Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Optimization of a downdraft furnace for rice straw-based heat

generation
Maria Victoria P. Migo-Sumagang a, b, *, Nguyen Van Hung a,
Monet Concepcion M. Detras b, Catalino G. Alfafara b, Myra G. Borines b,
Jewel A. Capunitan b, Martin Gummert a
a
International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Manila, 1301, Philippines
b ~ os (UPLB), 4031, College,
Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of Philippines in Los Ban
Laguna, Philippines

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Open-field burning, a widely used treatment and disposal method for rice straw, poses severe health and
Received 24 June 2019 environmental problems due to the release of toxic gases and loss of significant soil nutrients. Hence,
Received in revised form alternative techniques must be explored. In this study, the use of rice straw as feedstock for a downdraft
30 October 2019
small-scale furnace to produce heated air for paddy drying was investigated. A two-level factorial
Accepted 2 November 2019
Available online 9 November 2019
experiment was initially implemented using differently conditioned rice straw types, rice straw feed
rates, and drying airflow rates. Optimization results using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) showed
there is no significant difference in the drying air efficiency using either loose or baled straw. The op-
Keywords:
Rice straw
timum conditions found were at a rice straw feed rate of 20.67 kg h
1 and drying airflow rate of
Bioenergy 3.03 m3 s
1, resulting in a drying air efficiency of 86.1%, and an increase in drying air temperature of
Furnace 18.41  C which was sufficient for paddy drying applications. At the optimum conditions, the average CO
Downdraft combustion and NOx concentrations measured inside the dryer simulator were 76.57 and 2.93 ppm, respectively. The
Energy efficiency results of this research can be used for pilot studies in actual agricultural cooperatives, as well as provide
inputs to life cycle analysis.
© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Rice competes with corn and wheat as the most important crop
in the world, having the potential to feed more than half of the
world population [1,2]; in fact, the world rice production reached
up to 759.6 million tonnes in 2017 [3]. Rice straw contributes a
significant portion in agricultural biomass volume given that for
every tonne of rice paddy produced, around one tonne of straw is
also generated [4e6]. The most common rice straw waste man-
agement option, open-field burning, has negative impacts such as
loss of significant soil nutrients, loss of value-adding opportunities,
and release of pollutant gases and haze which impact air quality
and visibility [7,8]. Soil incorporation of rice straw is also widely
implemented, but recent studies show that the GHG emissions
* Corresponding author. Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engi-
~ os
neering and Agro-Industrial Technology, University of Philippines in Los Ban
(UPLB), 4031, College, Laguna, Philippines.
E-mail address: mpmigo@up.edu.ph (M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang).
from soil incorporation are higher [8]. On the other hand, when
diverted to value-adding uses, rice straw management systems
prove to be beneficial.
After harvest, the moisture content of paddy needs to be
reduced from 20-26% to 12e14% (wet basis); and uneven or delayed
drying results in lower quality and losses [9e11]. Mechanical paddy
drying is advantageous over conventional sun drying since the
latter takes longer, depends on weather conditions, and results in
postharvest losses. A paddy flatbed dryer (PFBD) is a widely used
design due to its simplicity and ease in fabrication. The dryer works
by forcing hot air consisting of a mixture of flue gas and ambient air,
into the grain bed [12].
Rice husk is commonly used as fuel in PFBD furnaces due to its
low cost and availability at the rice mill; thus, most of the furnace
performance studies are on rice husk. In furnace performance
studies, high thermal efficiency or drying air efficiency is better as it
implies high energy recovery from the fuel and fewer emissions
due to incomplete combustion. Different types of rice husk furnace
designs include the inclined grate cylindrical combustion chamber,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.11.001
0960-1481/© 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
).
954 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963
Nomenclature
%RH Percent relative humidity
DAF Drying airflow rate (m3 s
1)
dw Dry weight
Effdry Drying air efficiency of the furnace (%)
Fuel-N Fuel nitrogen
HHV Higher heating value (MJ kg
1)
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
LHV Lower heating value (MJ kg
1)
PFBD Paddy flatbed dryer
RS2017 Dry season rice straw samples (2017)
RS2018 Dry season rice straw samples (2018)
pneumatic fed furnace, spraying fed cyclone furnace, NLU-IRRI
non-grate furnace, and the IRRI downdraft rice husk furnace
(dRHF) [4,13]. Using rice husk as feedstock, the inclined grate cy-
lindrical combustion chamber and pneumatic fed furnaces had
drying air efficiencies of 70 and 75%, respectively [13]. The inclined
grate cylindrical combustion chamber was more preferred over the
pneumatic design due to its low-cost and straightforward design
[4,13]. The spraying fed cyclone and NLU-IRRI non-grate furnaces
had lower efficiencies at 50e55% but were automatically fed [4].
The last type is the IRRI downdraft rice husk furnace (dRHF). In this
