Erica D.

Pangilinan

AB-ENGLISH 1-B

Activity 1

1. Indo- European Language

2. Avestan

3. William Jones

4. Kurgan Culture

5. Prakrits

6. Old Avestan

7. Panini

8. Italian Language

9. Gothic

10. Latin Language

B.

1. Indo-Aryan

-Indo-Aryan refers to both the pastoralist Indo-European people migrating from Central Asia into
South Asia in the second millennium BCE, introducing the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, as well as to
contemporary Indo-European ethnolinguistic groups speaking modern Indo-Aryan languages, a
subgroup of the Indo-European language family.

2. Tocharian

-It is have two varieties the Tocharian A and Tocharian B. Tocharian is a small group of extinct Indo
European languages. Tocharian A was already extinct and kept alive only as a religious or poetic
language while Tocharian B is a living language used for administrative purposes.

3. Iranian

- Iranic peoples are diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group. Old persian is ancestor of modern
Iranian.

4. Armenian

-Armenian is independent subgroup. This region belonged to the state of Urartu during the early 1st
millennium. It is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient culture heritage.

5.Anatolian

- Anatolian is as branch of languages was predominant in the Asian portion of Turkey and some
areas in northern Syria. The most famous of these languages is Hittite. In 1906 CE, a large amount of
Hittite finds were made on the site of Hattusas, the capital Hittite Kingdom, were about 10,000
cuneiform tablets and various other fragments were found in the remains of a royal archive. These
texts date back to the mid to late second millennium BCE. Luvian, Palaic, Lycian, and Lydian are other
examples of families belonging to this group.

6.Greek

-Greeks have not had a modern literary language until comparatively recently. The new literary
standard makes considerable use of words revived from ancient Greek, as well as a number of
ancient inflectional forms; it has become the ordinary language of the upper classes. Another
development of the Attic koine, spoken by the masses, is called demotike ‘popular. Greek is a group
of dialects: During more than 3000 years of written history, Greek dialects never evolved into
mutually incomprehensible languages.

7.Albanian

-Albanian is the last branch of Indo-European languages to appear in written form. There are two
hypotheses on the origin of Albanian. The first one says that Albanian is a modern descendant of
Illyrian, a language which was widely spoken in the region during classical times. Albanian also has a
mixed vocabulary, with words from Italian, Slavic, Turkish, and Greek. It is possibly related to the
ancient language of Illyria in an Illyrian branch of Indo-European.

8.Romance

-Roman rule did jot prevent the British Celts from using their own language, although they barrowed
a good many words from Latin.

9.Celtic

-Celtic shows such striking correspondences with Italic in its verbal system and inflectional endings
that the relationship between them must have been close, though not so close as that between Indic
and Iranian or Baltic and Slavic. Some scholars therefore group them together as developments of a
branch they call Italo-Celtic.

10.

-Slavic falls into three main subdivisions: East Slavic includes Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarussian,
spoken in Belarus, north of the Ukraine. West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, the similar Slovak, and
Sorbian (or Wendish), a language spoken by a small group of people in eastern Germany. The South
Slavic languages include Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, and Slovenian. The oldest Slavic writing we know
is in Old Church Slavic (or Slavonic), which remained a liturgical language long after it ceased to be
generally spoken.

-Baltic

Only two Baltic languages survive today: Latvian and Lithuanian .Balts' territory may have stretched
from around western Poland all the way across to the Ural Mountains. Afterwards, the Balts
occupied a small region along the Baltic Sea.

11.Germanic
-The Germanic group is particularly important for us because it includes English. Over many
centuries, certain radical developments occurred in the language spoken by those Indo-European
speakers living in Denmark and the regions there about. Germanic was spread over a large area, it
eventually developed marked dialectal differences leading to a division into North Germanic, West
Germanic, and East Germanic.

Activity 2.

1.Sanskrit was orginated in India.

2. The most ancient of them is Vedic Sanskrit, which is contained in the Rig Veda, a collection of
1,028 hymns produced by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from what is now Afghanistan through
northern Pakistan and into northern India between 1500 and 1200 BCE.

3. Sanskrit is a Indo-Aryan language and also the primary religious used in Hinduism, Jainism, and
Buddhism.

4. The term ‘Sanskrit’ is derived from the conjoining of the prefix ‘Sam’ meaning ‘samyak’ which
indicates ‘entirely’ and ‘krit’ that indicates ‘done’.

