:
3. teach (conjugated with he)
Present: Present perfect:
Past: Past Perfect:
Future: Future Perfect:
4. start (conjugated with they)
Present: Present perfect:
Past: Past Perfect:
Future: Future Perfect:
5. go (conjugated with we)
Present: Present perfect:
Past: Past Perfect:
Future: Future Perfect:

EXERCISE 33 CONJUGATING PROGRESSIVE FORMS

OF VERBS
Conjugate the progressive forms of the five verbs below as shown in
the example.
Example spend (conjugated with we)
Answer Present Progressive: we are spending
Past Progressive: we were spending
Future Progressive: we will be spending
Present Perfect Progressive: we have been spending
Past Perfect Progressive: we had been spending
Future Perfect Progressive: we will have been spending
1. play (conjugated with I)
Present Progressive:
Past Progressive:
Future Progressive:
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:

2. watch (conjugated with you)

Present Progressive:
Past Progressive:
Future Progressive:
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:

3. hit (conjugated with he)

Present Progressive:
Past Progressive:
Future Progressive:
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:

4. leave (conjugated with they)

Present Progressive:
Past Progressive:
Future Progressive:
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:

5. grow (conjugated with we)

Present Progressive:
Past Progressive:
Future Progressive:
Present Perfect Progressive:
Past Perfect Progressive:
Future Perfect Progressive:

EXERCISE 34 IDENTIFYING THE TENSE

 Identify the tense of the underlined verbs in each of the following
sentences. Write your answer after each sentence.
1. Sailing attracts people to lakes and rivers all over the world. ______
2. Many have enjoyed the excitement and the challenge of sport._____
3. That boat was sailing directly into the wind.______________
4. The crew had checked the sails before leaving the dock.__________
5. They have always maintained the boats well.______________
6. Sailboat races often will cover a triangular course._____________
7. To maneuver the boat, the crew will be changing the position of the
rudder and the sails. _________________
8. You will have learned about trimming and tacking by the end of the
day. _________
9. Windsurfing, another water sport, is also gaining in
popularity.________
10. In this sport, a sail has been attached to a
surfboard.______________

USING PRONOUNS CORRECTLY

CASE
Case is the form that a noun or pronoun takes to show its relationship to other
words in a sentence.

English has three cases for nouns and pronouns: nominative, objective and
possessive.

Most personal pronouns have different forms for all three cases.

Personal Pronouns
Nominative Objective Possessive
Singular
I me my, mine
you you your, yours
he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its
Plural
we us our, ours
you you your, yours
they them their, theirs

THE POSSESSIVE CASE

The personal pronouns in the possessive case—my, mine, your, yours, his,
her, hers, it, our, ours, theirs, their—are used to show ownership or
relationship.

The possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, her, hers, it, ours, and theirs are
used as parts of sentences in the same ways in which the pronouns in the
nominative and the objective cases are used.
 Examples His book and mine are overdue.
The desk is his.
We completed ours this morning.

The possessive pronouns my, your, his, her, its, our and their are used as
adjectives before nouns.

Examples My shoes need to be cleaned.

Have you proofread her report for her yet?
There goes their dog Rex.

Some authorities prefer to call these words adjectives.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE

The subject of a verb should be in nominative case.

Examples He and I mowed lawns. [He and I are used together as

the compound subject to mowed.]

Did they craft candles from antique models? [They is the

subject of Did craft.]

She took orders while we made change. [She is the

subject of took. We is the subject of made.]

A predicate nominative should be in nominative case.

A predicate nominative is a word or word group that is in the predicate and

that identifies or refers to the subject of the verb. A pronoun used as a
predicate nominative completes the meaning of a linking verb, usually a form
of be verb (such as am, are, is, was, were, be, been, or being).

Examples The candidates should have been he and she. [He and
she follow the linking verb should have been and identify
the subject candidates.]

The members of the team are they. [They follows the

linking verb are and identifies the subject members.]

THE OBJECTIVE CASE

Direct objects and indirect objects of verbs should be in the objective case.

A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that tells who or what
receives the action of the verb.

Examples Mom called me on the phone. [Me tells whom Mom

called.]
Julia bought sweet potatoes and used them to make
filling for the empanadas. [Them tells what she used.]
An indirect object is a noun, pronoun, or word group that often appears in
sentences containing direct objects. An indirect object tells to whom or to what
and for whom or for what the action of the verb is done.

An indirect object generally comes between and action verb and its direct
object.

Examples The hostess handed her a name tag. [Her tells to whom
the hostess handed the name tag.]

Mr. Tanaka raises large goldfish; he often feeds them

rice. [Them tells to what Mr. Tanaka feeds rice.]

Indirect objects do not follow prepositions. If to or for precedes a pronoun, the

pronoun is an object of the preposition, not an indirect object.

Example Send a letter to me. [me follows a preposition; therefore,

it is an object of the preposition, not an indirect object]

EXERCISE 35 IDENTIFYING CORRECT PRONOUNS

Choose the correct form of pronoun in parentheses by underlining
them in each of the following sentences.
1. Lou and (me,I) asked my mother to drive us to the nearby state park.
2. The team captains will be Jack and (he, him).
3. We were warned by our parents and (they, them).
4. The Washington twins and (I, me) belong to the same club.
5. What do you think of (he and I, him and me)?
6. Do you remember my sister and (I, me)?
7. The coach spoke to (we, us) players before the game.
8. Who are (they, them), Travis?
9. The caller could have been (she, her).
10. (We, Us) students were not expecting the pop quiz.