design, the draft is induced downwards to increase efficiency. A
study conducted at IRRI showed that the dRHF resulted in a drying
efficiency of between 60 and 80% with a sufficient 10e15  C in-
crease in drying air temperature from ambient conditions [9]. In the
cited study, the highest efficiency and optimum increase in drying
air temperature were achieved at an airflow rate of 3.5 m3 s
1. The
resulting CO emissions ranged from 25 to 42 ppm using rice husk as
feedstock [9].
Aside from rice husk, it is also essential to look at rice straw as a
potential alternative fuel in PFBD furnaces as it is abundant and
often ends up in open-field burning. One of the bottlenecks iden-
tified in rice straw management systems is rice straw collection
since it is energy-intensive. There are two types of rice straw
collection methods: manual and mechanical collection. Manual
collection may be uneconomical due to high labor costs; it also
yields loose straw, which has a low density, causing higher
handling costs and more complications in processing, trans-
portation, storage, and firing [14,15]. On the other hand, mechanical
bailing collection yields higher density baled straw; however, the
capital investment is more substantial. Because of these differ-
ences, it might be useful to compare the two forms of rice straw
(loose and baled), in terms of their effect on drying air efficiency.
Aside from density, other rice straw properties affect the efficiency
and quality of combustion, such as moisture and ash content
[15e18].
Valorization of rice straw as fuel for heat generation in a small-
scale setup may be beneficial to avoid open-field burning and to
provide a low-cost solution for paddy drying. Characterization of
biomass fuel, including bulk density (whether loose or baled
straw), is essential to analyze its effects on combustion. In addition,
to have a successful rice straw furnace operation, it is essential to
find the optimum conditions in a controlled system, which gives
the highest efficiency and target temperature increase, at the
lowest emissions possible. As most furnace performance studies
are on rice husk, few to none have been found using rice straw as
feedstock for small-scale heat generation.
To diversify technology for rice straw bioenergy, particularly for
paddy drying in some regions, the rice straw furnace was
RSM Response surface methodology
RST Rice straw type (loose or baled)
SEM-EDX Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy
Dispersive X-Ray Analysis
SFR Straw feeding rate (kg hr
1)
Thermal-N Thermal nitrogen
TLV Threshold limit value
TLV-STEL Threshold limit value - short term exposure limit
UPLB ~ os
University of the Philippines Los Ban
wb Wet basis
DT Increase in drying air temperature from ambient
conditions (oC)
developed with the purpose of techno-economic viability and
optimized efficiency within this research. Rice straw was charac-
terized in terms of bulk density, energy content, proximate, and
ultimate analysis. Optimization of the rice straw furnace in terms of
drying air efficiency (Effdry) by varying rice straw type (RST)
whether loose or baled, rice straw feed rate (SFR), and drying
airflow rate (DAF) while targeting a sufficient temperature increase
(DT) between 10 and 15  C and minimizing CO and NOx emissions
in the dryer were conducted. Ash analysis was also done to verify
the applications of the bottom ash from combustion. The models
generated using response surface methodology (RSM) within this
research can contribute to pilot studies in actual agricultural co-
operatives, as well as provide inputs to life cycle analysis.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Adaptation and operation of the downdraft furnace
Fig. 1A shows the schematic diagram of the IRRI downdraft
furnace. The original design had an automatic rice husk feeder
installed; however, the feed opening was too small to fit rice straw,
which caused clogging. The secondary combustion chamber has
baffles forcing the draft in a zigzag direction, which decreases the
particulate matter and emissions at the exit. Bottom ash collects at
the edge of the grate. The automatic rice husk feeder was removed
and replaced by a simple feed hopper, as shown in Fig. 1B to fit rice
straw as feed. The secondary air return was covered and not used in
the study. Two (2) kg of initial rice straw was loaded into the feed
hopper and was pushed manually towards the horizontal grates to
start the operation. After turning on the blower, a butane torch was
used to light up the first straw through the ash exit; then the door
was closed. Rice straw was fed manually at the desired feed rate
(SFR) via weight per time technique, and data were measured after
a 30-min warm-up period. The ash exit door was opened upon
overflow, and the bottom ash was collected and weighed.
2.2. Experimental setup
The furnace was connected to a blower housed inside the test
duct, which was 7.82 m long and 0.7 m in diameter (also called the
dryer plenum), which simulated the dryer (Fig. 2A and Fig. 2B). The
blower motor (TECO 3-Phase Induction Motor Type AEEF-F-YC4,
1750 RPM, 10 HP) was coupled with an automatic controller
(Schneider Electric variable speed drive ATV312HD11M3 3-phase
supply) to control the drying airflow rate (DAF). The test duct was
calibrated following the Japanese Industrial Standard code JIS B
8330-1962. To set the DAF, the cone gap was adjusted at different
positions with varying blower motor frequency. The static air
 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963 955