5. As a result of the discovery of Sanskrit, the comparative technique (discovering systematic

correspondences in phonology, morphology, and syntax of different languages; Rasmus Ras, Jakob
Grimm, Karl Verner...), as well as the study of many languages, was vision of the future.

6.Sanskrit literature holds the privilege of being used in ancient poetry, drama, and sciences, as well
as religious and philosophical texts.

7. The only East Germanic language on which there is extensive information is the Gothic—more
specifically, Visigothic—that was spoken along the western shore of the Black Sea about the middle
of the 4th century CE.

8. The Scandinavian languages fall into two groups: an eastern group including Swedish and Danish,
and a western group including Norwegian and Icelandic.

9. The most ancient of them is Vedic Sanskrit, which is contained in the Rig Veda, a collection of
1,028 hymns produced by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from what is now Afghanistan through
northern Pakistan and into northern India between 1500 and 1200 BCE.

10. The Indo-European languages are a language family native to western and southern Eurasia.

B.

Grimm’s Law describes a consonant shift that took place between Proto-Indo-European and
Proto-Germanic. It took place in all phonological environments except for those described by
Verner’s Law.

Grimm observed that where Latin and Greek had /p/ as in pes and podos, Germanic languages
had /f/ as in fuss and foot. He worked out a system of regular changes that must have happened
around the first millennium BC, characteristic of the Germanic consonants relative to their Indo-
European ancestor languages.

The phases are usually constructed as follows:

1. Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless  fricatives.

2. Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops.
3. Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced stops or fricatives
(as  allophones).
This chain shift (in the order 3,2,1) can be abstractly represented as:

 bʰ > b > p > ɸ

 dʰ > d > t > θ
 gʰ > g > k > x
 gʷʰ > gʷ > kʷ > xʷ
The problem was that there were exceptions. ‘Brother’ changes t > θ as Grimm predicts, but
‘father’ does not!

 Proto-Indo-European *bʰréh₂tēr ("brother") > Proto-Germanic *brōþēr (Old

English broþor, Old High German bruothar/bruodar)

 Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr ("father") > Proto-Germanic *fadēr (Old

English fæder, Old High German fatar)

Grimm couldn’t come up with a rule for the exceptions, but in 1875, Danish linguist Karl Verner
found it. Verner’s Law states that in Proto-Germanic, unvoiced fricatives and stops became
voiced (reversing Grimm’s Law in some cases) when they immediately followed an unstressed
syllable in the same word. Since the earlier (Proto-Indo-European) version of *ph₂tḗr ("father")
had the stress on the second syllable, and*bʰréh₂tēr ("brother") didn’t, this explained the t >d
change.

Verner’s Law must have happened before the Germanic languages changed their stress to a
fixed first-syllable rule, but probably after they developed stress accent. (Proto-Indo-European
accent is thought to have been pitch rather than stress.)

As it is usually stated, Verner’s Law took place after Grimm’s Law. It is possible to rewrite it in a
way that works if it took place first, so the time ordering of Grimm’s and Verner’s laws is in
doubt.

C.

1. Indo-European Connection

- Indo-European is a family of languages (including most of the languages spoken in Europe,

India, and Iran) descended from a common tongue spoken in the third millennium B.C. by an
agricultural people originating in southeastern Europe. Branches of Indo-European (IE)
include Indo-Iranian (Sanskrit and the Iranian languages), Greek, Italic (Latin and related
languages), Celtic, Germanic (which includes English), Armenian, Balto-
Slavic,Albanian,Anatolian, and Tocharian. The theory that languages as diverse as
 Sanskrit,Greek,Celtic,Gothic, and Persian had a common ancestor was proposed by Sir
William Jones in an address to the Asiatick Society on Feb.2, 1786. The reconstructed
common ancestor of the Indo-European languages is known as the Proto-Indo-European
language.

2.Sanskrit Language History and Origin

- Sanskrit is an Indo-Aryan language that is also recognized in Hinduism, Jainism, and

Buddhism as the fundamental religious language. It is one among India's scheduled
languages, as well as the official language of Uttarkhand. It is a language that, with other
founding languages such as Greek and Latin, holds a significant place. Sanskrit has had a
significant influence on most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in
India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal.

3.Germanic Languages comparison

- Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European family. It is one of the most spoken in the
whole world, and it is divided into three different groups. The first of which is West Germanic,
which counts English, Dutch, and German as its members. North Germanic includes Icelandic,
Swedish, and Danish. Lastly, there is the East Germanic, which is now extinct. Among those that
used the East Germanic dialects are the Burgundians, the Vandals, and some other related tribes.