A B
1
Fig. 1. (A) Original downdraft furnace for rice husk , (B) adapted downdraft furnace for rice straw.
1
Source [9].

Fig. 2. (A) Schematic diagram of the experimental setup, and (B) actual downdraft furnace with dryer plenum: (1) dryer plenum, (2) blower, (3) feed hopper, (4) primary com-
bustion chamber, (5) ash outlet, (6) secondary air return, (7) secondary combustion chamber, (8) motor.
956 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963

pressure was maintained at 240 þ/- 10 Pa using a Testo 435 based on the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Multifunction pressure gauge for all DAF settings. Hygienists (ACGIH), due to their effects on human health [20]. TLV
is the level of which a worker can be exposed to a chemical sub-
stance for 8 h each day throughout the worker's working lifetime,
2.3. Sampling, measurement, and calculations
while TLV-STEL is the short-term exposure limit for a 15-min
window [20]. For CO or carbon monoxide, the TLV is 50 ppm, and
Baled and loose rice straw from rice variety NSIC Rc 238 were
the TLV-STEL is 400 ppm [21]. CO is also an indicator of the per-
collected at IRRI after the dry seasons of 2017 (samples RS2017) and
formance of combustion since it is a product of incomplete com-
2018 (samples RS2018). The rice productions had a cropping
bustion. On the other hand, NOx composed of nitric oxide (NO) and
duration of 110 days, used an alternate wetting and drying water
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has TLV values of 25 and 3 ppm, respec-
management, and yielded around 6 tonne ha
1. For baled straw
tively, since the latter is more toxic to human health [22]. The
collection, a square baler (CLAAS Markant 55, 45 HP) attached to a
temperature ranges of the grates (170e500  C) and secondary
tractor (MF399, 5.8 L, 6-cylinder diesel engine) was used, while for
combustion chamber (ranging from 100 to 900  C, with an average
loose straw collection manual labor was employed. Due to the
of 280  C) were also monitored using K-type thermocouples
intermittent availability of rice straw for the study, storage times
attached to an Agilent 34970a data logger.
were recorded. The bulk densities of both loose and baled rice straw
was obtained separately via weight over volume measurements in
20 replicates. The moisture content of unprocessed rice straw (URS)
2.4. Experimental design, statistical analysis, and numerical
was measured using the ASAE Standard S358.2 (DEC93) Moisture
optimization
Measurement for Forages Method.
A mill (Thomas Scientific Model 3379K44 Wiley Mill) was used
Design-Expert® V.11.05 (Stat-Ease, Design Expert V.11.05,
to grind the rice straw samples, and a convection oven was used to
Single-User Subscription License, License No. 7541-9126-0004-
dry the samples at 70  C for 24 h. The higher heating value (HHV) in
1551, Minnesota, USA) was used to generate the randomized
MJ kg
1 of the samples was determined using a bomb calorimeter
experimental runs, statistical calculations, and numerical optimi-
(Parr 6100). HHV was converted to LHV using Eq. (1) [19].
zation. First, a full two-level factorial experiment was implemented
using the RS2017 samples to screen significant variables. Table 1
LHV ¼ HHV
0.212 * H
0.0245 * M
0.008 * Y (1)
shows the variable levels used for the factorial experiments.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) confirmed whether the identified
Where H, M, and Y are the percentages of hydrogen, moisture, and
variables were significant based on an a value of 0.05. To validate
oxygen from ultimate analysis (% dry weight), respectively. Proxi-
the assumptions of ANOVA, diagnostic plots were checked.
mate analysis (moisture, volatile matter (VM), ash, and fixed car-
Next, the significant variables from the factorial experiment
bon) using ASTM D 1762 method, and ultimate analysis (C, H, O, N,
(SFR and DAF) were optimized via the Response Surface Method-
and S) using the Combustion Method (LECO Organic Application
ology (RSM) using the RS2018 samples. The variable levels were
Note) were done at the Industrial Technology Development Insti-
adjusted based on the location of the center points in the factorial
tute (ITDI) of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) at
experiment. Additionally, since frequent “fire burn-outs” were
Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines. Rice straw ash was prepared for
experienced involving runs with low SFR setting (10 kg h
1), the
morphological analysis by placing the ground rice straw samples in
low level was adjusted to 20 kg h
1 in the RSM-designed experi-
preheated, cooled, and pre-weighed crucibles and subjecting the
ments (Table 1). A Face-Centered Central Composite Design (CCD)
samples at 750  C inside a muffle furnace for 6 h. The ash samples
was chosen since the new high and low levels coincide with the
were sent to Nanotech Analytical Services and Training Corp.
range of operability of the furnace.
(NASAT Laboratories) at Muntinlupa City, Philippines, for Scanning
The fit summary was checked to see whether the model fits a
Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis
linear, two-factor interaction (2FI), quadratic, and cubic poly-
(EDX).
nomials to the response, based on preliminary calculations of the
Instrumental measurements of hot air temperature, %RH, and
sequential model sum of squares analysis, lack of fit tests, and r-
emissions were conducted inside the dryer plenum, and ambient
squared [23]. The desired model should have a p-value less than the
conditions were also monitored. The temperature and %RH were
statistical level of significance a (0.05), a lack of fit higher than a, a
measured using data loggers (Omega OM-EL-USB 2) every 5 min.
low standard deviation, and a high r-squared. After choosing the
The drying air efficiency (Effdry) was then calculated using Eq.
best-recommended model, the model reduction was applied as
(2)
necessary to include only the significant effects. As with the
DAF*Cp*ðTd
Ta Þ*3600 factorial experiments, diagnostic plots were analyzed to check
Eff dry ¼ *100 (2) compliance with the ANOVA assumptions. Next, the coded and
V*SFR*LHV
actual equations were generated and analyzed. Finally, model
Where DAF is the drying airflow rate in m3 s
1; Cp is the specific
heat of air in kJ kg
1 K
1; Td is the hot air temperature in test duct in
Table 1
K; Ta is the ambient air temperature in K; V is the specific volume of
Summary of variable levels.
air in m3 kg
1; SFR is the rice straw feed rate in kg hr
1; LHV is the
lower heating value of rice straw in kJ kg
1; and 3600 is a con- Levels RST (Categoric) SFR (Numeric) DAF (Numeric)
(kg hr
1) (m3 kg
1)
version factor. The specific volume of air was calculated based on
psychrometry, while Cp was obtained from Engineering Toolbox. Variable levels used for the factorial experiment
Low (
1) Loose 10.0 2.1
The expression Td - Ta is the temperature increase from ambient air
High (þ1) Baled 30.0 4.1
(DT) with a recommended value of around 10e15  C based on Center point (0) N/A 20.0 3.1
paddy drying best practices. Variable levels used for the RSM-designed experiment
The CO and NOx concentrations in the dryer plenum were Low (
1) 20.0 1.4
monitored using an Ei-UK RASI 700 flue gas analyzer (Fig. 2A) every High (þ1) 40.0 4.0
Center point (0) 30.0 2.7
5 min. Both emissions are assigned Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963 957

graphs were generated, with a focus on the contour and 3D surface
plots to analyze the optimum variable levels.
The validated statistical models obtained from the RSM-
designed experiments were used in numerical optimization with
the following goals: (Case 1) to maximize the Effdry only; and (Case
2) to maximize the Effdry, target a DT between 10 and 15  C, and to
minimize CO and NOx concentrations in the dryer plenum. While it
is crucial to maximizing Effdry (Case 1), it is also essential to target a
DT and minimize emissions (Case 2); and a comparison of the two
cases is of interest in this study. The predicted optimum conditions
were then experimentally verified in a new set of experiments (in 3
replicates). The percent differences between the experimental and
predicted response values were determined for comparison.
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of rice straw
Table 2 shows the characteristics of dry season rice straw, which
were left for 3 days in the field before collection and stored under a
roofed facility (8 months for RS2017 and 1 month for RS2018). The
determined values were found to be similar to other references. The
density of baled straw was about 4.76 times that of loose straw. The
moisture content from proximate analysis (dried and ground
samples) was 7.51 and 5.73% dw for RS2017 and RS2018 respec-
tively; however, raw unprocessed rice straw (URS) samples had a
higher moisture content of 10.38 and 8.96% dw. Volatile matter or
VM composed bulk of the samples at 59.7 and 61.4% dw, followed
by ash at 24.3 and 21% dw. The fixed carbon only composed 15.9
and 17.6% dw of the rice straw.
On the other hand, ultimate analysis shows that the carbon (C)
content of rice straw was 35.2 and 35.5% dw for RS2017 and RS2018
respectively, while hydrogen (H) content was 3.19 and 4.62% dw.
Oxygen (O) content was calculated by difference at 36.87 and
37.83% dw. Finally, nitrogen (N) content was minimal for both
samples at 0.438 and 0.99%. The HHV of the samples was 14.05 and
14.72 MJ kg
1, comparable to rice husk (14.8 MJ kg
1) [9].
Ash analysis shows that SiO2 composed bulk of the ash in the
rice straw samples followed by K2O, while the other oxides were
lesser in comparison. Noticeable differences in the ash analysis
between the two rice straw samples were observed. RS2017 sam-
ples had a very high presence of SiO2 (93.03%), and less than 3% of
the other components (CaO and K2O). On the other hand, RS2018
samples had a lower presence of SiO2 (42.52%), but a higher per-
centage of K2O (20.88%), as well as the presence of other
unidentified components (29.23%). The micrographs at 1000X
magnification (Fig. 3A and C) show needle-like structures of rice
straw ash [33]. In addition, the surface of rice straw ash at 150X
magnification (Fig. 3B and D) appeared to be porous.
3.2. Effects of operating parameters and statistical models for rice
straw combustion in the downdraft furnace
In the factorial experiment, the letter codes were assigned as A
for RST, B for SFR, and C for DAF. Statistical analysis of the two-level
factorial experiments showed that out of the three (3) variables
tested, only two (2) factors - SFR (p-value ¼ 0.0002) and DAF (p-
value <0.0001) - had significant effects on drying air efficiency
(Effdry). The half-normal plot and Pareto charts in Fig. 4A and B also
verified the findings. On the other hand, RST did not significantly
affect Effdry (p-value ¼ 0.9069). Center points in the factorial
experiment also revealed significance in curvature (p-value
0.0466). Similarly, only SFR and DAF were found to have significant
effects on the other responses (DT, CO, and NOx concentration)
(Table 3). The interaction between SFR and DAF was found to have
insignificant effects on Effdry, DT, and NOx concentration, and thus
were excluded in their factorial models (Table 3). The interaction
effect of SFR and DAF on CO concentration indicated that at low DAF
setting (2.1 m3 s
1), there was no significant difference in the CO
concentration at either SFR of 10 or 30 kg h
1; however at high DAF
setting (4.1 m3 s
1), SFR of 30 kg h
1 resulted to significantly higher
CO concentration (Fig. 6A).
Results showed that Effdry had a direct relationship with SFR but
an inverse relationship with DAF (Fig. 4C), with values ranging from
60 to 76% in the factorial experiment. Additionally, frequent “fire
burn-outs” were observed at a low SFR setting (10 kg h
1), espe-
cially in combination with high DAF (4.1 m3 s
1). Similarly, DT was
found to have a direct relationship with SFR but an inverse rela-
tionship with DAF (Fig. 4D) with values ranging from 4 to 34  C. The
trends observed with CO and NOx emissions were also comparable,
as shown in Fig. 4E and F in the factorial experiment. The NOx
detected was mostly in the form of nitric oxide, NO (99.64%).
Only the two (2) significant factors e DAF and SFR e were
included in the RSM-designed experiments using loose-type of rice
straw (RS2018). The adjusted variable levels now coincided with
the range of operability of the furnace signaled by sparks from the
furnace to the blower at a very high level of SFR (40 kg h
1) in
combination with very low level of DAF (1.4 m3 kg
1). The ANOVA
of Effdry in the RSM-designed experiment shows that the model
generated was significant (p-value <0.0001) with moderate

Table 2
Characteristics of rice strawa.

Parameters RS2017b RS2018c Parameters RS2017b RS2018c

3
1
Density (kg m ) HHV (MJ kg ) 14.05 14.72
Loose 17.38 LHV (MJ kg
1) 12.89 13.29
Baled 81.47 Moisture URS (% dw) 10.38 8.96

Proximate (% dw) Ash Analysis (% dw)

Moisture 7.51 5.73 SiO2 93.03 42.52
Volatile Matter (VM) 59.7 61.4 Al2O3 1.54
Fixed Carbon 15.9* 17.6* TiO2
Ash 24.3 21 Fe2O3
CaO 0.96 3.2
Ultimate (% dw) MgO 1.11
C 35.2 35.5 Na2O 1.48
H 3.19 4.62 K2O 2.86 20.88
O 36.87* 37.83* SO3
N 0.438 0.99 P2O5
S 0 0.062 Undetermined 3.13* 29.23*
a
From dry season rice variety NSIC Rc 238; bstorage time: 8 months; cstorage time: 1 month; % dw: percent dry weight; *: by difference; URS: unprocessed rice straw.
958 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963
Fig. 3. SEM-EDX micrographs of RS2017 ash at (A) 150X magnification and (B) 1000X magnification; and RS2018 ash at (C) 150X magnification and (D) 1000X magnification.
adjusted r-squared (0.8268) (Table 3). The variables SFR, DAF, as
well as the quadratic effect SFR2, were also found to be significant.
Eq. (3a) in Table 4 shows the coded statistical model equation
relating Effdry with SFR and DAF. In the coded equations of the RSM-
designed experiment, variable A corresponds to SFR and B to DAF;
high levels of the factors are coded as þ1, and the low levels are
coded as
1. Positive coefficients indicate a direct relationship,
while negative coefficients indicate an inverse relationship, while
the magnitude of the coefficients indicates the relative impact on
the response [24].
A direct linear relationship between Effdry and DAF can be
derived from the 3D surface plot in Fig. 5A. On the other hand, a
maximum Effdry was obtained within the range of SFR values
(Fig. 5A). In the 3D surface plots, the warm colors correspond to
high Effdry values while the cool colors to low Effdry values.
The responses DT, CO, and NOx emissions were also evaluated.
DT above 10  C was easily achieved at low SFR setting (20 kg h
1)
and high DAF setting (4 m3 s
1), and the response continued to
increase at varying SFR and DAF (Fig. 5B). The interaction effect of
SFR and DAF on DT show that the low DAF level (1.4 m3 s
1) was
more affected by changes in SFR, as indicated by the steeper slope
of this line; as compared with the high DAF level (4 m3 s
1)
(Fig. 6B).
Inverse square root model transformations were done on the
responses CO and NOx concentration. For both CO and NOx emis-
sions, the concentrations increased dramatically at a high SFR
setting (40 kg h
1) and a low DAF setting (1.4 m3 s
1) (Fig. 5C and
D). The NOx detected was mostly in the form of nitric oxide, NO
(92.58%).
3.3. Numerical optimization and experimental validation results
Numerical optimization with the following goals: (Case 1) to
maximize the Effdry only; and (Case 2) to maximize the Effdry, target
a DT between 10 and 15  C, and to minimize CO and NOx concen-
trations in the dryer plenum predicted optimum conditions at SFR
28.06 kg h
1 and DAF 4 m3 s
1 for Case 1, and SFR 20.67 kg h
1 and
DAF 3.03 m3 s
1 for Case 2 respectively. For Case 1, the actual Effdry
mean (88.78%) was lower by 5.23% from the predicted mean
(93.68%), while the other responses ranged from 7.61 to 30.28%
differences (Table 5). On the other hand, for Case 2, the actual Effdry
mean (86.1%), was higher than the predicted mean (78.75%) by
9.33%; while the other responses ranged from 17.67 to 40.83% dif-
ferences. All the responses were within the prediction interval
except for CO concentration in Case 2 (40.83%). The actual DT
means (19.96 and 18.41  C) slightly exceeded the recommended
range of 10e15  C for paddy drying. For both cases, the actual CO
concentrations (89.9 and 76.57 ppm) exceeded the TLV (50 ppm).
The NOx concentrations (3.17 and 2.93 ppm) both complied with
the TLV for NO (25 ppm), but Case 1 exceeded the TLV for NO2
(3 ppm). Nevertheless, NO composed most of the NOx detected at
an average of 99.07% for Case 1 and 100% for Case 2.
The heat output of the furnace was also calculated using only the
numerator of Eq. (2). Case 1 conditions generated a higher heat
output of 332.48 MJ h
1, while Case 2 generated a heat output of
231.47 MJ h
1.
4. Discussion
The important fuel characteristics that influence the combustion
system are particle size, moisture content, calorific value, and bulk
density [17,25]. A smaller particle size improves efficiency; how-
ever, size reduction was not conducted in this study since it entails
additional cost to the user. On the other hand, the moisture content
of biomass affects the storage durability, dry matter losses, energy
value, and self-ignition of fuel for small furnaces [16,25,26]). The
moisture content limit to self-sustain combustion for most biomass
is 65% [26], and the recommended moisture content is between 10
and 30% (wb) [25]. The rice straw samples in this experiment had
an average moisture content of around 8.8% (wb), which indicates
that the samples can very well self-sustain combustion.
Heating value is influenced by carbon concentration and oxygen
 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963 959

Fig. 4. (A) Half-normal plot, (B) Pareto chart, and perturbation plots of (C) Effdry, (D) DT, (E) CO, and (F) NOx concentration in the factorial experiment on RS2017; B: SFR; C: DAF.

content. Because of the higher degree of oxidation of the cellulose
content of rice straw as compared to most coals, it has relatively
lower heating value [26]; Loo & Koppejan). The ultimate analysis
reveals that the H/C and O/C of the rice straw samples were around
1.33 and 0.80, respectively, identifying it in the biomass region of
the van Krevelen diagram [26,27]. Nevertheless, the heating value
of rice straw is comparable to rice husk and is suitable for small-
scale combustion.
In terms of bulk density, given that low bulk density fuels
decrease energy efficiency due to poor mixing and non-uniform
temperature distribution [28], it was expected that the rice straw
type has a significant effect on Effdry due to the big difference in the
bulk densities (Table 2). However, it was evident from the results
that the rice straw type did not significantly affect Effdry (p-
value ¼ 0.9069). It may be due to the design of the furnace (Fig. 1B)
and manual feeding method wherein compaction in the primary
combustion chamber was the same whether loose or baled straw
was used. Nevertheless, this finding allows flexibility for the
farmers in terms of the available rice straw type.
In general, rice straw is characterized by high ash content
(21e24.3%), which negatively affects the heating value of rice straw
and causes dust emissions (Loo & Koppejan). Rice straw and rice
husk ash are known to have very high Si content, which may
combine with Na and K to form low-melting silicates in fly ash
960 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963

Table 3
Summary of relevant statistical analyses.

Response Transform Model Significant variables ADJ R2 PRED R2

P-Value

Factorial experiment (using RS2017)

Effdry None <0.0001 SFR, DAF 0.57 0.48
DT Natural log <0.0001 SFR, DAF 0.99 0.99
CO conc. Natural log <0.0001 SFR, DAF, SFR*DAF 0.71 0.57
a
NOx conc. Sqrt <0.0001 SFR, DAF 0.85 0.81
RSM-designed experiment (using RS2018)
Effdry None <0.0001 SFR, DAF, SFR2 0.83 0.77
DT None <0.0001 SFR, DAF, SFR*DAF, SFR2, DAF2 0.97 0.95
CO conc. Inverse Sqrt <0.0001 DAF, DAF2 0.90 0.83
NOx conc.b Inverse Sqrt 0.0004 SFR, DAF, DAF2 0.68 0.60

Note: SFR*DAF is the interaction between the two variables.

a
Average of 99.64% nitric oxide (NO).
b
Average of 92.58% nitric oxide (NO).

Table 4
Statistical model equations from the RSM-designed experiments on RS2018.

Coded equations Actual equations

2
(3a) Effdry ¼ 83:69
5:22*A þ 9:51B
14:06A (3b) Effdry ¼
46:93 þ 7:91*SFR þ 7:32DAF
0:14SFR2
(4a) DT ¼ 29:03 þ 7:04*A
11:46*B
1:82*AB
6:23A2 þ (4b) DT ¼
6:83 þ 4:82*SFR
25:98*DAF
0:14*SFR*DAF
0:06SFR2 þ
6:69B2 3:96DAF2
1 1
(5a) 2
¼ 0:13
0:0054*A þ 0:032*B þ 0:0070*AB
0:038B (5b) ¼
0:043
0:002*SFR þ 0:13*DAF þ 0:0005*SFR*DAF
0:022DAF2
SqrtðCOÞ SqrtðCOÞ
1 1
(6a) ¼ 0:57
0:063*A þ 0:071*B
0:061B2 (6a) ¼ 0:35
0:0063*SFR þ 0:25*DAF
0:036DAF2
SqrtðNOxÞ SqrtðNOxÞ

Note: A: SFR, B: DAF.

60
50
100
40
90
80 30
T (oC)

70
20
Eff dry (%)

60
50 10
40
4
40 3.35 40
35 2.7 35 1.4
30 B: DAF (m3/s) 30 2.05
25 2.05 A: SFR (kg/hr)
25 2.7
A: SFR (kg/hr) 3.35 B: DAF (m3/s)
20 1.4 20 4
A B

700 8
600
7
500
6
400
5
300
NOx (ppm)
CO (ppm)

200 4
100 3
0 2

40
40
35 35
30 1.4 A: SFR (kg/hr)30 1.4
A: SFR (kg/hr) 2.05 2.05
25 2.7 25 2.7
3.35 3.35
C 20 4 B: DAF (m3/s) D 20 4 B: DAF (m3/s)

Fig. 5. 3D surface graph relating SFR and DAF with (A) Effdry, (B) DT, (C) CO concentration, and (D) NOx concentration in the RSM-designed experiments on RS2018.
 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963 961

Fig. 6. (A) Interaction effect of SFR and DAF on CO concentration in the factorial experiment, and (B) on DT in the RSM-designed experiment.

Table 5
Optimum conditions and percent differences of predicted and actual means on RS2018.

Responses Recommended values Predicted mean Actual mean Prediction interval % Difference Heat output (MJ hr
1)

Case 1 (SFR: 28.06 kg h
1, DAF: 4 m3 s
1) 332.48

Effdry (%) Max 93.68 88.78 85.52e101.85 5.23
DT (oC) 10e15 23.01 19.96 19.39e26.64 13.26
CO conc. (ppm) <50 69 89.9 51.47e91.97 30.28
a
NOx conc. (ppm) <3 (NO2) 2.95 3.17 2.2e3.92 7.61
Case 2 (SFR: 20.67 kg h , DAF: 3.03 m3 s
1)

1
231.47
Effdry (%) Max 78.75 86.1 71.06e86.44 9.33
DT (oC) 10e15 15 18.41 11.56e18.43 22.73
CO conc. (ppm) <50 54.37 76.57 41.75e70.52 40.83
NOx conc.b (ppm) <3 (NO2) 2.49 2.93 1.9e3.26 17.67

Case 1 optimization goal e maximize Effdry.

Case 2 optimization goal e maximize Effdry, target DT between 10 and 15  C, minimize CO and NOx conc.
a
Average of 99.07% nitric oxide (NO).
b
Average of 100% nitric oxide (NO).

particles, which causes ash deposition on the furnace walls (Loo & negative effect on Effdry (coefficient
14.06), which indicates that
Koppejan). On the other hand, the potassium content in ash due to Effdry values are lower at extreme levels of SFR.
the addition of fertilizers during rice production may increase On the other hand, an inverse relationship between Effdry and
corrosion and fouling problems in grates, since alkali metals are DAF (Fig. 4C) was observed in the factorial experiment (DAF
known triggers [18]. Thus, considerations for leaching pre- 2.1e4.1 m3 s
1). At constant SFR, hot air temperature decreases
treatments to lessen the damage to the furnace [29]. The evident with increasing DAF, thus lowering DT and the overall Effdry Eq. (2).
dissimilarities between the ash analysis of RS2017 and RS2018 In contrast, Effdry increased with increasing DAF in the RSM-
(Table 2) may be attributed to the difference in storage period designed experiment (DAF 1.4e4 m3 s
1) as indicated by the
before analysis since Ca, K, Mg, Na, and Si in rice straw are affected
by storage time [30].
The bottom ash after combustion can be recovered as a fertilizer
substitute. Bottom ash still contains carbon, which is black (Fig. 7);
thus, it also has applications in adsorption processes when acti-
vated. The silica content of rice straw ash makes it an excellent
pozzolanic material, with applications as fine aggregate replace-
ment in concrete as well as in solidification/stabilization of heavy
metal wastes.
The trend of increasing Effdry with SFR (Fig. 4C) was observed in
the factorial experiment (SFR 10e30 kg h
1) since a higher SFR
raises the DT in the Effdry Eq. (2). However, it was clear that this was
not the case in the RSM-design experiment (SFR 20e40 kg h
1). The
negative coefficient of SFR in the coded Eq. (3a) signifies an inverse
relationship between Effdry and SFR. There were two possible rea-
sons for the decrease in Effdry above SFR of 30 kg h
1: (a) inadequate
mixing of air with the fuel due to overfeeding, and (b) insufficient
residence time resulting in incomplete combustion [25,31]. Among
the variables, the quadratic effect of SFR had the highest but Fig. 7. Rice straw combustion bottom ash.
962 M.V.P. Migo-Sumagang et al. / Renewable Energy 148 (2020) 953e963
positive coefficient (þ9.51) in the coded Eq. (3a). Although DT de-
creases with increasing DAF, it is possible that the higher levels of
SFR used in the RSM-designed experiments were able to sustain a
high DT.
With regards to emissions, a higher DAF decreases both CO and
NOx concentrations and may be mainly due to a dilution effect. It is
also possible that a higher DAF would contribute to adequate
mixing of fuel and air, leading to complete combustion, thus lower
CO [25]. On the other hand, SFR had a direct relationship with both
emissions in the factorial and RSM-designed experiments. As with
DAF, a higher SFR may have negatively affected the degree of
mixing between fuel and air, as well as cut short the residence time,
resulting in incomplete combustion. For biomass, NOx emissions
are mainly from the oxidation of fuel-N (fuel nitrogen) rather than
thermal-N (or N2 from the air) since the combustion temperatures
are usually less than 1300  C [25,31,32]. Therefore, the fuel-N may
have caused higher NOx formation at higher SFR. For both emis-
sions, it is not recommended to combine a high SFR with a low DAF
setting, as this leads to very high concentrations, far exceeding the
TLV values for both pollutants (Fig. 5C and D).
In the optimization experiments, conditions using Case 1 and
Case 2 both achieved high Effdry and sufficient DT (Table 5). While
Case 1 generated a higher heat output, Case 2 conditions (lower SFR
and DAF) were more practical and thus recommended over Case 1.
The actual Effdry (86.1%) using the Case 2 optimum conditions was
comparable with the results using the same downdraft furnace but
with rice husk as feed (82.8%), and was higher compared to using
the inclined grate cylindrical combustion chamber (70%) and
pneumatic fed (75%) furnaces.
The average actual CO concentration in the dryer plenum
(76.57 ppm) exceeded the TLV for CO (50 ppm), as shown in Table 5.
For both Case 1 and Case 2, the high CO concentrations may be a
result of low combustion temperatures as monitored in the sec-
ondary combustion chamber. The rate of CO oxidation to CO2 needs
a combustion temperature of more than 800  C [25], but the
observed secondary combustion temperatures were frequently less
than this temperature in this experiment. Improvements to in-
crease the combustion temperature are necessary to reduce CO
emissions, such as through the use of secondary air return.
Increasing turbulence may also aid in the reduction of CO
emissions.
In contrast with CO, lower temperatures favor less NOx pro-
duction from N2 in the air [31,32]. In this study, the actual average
NOx in the dryer plenum (2.93 ppm) in Case 2 was below the TLV
for both NO (25 ppm) and NO2 (3 ppm), possibly due to the low
combustion temperatures observed. Throughout the experiment,
NO composed most of the NOx (>92.58%), which agrees with
literature [25].
5. Conclusions
The downdraft rice husk furnace was adapted for rice straw to
generate hot air intended for paddy drying applications. Using
either loose or baled straw (4.76 times higher density) had no
significant effect on the drying air efficiency (Effdry) using the
downdraft furnace; and increasing the straw feed rate from 20 to
30 kg h
1 increases the drying air efficiency, but further increase in
the straw feed rate results to decreasing drying air efficiency. Out of
the two optimum conditions tested, Case 2 conditions with the
following goals: maximize the Effdry, target an increase in drying
temperature (DT) between 10 and 15  C, and minimize CO and NOx
concentrations, were more practical, with comparable drying air
efficiency and increase in drying temperature with Case 1. The
optimum conditions found for the straw feed rate (20.67 kg h
1)
and drying airflow rate (3.03 m3 s
1) resulted in a drying air
efficiency of 86.1%, furnace heat output of 231.47 MJ h
1, and in-
crease in drying air temperature of 18.41  C. This efficiency value is
comparable with the results of the downdraft furnace using rice
husk as feed (82.8%); and was higher as compared to using other
furnace designs such as the inclined grate cylindrical combustion
chamber (70%), and pneumatic fed furnace (75%) also using rice
husk. At the optimized conditions, the average NOx concentration
measured inside the dryer simulator was 2.93 ppm, which is below
the TLV for both NO and NO2. On the other hand, the average CO
concentration measured inside the dryer simulator was 76.57 ppm,
which is above the 50 ppm TLV for CO. Thus, improvements to
reduce the CO emissions such as using secondary air return to in-
crease combustion temperatures, and increasing turbulence are
recommended. Based on the analysis of the ash generated, it has
applications as fertilizer, adsorbent, or pozzolanic material. In
addition, the models generated in this study can be used in simu-
lating other settings of feed rate and airflow rate to evaluate their
effects on the drying air efficiency, increase in drying air temper-
ature, and CO and NOx emissions. Therefore, an alternative
renewable energy in rice straw was explored, providing conditions
for high drying air efficiency performance at the lowest emissions
possible, as well as an alternative solution to open-field burning.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the financial supports of (1) the
German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Develop-
ment through the “Scalable straw management options for
improved livelihoods, sustainability, and low environmental foot-
print in rice-based production systems”, Grant Ref “15.7860.8-
001.00”; (2) The Philippine Department of Agriculture through the
project “Sustainable rice straw management for bioenergy, food,
and feed in the Philippines), Grant Ref “101101-03-042-2018”; and
(3) Flagship Program 2, Upgrading Rice Value Chains of the CGIAR
Research Program on Rice (RICE).
The authors acknowledge the valuable support of the manage-
ment and research support teams in the International Rice Research
Institute and the support of Mr. Eduardo Secretario, Engr. Ampy
Paulo Roxas, Engr. Joseph Sandro and Engr. Caling Balingbing for
their assistance and expert advice.
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